| Mugilidae (Mullets) |
| 100 cm SL (male/unsexed); max. reported age: 16 years |
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benthopelagic; freshwater; brackish; marine; depth range 0 - 120 m, catadromous |
| Cosmopolitan in coastal waters of the tropical, subtropical and temperate zones of all seas. Eastern Pacific: California, USA to Chile (Ref. 2850). Western Pacific: Japan to Australia (Ref. 9812). Western Indian Ocean: from India to South Africa (Ref. 4393). Western Atlantic: Nova Scotia, Canada to Brazil (Ref. 7251); Cape Cod to southern Gulf of Mexico (Ref. 26938); absent in the Bahamas and most of West Indies and Caribbean (Ref. 7251, 9761). Eastern Atlantic: Bay of Biscay to South Africa, including the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea (Ref. 7399). Reported in Sea of Okhotsk (Ref. 50550). |
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Dorsal spines (total): 5-5; Dorsal soft rays (total): 7-9; Anal spines: 3-3; Anal soft rays: 8-9. Diagnosis: body stout, cylindrical in cross-section, slightly compressed; head broad and flattened (Ref. 57400). Well developed adipose eyelid (Ref. 40476, 57400) covering most of pupil (Ref. 57400). Upper lip thin and without papillae (Ref. 57400), with 1-2 outer rows of small, moderately close-set, unicuspid teeth and up to 6 inner rows of smaller, bicuspid teeth (Ref. 81659). Lower lip with outer row of small unicuspid teeth and sometimes 1 or more inner rows of smaller, bicuspid teeth (Ref. 81659). Hind end of upper jaw reaching a vertical line from anterior eye margin; maxillary pad not visible below corner of mouth when closed; origin of 1st dorsal fin nearer to snout tip than to caudal-fin base (Ref. 57400). Anterior parts and bases of 2nd dorsal and anal fins with a moderately dense coverage of scales (Ref. 57400, 81659). Pectoral axillary process (Ref. 57400). 13-15 scale rows between origins of dorsal and pelvic fins (Ref. 57400, 81659). Pelvic fins, anal fin, and lower lobe of caudal fin yellowish in specimens from the tropical Atlantic coast of Africa (Ref. 57400, 81659).
Description: lips thin; pectoral fins short (when folded forward does not reach eye); anal spines 3 in adults, anal soft rays 8 in adults, 9 in larvae (Ref. 40476). 36-42 (usually 38 or 39) scales in longitudinal series (excluding scales on caudal fin base); 13-15 scales between pelvic and first dorsal fins; anal fin with 3 spines and 8 (rarely 9) segmented rays in adults (first spine very short and usually hidden by overlying scales), usually 2 spines and 9 soft rays in juveniles <35 mm SL; pectoral fin 61-83% of head length, with 1 short, unsegmented ray dorsally and 15-17 (mode 16) longer, segmented rays; pharyngobranchial organ with single, large valve, often shorter (anteroposteriorly) than deep (dorsoventrally)(Ref. 81659).
Coloration: live specimens: dorsally greyish olive, greyish brown (Ref. 81659), bluish-grey (Ref. 57400) to olive-green (Ref. 40476). Flanks silvery(-grey)(Ref. 40476, 57400, 81659) with golden reflections (Ref. 57400) and 7-10 longitudinal dark bands following rows of scales (Ref. 57400, 81659), sometimes distinctive (Ref. 40476), bands less conspicuous on ventral parts of flanks (Ref. 81659). Fish from estuarine waters may have duller flanks and be duller blue or dirty brown dorsally (Ref. 81659). Abdomen off-white (Ref. 40476, 81659). Fins dusky, with numerous fine black speckles, particularly on dorsal and caudal fins; pelvic fins paler than other fins (Ref. 81659). Pelvic fins, anal fin and lower lobe of caudal fin yellowish in specimens from the tropical Atlantic coast of Africa (Ref. 57400, 81659). Dark spot at origin of pectoral fin (Ref. 81659). Preserved specimens: dorsum dark brown, flanks lighter brown or silvery with longitudinal dark bands, and ventral parts of body pale/yellowish or silvery (Ref. 81659). |
| Adults are found in coastal waters (Ref. 2850, 44894, 57400), often entering estuaries and rivers (Ref. 2847, 3573, 11230, 44894, 57400), sometimes far-up-river, lagoons and hypersaline environments (Ref. 57400). They are usually in schools over sand or mud bottom (Ref. 2850), between 0 and 10 m, occurring equally in tropical, subtropical and temperate waters (Project MUGIL). They are mainly diurnal, feeding on detritus, micro-algae and benthic organisms (Ref. 56548, 74902, 74760). Juveniles feed on zooplankton until about 3.0 cm SL (Ref. 59043). Reproduction takes place at sea, at various times of the year depending on the location (Ref. 74907, Amour). Adults form schools and migrate offshore to spawn and developing larvae migrate back inshore (Ref. 81659). There is absence of an obligatory freshwater phase in the life cycle (Ref. 74752). Females spawn 0.8 to 2.6 million eggs which develop at sea (Ref. 74912, Chen & Su 1986). Sexually mature at 3 to 4 years (Ref. 74902). Maximum length reported as 120 cm SL (Ref. 7399, 57400, 81659) remains to be confirmed (Project MUGIL). Maximum weight reported as 12 kg (Ref. 56527) seems too high for the area and remains to be confirmed (Project MUGIL). Widely cultivated in freshwater and brackish ponds (Ref. 2847, Jackson 1984, Liao 1981). Marketed fresh, dried, salted, and frozen; roe sold fresh or smoked (Ref. 9321); also used in Chinese medicine (Ref. 12166). |
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Least Concern (LC); Date assessed: 21 December 2018 Ref. (130435)
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| harmless |
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In eastern Australia, they commonly range from Townsville (Ref. 28717) in Queensland to Fowlers Bay in South Australia (Ref. 27500). Sea mullet have a sporadic distribution in Tasmania and have only been recorded from northern and eastern waters as far south as the Derwent River (Ref. 28717, 26498). They appear to be absent from the central and western Great Australian Bight but are common from Esperance (Ref. 28721) to Port Hedland in Western Australia. The distribution of sea mullet is reported by a number of sources to include Australian coastal waters north of latitude 20°S, but no detailed information on their abundance in this region is available. They also occur in the Torres Strait Islands (Ref. 13465).
