Life on the Edge: Social, Political and Religious Frontiers in Early Medieval Europe Neue Studien zur Sachsenforschung Band 6 Published by Braunschweigisches Landesmuseum in connection with the Internationales Sachsensymposion By Babetle Ludowici Life on the Edge: Social, Political and Religious Frontiers in Early Medieval Europe Edited by Sarah Semple, (elia Orsini and Sian Mui ｾＮ＠ Sponsored by "Durham University Institute of Medieval & Early Modern Studies Neue Studien zur Sachsenforschung is a peer-reviewed series Umschlaggestaltung: Karl-Heinz perschall Satz und Layout: Alejandra Gutiérrez Redaktion: Sarah Semple, (elia Orsini, Sian Mui Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek: Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. © 2017 Braunschweigisches Landesmuseum Alle Rechte vorbehalten Verlag Uwe Krebs, 38176 Wendeburg, 2017 Abbildungsnachweise liegen in der Verantwortung der Autoren Druck: oeding print GmbH, Braunschweig ISBN 978-3-932030-77-2 Preface The sixth volume of the series 'Neue Studien zur Sachsenforschung' presents 36 papers presented originally at the 63· Internationales Sachsensymposion, held in St John's College at Durham University, from the I" to 61h of September 2012. These proceedings have been published with the Braunschweigisches Landesmuseum and the Internationales Sachsensymposion. The theme ol the conlerence 'Ule on the Edge: Social Political and Religious Frontiers in Early Medieval Europe', was stimulated by the situation ol Durham in the ancient kingdom ol Northumbria. Formed Irom a series ol smaller British polities in the 7- century, this political unit, at its greatest extent, reached Irom the Irish to the North Sea and Irom the River Humber north to the Firth ol Forth, now in Scotland. It brought together British and Anglo-Saxon communities, but also at times encompassed Pictish populations. To the south, the kingdom spanned the old Roman Irontier, and its legacy ollortilications, some ol which continued in active use in the Sth and perhaps even 6th centuries. This Irontier continued to exert an inlluence on the early medieval populations ol the region, and Hadrian's Wall, the stone-built limit ol Britannia, ultimately came to lorm a building medium lor some ol the remarkable early Christian churches and sculptures that survive in northern England today. As a result ol Roman and Romano-British legacies, cultural exchanges and contacts with Irish and North Sea communities, and confliets and political alliances with British and Pictish territories, the reg ion offers a unique landscape in which to consider issues ol polities and identity in early medieval society. This gave rise to the conference theme, with the hope that members might contribute papers that touched on liminality, lrontiers and boundaries, centres and peripheries and borderlands, as weil as stylistic, artistic, linguistic and cultural divides. In total42 members and invited speakers presented at Durham, with six poster presentations. Although not all participants chose to publish in the volume, th is proceedings represents a rich and varied repertoire ol papers that capture the temporal and geographic breadth ol the even!. The articles included range widely, dealing with archaeology, art, and at times written sou rees, and cover the I" to the 13lh centuries AD. Geographically the papers touch on sites and linds Irom Britain and Scotland, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Poland. Articles encompass many topics, including exchange atthe North Sea edge, the building ol linear divisions and delences, central places and production, religious transition, cultural borders, burial and identity, and the limits between real and imagined worlds. A number ol invited participants and contributors also provide a specialist view of northern mainland Britain, locussed on key political and religious transitions and important discoveries ol sites and objects. The conlerence organising committee comprised Sarah Semple, Becky Gowland, Richard Gameson, John Henry Clay and David Petts (all Durham University), who were ably guided by the Internationalen Sachsensymposion UK Co-ordinating Committee: Charlotte Behr, John Hines and Chris Scull. In addition the event was made possible by the hard work ol a group ol Durham doctoral student volunteers: Jocelyn Baker, Brian Buchanan, Usa Brundle, Celia Orsini and Tudor Skinner. An important leature ol the Durham meeting was the attendance ol a group ol Polish members, whose papers appear here under Section 111. Space, Place, Frontiers and Borders. It seems apt that our conlerence on lrontiers witnessed the bringing together ol scholars working on early medieval archaeology in northern and eastern Europe. Another distinctive provision was lunding Irom the Internationales Sachsensymposion, Durham University and Durham's Institute lor Medieval and Early Modern Studies, to support scholarships lor PhD students and early career researchers, allowing them attend and present their work. As a consequence this volume includes articles by number ol new researchers Irom different countries. During the conlerence, an excursion was made to some of the key sites in Northumberland and County Durham: to Holy Island, Lindislarne, to see the site ol the early Christian monastic community, the surviving sculptures and the medieval priory; to Bamburgh Castie, a seat ol power Irom late prehistory, through to the Viking and Norman periods; to Yeavering or Gelrin, a central place and site ol royal power and conversion in the 61h to 7" centuries AD; and to the Anglo-Saxon church at Escomb, Co Durham. The organising committee would like to thank Historie England lor lacilitating access to the exhibition at Lindislarne, and David Petts lor site tours ol the abbey. Thanks are due to Graeme Young lor the tour ol the Bamburgh excavations, Eric Cam bridge lor introducing conlerence participants to Escomb, and The Gelrin Trust lor an on-site tour ol Yeavering and the exhibition, coffee and traditional Northumbrian tart served up at Kirknewton Village Hall. This volume is edited by Sarah Semple, Celia Orsini and Sian Mui, and we are gratelul lor the goodwill and patience ol authors, and their willingness to publish in English. Authors worked hard to meet the conlerence theme and the articles presented here are split into sections, to reinlorce the connections and synergies between papers. An introduction to the volume comments on key common lindings. The papers represent the state ol study in 2013 when most contributions were submitted lor publication, but many authors took the opportunity to update their articles in 2015-16. This is a double peer-reviewed volume, a process which takes time, but has significantly strengthened the cogency ol the book, making it an original contribution to current thinking on the theme ol social, religious and politica I Irontiers in early medieval Europe. The editors would like to thank Alejandra Gutiérrez lor typesetting the volume, Babette Ludowici lor assistance throughoutthe production process and Tina Jakob lor assisting with translation. The conlerence was made possible through lunding Irom the Internationales Sachsensymposion, the Department ol Archaeology and the Institute ol Medieval and 2 Early Modern Studies at Durham University. Publication costs have been met by awards Irom the Institute ol Medieval and Modern Studies at Durham, the Department ol Archaeology, Durham University, Arscan UMR 7041-Archéologies Environnementales at Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne, and The Marc Fitch Fund. Sarah Semple Department of Archaeology, Durham University Celia Orsini Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne Arscan UMR 7041-Archéologies Environnementales Babette Ludowici Braunschweigisches Landesmuseum Arbeitsbereich Sachsenforschung Claus von Carnap-Bornheim Stiftung Schieswig-Hoisteinische Landesmuseen Vorsitzender des Internationalen Sachsensymposions Abstract Life on the Edge: Social Political and Religious Frontiers in Early Medieval Europe brings together articles Irom specialists Irom across eight countries. Resulting lrom the 63rd meeting ofthe Sachsensymposion in Durham in 2012, this volume takes its inspiration Irom the position ol this city close to the Roman Irontier, and its instrumental role in the development ol early Northumbria. The 7"-century kingdom ol Northumbria at times united British, Anglo-Saxon and Pictish populations. To the south, it spanned the old Roman Irontier and its legacy ollortilications; to the north, it stretched into modern Scotland. As a consequence Northumbria offers a unique landscape in which to consider issues ol Irontiers and boundaries, centres and peripheries, and the kinds ol events, allegiances, political and religious changes, that helped shape the northern European early medieval identity. Articles deal with archaeology, art, and at times written sou rees, and cover the I" to the 131h centuries AD. Geographically the papers touch on sites and linds Irom England and Scotland, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and poland. Articles encompass topics including: trade and exchange at the North Sea edge; the