Stock structure: As of 1993, there is no information on the stock structure of sea mullet in Australia. It is possible that there is no migration of fish between eastern and western populations because of the apparent discontinuous distribution in the Great Australian Bight. However, there are no significant morphological or physiological differences between eastern and western fish to support this hypothesis (Ref. 28724).
Commercial fishery: There are 2 types of fishery for sea mullet in Australian waters. The first is an ocean beach fishery exploiting mainly mature fish on their spawning migration. The second is located in estuaries, bays and inlets and is a 'mixed species' fishery.
The main areas for the ocean beach fishery on the east coast are from Bundaberg in Queensland to Port Stephens in central New South Wales. Some catches are also taken on the south coast of New South Wales. In Western Australia, the ocean beach fishery is limited mainly to the southern regions between Jurien and Busselton and also to Shark Bay in the north. Beach seines are the dominant fishing method. On the east coast sea mullet are fished by teams of fishers using 4-wheel drive vehicles and small dories. The season of the ocean beach fishery varies with the timing of the spawning migration. In central New South Wales, March and April are the peak season while April and May are the best months in the north of the State (Ref. 28725). In Queensland most of the ocean beach catch is taken between May and July (Ref. 28627). Some fishers follow the migration pattern, fishing in central New South Wales in March and travelling north as the season progresses. Some ocean beach catches may also be taken during the summer run of immature 'hardgut' fish.
The Shark Bay fishery differs from the other beach fisheries in use of fishing gear. There, fishers operate from mother vessels of 10-12 m length and use jet-powered boats of about 5 m length to shoot the nets in shallow waters. The Shark Bay fishery exploits mature, schooling fish.
The estuarine fishery on the east coast operates mainly within the same regions as the ocean beach fishery. Moreton Bay is the most important estuarine fishery for sea mullet in Queensland. In New South Wales, the Richmond and Clarence rivers, Wallis Lake, Port Stephens, Lake Macquarie and Tuggerah Lake are the most important areas. In Western Australia, the main estuarine fisheries are in the Swan-Canning Estuary and the Peel-Harvey and Leschenault inlets.
In New South Wales, the estuarine fishery accounts for the majority of the annual sea mullet catch, although during the spawning season landings are highest from ocean beaches.
Sea mullet are caught throughout the year in estuaries but the highest catches occur in late summer and autumn when movement of mature fish through the estuaries is greatest. The estuarine fisheries use several types of nets depending on the region. In Queensland, coastal set gillnets and tunnel nets are the most widely used gear (Ref. 28726) and, in New South Wales, haul seines, pound nets, coastal set gillnets and ringnets are used (Ref. 27112). In Western Australia, haul seines and gillnets are the main types of gear used.
Small amounts of sea mullet are taken by fishers from estuaries and ocean beaches in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, but these catches are normally a bycatch of effort targeted at other species.
The sea mullet caught in the ocean beach fishery in New South Wales and Queensland is generally intended for the export market of roe. Prices averaged about A$35.00 per kg for sea mullet roe on the Taiwanese and Japanese markets in 1991-92. Sea mullet are also common on the domestic fresh fish market and are the most common fish purchased in 'fish-and-chip' take-away outlets in Queensland and northern New South Wales. The fish are normally marketed whole and relatively low prices are paid at wholesale markets. Some of the estuarine catch from New South Wales and Queensland is exported as whole frozen product, particularly to Middle East countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Sea mullet sold to export processors yield higher prices than fish sold on domestic markets. Fish which are damaged during handling are processed for local bait markets.
Recreational fishery: Sea mullet are not a common catch of anglers. In fresh water sea mullet will accept baits of dough or earthworm pieces presented on small hooks under a float (Ref. 28717). The largest sea mullet caught on hook-and-line under Australian Anglers Association rules was a 4.9 kg fish, landed in New South Wales in 1974.
Sea mullet are a target species for recreational fishers in southern Western Australian estuaries using haul seines and gillnets and from ocean beaches using haul seines. Sea mullet may also be caught occasionally as a bycatch of fishers using coastal set gillnets and haul seines in South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania.
Aquaculture: There is no substantial mullet farming in Australia due to the low value of the flesh. This may change if the demand for seafood is not met by other products (Ref. 28727).
Resource status: There is insufficient information to allow reliable assessment of the resource status for sea mullet in Australia. New South Wales annual catches have fluctuated to some extent over the 25 years to 1993, but there was no evidence of a decline in the sea mullet stock in that State (Ref. 6390, 28727). Also Ref. 6492, 26380, 44894. |
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