building ol linear divisions and delen ces; central places and production; the delimitation ol settlements; religious transition; cultural borders; burial and identity; and the limits between real and imagined worlds. Zusammenlassung Leben am Rande: Sozialpolitische und religiöse Grenzen im Europa des Frühmittelalters (Life on the Edge: Social Political and Religious Frontiers in Early Medieval Europe) vereint Beiträge von Fachleuten aus acht verschiedenen Ländern. Dieser Band, der aus dem 63. Treffen des Sachsensymposiums in Durham 2012 resultiert, erhält seine Inspiration aus der Lage der Stadt nahe der römischen Grenze und ihrer bedeutenden Rolle in der Entwicklung des Irühen Northumbrias. Das Königreich des 7. Jahrhunderts vereinte zeitweise die britische, angelsächsische und piktische Bevölkerungen. Im Süden umfasste es die alte römische Grenze und seine hinterlassenen Befestigungen, im Norden erstreekte sich das Reich bis in das heutige Schottland. Inlolgedessen hat Northumbria ei ne einzigartige Landschaft zu bieten, in der Fragen zu Grenzen und Begrenzungen, Zentren und Periphärien, sowie Ereignissen, Allianzen, politische und religiöse Veränderungen, die hallen die Identität des Irühmittelalterlichen Europas zu prägen, gestellt werden können. Die Beiträge belassen sich mit Archäologie, Kunst, und gelegentlich Schriftquellen und umlassen zeitlich das 1.-13. nachchristliche Jahrhundert. Geographisch betrachtet gehen die Beiträge aul Fundstellen und Funde aus England und Schottland, Deutschland, den Niederlanden, Dänemark, Schweden, Norwegen und Polen ein. Thematisch belassen sich die Beiträge mit Handel und Güteraustausch am Rande der Nordsee, dem Bau von linea ren Begrenzungen und Belestigungen, Zentralorten und Produktion, der Abgrenzung von Siedlungen, religiösen Übertritten, kulturellen Grenzen, Begräbnis und Identität, und den Grenzen zwischen der realen und imaginären Welten. Résumé Life on the Edge: Social Political and Religious Frontiers in Early Medieval Europe rassemble les contributions d'archéologues spécialistes du haut Moyen Àge de huit pays différents. Ce volume est né de leurs échanges lors de la 63e rencontre du Sachsensymposion à Durham en 2012. La proximité de la ville de Durham avec Ie mur d'Hadrien et son röle dans Ie développement du royaume de Northumbrie, a inspiré Ie thème de eet ouvrage. Ce royaume rassemble et unit, durant Ie 7' siècle, des populations bretonnes, anglo-saxonne et pictes. Au Sud, iI comprend I'ancienne Irontière romaine et I'ensemble de ces monuments et lorts ; au Nord, il s'étend jusqu'en Ëcosse. Sa diversité et sa topographie créent un paysage unique qui s'adapte particulièrement bien à I'étude des Irontières et des marges, des centres et des périphéries, et en outre, à I'étude des translormations sociales, politiques et religieuses, qui participent à la création de I'identité des groupes sociaux du haut Moyen Àge dans Ie nord de l'Europe. Dans eet ouvrage, différentes disciplines se cötoient pour répondre à ces questions, à partir des données archéologiques, de I'histoire de I'art et des sourees écrites du 1" au 13' siècle de notre ère. Au niveau géographique, les articles portent sur les sites et les objets d'Angleterre, d'Écosse, d'Allemagne, des Pays-Bas, du Danemark, de Suède, de Norvège et de Pologne. Les discussions portent : sur les échanges autour de la Mer du Nord, les divisions internes des bätiments et des habitats, les systèmes de défenses, les lieux de pouvoir et de production, les transitions religieuses, les tombes et les questions d'identité, les limites des cadres cultureis et les limites entre les mondes du réelle et de I'imaginaire. 3 Contents Sarah Sempfe, Celia Orsini and Sian Mui 7 At the Limits: Frontiers and Boundaries in Early Medieval Northern Europe Morten Axboe, with a runofogicof note by Lisbeth fmer 143 local Innovations and Far-reaching Connections: Gold Bracteates Irom North-East Zealand and East Jutland I Material Culture and Identity in Northern Britain Per Ethefberg 157 Siesvig as Borderland in the l' and 2"' centuries AD Rosemary Cramp Northumbria, a Kingdom 29 Perniffe Kruse 169 Anglian Settlements in South-EastJutland, 3<L,jlh centuries AD Rob Coffins 45 The Frontier Foundations of Anglo-Saxon Northumbria Linda Boye 179 House and Fence, landscape and Boundaries: The Landscape AD 1-500 in Eastern Denmark Sonjo Morzinzik 55 permeable Frontiers: Changing Views of the S--century Silver Hoards Irom Coleraine, Northern Ireland, and Traprain Law, Scotland Anne Birgitte Serensen 187 Demarcations ol Tofts at 0stergärd, Jutland, Denmark Farms and Inheritance Meggen Gondek ond Gordon Nobfe 59 Rhynie: New Perspectives on Settlement in Pictland in the Slh and 6" centuries AD and the Context ol Pictish Symbol Stones C1ifford M. Sojiefd 195 Thresholds in the Lives of Settlements: Anglo-Saxon Placed Deposits Made at Entrances and 'Liminal Times' Martin Carver 71 Living in the Middle: Multiple Sources ol the 'Pictish house' 111 Space, Place, Frontiers and Borders Celia Orsini 83 Negotiating Identity in North-East England and South-East Scotland Adam Ciesliflski 211 A Cultural and Ethnic Border during the Roman and Early Migration Periods in North-East Poland Sarah Sempfe, Brian Buchanan, Sue Harrington, Darren Oliver and David Petts 91 Power at the Edge: Yeavering, Northumberland, England Sabine Altmann 225 At the Boundary ol East Central Europe: The Region along the Saaie River as an Early Medieval Border Zone between the Frankish Empire and the Slavic Sorabs Stephen J. Sherfock 113 A Royal Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Street House, loftus, NorthEast Yorkshire Motthias Hardt 233 Borderline ol an Empire: The Eastern Frontier at the Time ol Charlemagne Goby Waxenberger 121 Date and Provenance ol the Auzon or Franks Casket Marcin Woloszyn 239 Poles, Ruthenes and Saxons on the River Bug in 1018: The Formation of the Polish-Rus Border Zone in the 1OtL 13lh century 11 Centres, Settlements and Boundaries Birgitta Hardh 137 Uppäkra's Political Situation in the Migration Period 4 John Baker and Stuart Brookes 253 Gateways, Gates and gatu: Liminal Spaces at the Centre ol Things Frans-Arne Stylegar 401 Identity and Difference in Scandinavian Funerary Fashions at Home and Overseas, AD 700-1000 Brian Buchanan 263 Space, Place and Transition: An Introduction to the Use ol Visibility Graph Analysis lor Settlement Analysis in North-East England c AD 350-800 Sue Brunning 409 Crossing Edges? 'Person-like' Swords in Anglo-Saxon England IV Liminal Landscapes Christopher Fern 419 Treasure at the Frontier: Key Artelacts lrom !he Staffordshire Hoard Annette Siegmü/ler and Kai Mückenberger 273 Structure and Function ol Landing Places and Riverside Markels along the Lower Weser in the Roman Iron Age H. M. van der Velde, 1. Dijkstra and S. Heeren 285 On the Origins ol Dorestad? Habitation ol the Kromme Rijn Area during the Merovingian Period Annet Nieuwhof 295 Potters and Pottery lrom Afar: Some Observations on LongDistance Contacts Richard Mortimer, Duncan Sayer and Rob Wiseman 305 Anglo-Saxon Oakington: A Central Place on the Edge ol the Cambridgeshire Fen Knut Andreas Bergsvik 317 Caves and Rockshelters in lron-Age Coastal Norway: At the Margins ol the Society? Bente Magnus Here is Gold and Witchcraft Under 335 Anne-Sofie Gräslund 345 Mission at the Ends ol the World: Was Old Uppsala Really an Outpost ol Paganism in the Late 11" century? V Embodied Objects and Material Identities Torun lachrisson 355 The Enigmatic Stone Faces: Cult Images Irom the Iron Age? Elna Siv Kristoffersen 365 Delining and Transcending Boundaries in Style I Animal Art Usa Brundle 373 The Taplow Drinking Horn: Gripping-arm Gestures and Female Performance in the Migration Period Kathrin Meents (née Felder) 383 Ontological Transitions and Liminality in Early Anglo-Saxon Female Lile and Burial 5 Potters and Pottery from Afar: Some Observations on Long-Distance Contacts Annet Nieuwhof Introduction Brooches and other metal artefacts or wheel-thrown pottery have often been used to assess contacts between different places and communities in north-western Europe during the 1" millennium AD (e.g. EFFROS 2004; NICOLAY 2014). The potentialof hand-built pottery in this respect has not yet been realised. Only in respect to the migrations of the late 4'h-5 'h century has typical, decorated, hand-built pottery been used to trace the movements and origins of people, but the equation of people with pots has often led to false conclusions (cf HILLS and Lucy 2013, 298). This paper is part of a now completed PhD project on the depositional processes and rituals in the terp region in the northern Netherlands (NIEUWHOF 2015). The focus here is the nature of the long-distance contacts that can be traced on the basis of foreign pottery from these settlement contexts. It is argued here th at these contacts relate to household practices and to the activities and lives of women, challenging long held concepts of passive female roles (CONKEY and SPEaOR 1984; EFFROS 2004). These insights are drawn from a detailed study of the hand-built ceramics taken from two excavations in the northern Netherlands: Midlaren-De Bloemert and Ezinge. The inland settlement of Midlaren-De Bloemert in the north of the province of Drenthe was excavated in 2003 and 2004 by Johan Nicolay (NICOLAY 2008). The famous terp settlement of Ezinge in the province of Groningen was excavated in the 19205 and 19305 but remained largely unpublished bar a small number of preliminary articles (see VAN GIFFEN 1936) until a grant from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research facilitated the study of the material by the author (NIEUWHOF 2014). Midlaren and Ezinge are situated in different landscapes (Fig 1): Midlaren in the Pleistocene inland, and Ezinge, a terp settlement, in the Holocene salt marshes of the coastal area of the northern Netherlands (see BAZELMANS et al. 2012). Despite th is difference, the sites share several similarities and both have a long, continuous habitation history, from the pre-Roman Iron Age until weil into the Middle Ages. Hand-built pottery is by far the largest find category in both excavations, with 718 kg in Midlaren and 1016 kg in Ezinge (NIEUWHOF 2008a; 2013a; 2014). On the basis of numerous finds from many terps that were levelled in the 19'h and early 20'h century, and from later excavations, North Sea _ ｾ｡ ｬ ｭ｡ｲｳ ｨ＠ pleistocene sand _ mudflat dune sand 25 50 km 10 km Figure 1. Left: Map of the present Netherlands with places and provinces mentioned in the tex!. Right: Palaeogeographic map of the situation around AD 100, with the locations of Midlaren and Ezinge. After Vos and KNOL 2005. 295 regional variety and shapes of hand-built pottery from the northern Netherlands have been assembied by Ernst Taayke in a comprehensive four-part typology (TAAYKE 1990; 1995; 1996a, b, c) with a part for each reg ion: the west and east of the province of Friesland, the province of Groningen, and the north of the province of Drenthe, covering from the beginning of salt marsh habitation, around 600 BC to AD 300. Nearly all indigenous pottery from the northern Netherlands can be reliably identified and dated within this framework. The typologies of northern Drenthe and central Groningen apply respectively to the material from Midlaren and Ezinge and these show strong resemblances. Although fabrics differ because of available clay and tempers, general shapes, rims and decoration of pottery types in both areas are largely similar and share a close development. From the 1'1 century AD onwards, pottery from these areas was influenced by the successive styles from neighbouring northern Lower Saxony, the so-called nordseeküstennahe Fundgruppe, a term introduced by Von Uslar (1977). Until weil into the Middle Ages, both settiements were probably part of the same sociocultural network, which extended far into north-western Germany (TAAYKE 1996c, 175-81; NIEUWHOF 2011). Inland Midlaren and coastal Ezinge remained inhabited during the 41h century, although the coastal area was largely abandoned at the time. At both Midlaren and Ezinge, an indigenous pottery style developed from older forms, similar to and influenced by the 'Saxon' style from northern and north-western Germany (NIEUWHOF 2011; 2013a). In any assemblage of hand-built pottery, some sherds and vessels will differ from the regional typology. This is the case for the pottery from Midlaren and Ezinge. Some pots and sherds clearly differ from the indigenous pottery and differed from the common local repertoire in shape, fabric or decoration. Experimentation by potters might explain some of these deviating farms but more frequently, these are wares th at can be identified in other regions, suggesting the design, pots or potters were transported or travelled from elsewhere. These pots, especially those from Ezinge and Midlaren dating to the l'L 51h centuries AD, thus provide a potential source of information on relations between different communities and regional groups. Potters The assemblages from Midlaren and Ezinge provided the opportunity to identify not only pottery types, but sometimes also individual potters. The recognition of individual potters is not easy given the similarities within regional typologies, yet the work of a potter can sometimes be identified on the basis of subtie characteristics. At Ezinge, a special deposit was recovered of nearly 1 kg of potsherds dating to the early 2nd century AD. Intentional breakage is almost impossible to identify uniess, as in this case, there is evidence of the use of an iron awl (NIEUWHOF 2015). Many of the sherds showed such signs of deliberate breakage, suggestive of a ritual deposit. The sherds all fit the local repertoire but four share such close similarities in shape and fabric th at they are most likely made by one potter (Fig 2). Identification of individual potters is easier wh en pottery deviates from the ordinary, local types, especially when such pots are found together in the same context. Two such assemblages from Midlaren-De Bloemert illustrate this point. One of them consists of a number of complete pots and some sherds all dating to the 1'1 century AD, which were found in a pit (Fig 3). The shape of the pots might belong to the local repertoire of Midlaren, but the fabrics do not. Some of them (nos 547, 548 and 1146) are tempered with organic, vegetal material and grog instead of the common tempering materials of stone grit and grog. This combination of organic temper and shape is, however, typical for contemporary terp settlements in the coastal salt marsh area north of Midlaren, suggesting the pots may weil have been made by a potter from the coastal region. It should be noted here that the lower weight of organically tempered pottery compared to pottery with a stone grit temper led Skibo et al. (1989) to suggest that organic tempered pottery is better suited to the lifestyle of non-sedentary communities. However, organic temper was not related to mobile communities in the terp region, as suggested for early Anglo-Saxon England (JERVIS 2012, 67), or in the eastern United Stat es during the late Archaic phase (SKIBO et al. 1989). All communities in the terp region had a sedentary life style. While the most common pottery in Midlaren is shaped much like the pottery in the narthern coastal area, some of 5cm Figure 2. Finds assemblage no 716 from Ezinge, including these sherds made by one potter, with tra ces of deliberate breaking with the aid of an iron awl. The awl produced the indentations on the two sherds on the right. Drawing: A. Nieuwhof. 296 l. 1146 ｾＱ＠ ｾＭﾻｃＲ＠ ｾ＠ --5)1149 1148 549 546 548 550 5 cm Figure 3. Pottery from a pit in Midlaren (find no 492, trench 13, feature 45a), some with organic fabrics. Shapes might be local, the fa brie with organic temper is indigenous in the coastal area. Drawing: J. Smit, S. Boersma, A. Nieuwhof, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen. 297 the pottery in the settlement is related to pottery more familiar in the eastern Netherlands and neighbouring Germany: 50called Rhine-Weser-Germanic pottery (VON USLAR 1938; TAAYKE 2013). Pottery in this style is often found together in the same contexts in Midlaren. In one of these contexts, a pit, dated to the 1't or 2nd century AD, most of the pottery is in Rhine-Weser-Germanic style, although the fabrics appear local (Fig 4). Some of these pots have an additional uncommon characteristic: they have outwardly bevel led rims. These must have been made by a potter originating from an area to the south of Midlaren. These examples underline how pots or potters may have moved between areas. This type of exchange must have influenced local pottery styles and in part might explain the spread of stylistic elements across regions. Thus, characteristics of Rhine-Weser-Germanic pottery such as carination appear during the middle Roman Iron Age in the northern Netherlands (TAAYKE 1996c, 176), and the Schalen urnen and the decoration of Saxon pottery are adopted at the end of the 4th century in Ezinge as weil as Midlaren-De Bloemert (NIEUWHOF 2013a). Such exchanges in design and decoration point to contacts and the movement of ideas, technologies or people. It is generally assumed th at hand-built pottery used for storing and preparing food was made locally. This type of ceramic is not difficult to manufacture and is usually made with local materiais, thus the investment is not high. Su eh items are often heavy and space-consuming and breakable. It was not worth the effort to trade and transport ordinary hand-built pots. Until weil into the Early Middle Ages, only wheel-thrown pottery was imported, but in most settlements in the northern Netherlands this appears only in very small numbers. For instanee in Ezinge, only 2.3% of the total pottery assem blage of the the period across AD 100-500 consists of imported, wheel-thrown pottery (THASING and NIEUWHOF 2014,138) The hand-built pots that may have come from elsewhere based on their shape, are usually made of the local clay, with local temper, just like indigenous shapes. They were probably made in the settlements, but perhaps by potters who came from elsewhere. To investigate who these producers were requires further investigation. Ethnographic studies show th at making pottery for private use in subsistenee economies is nearly always the work of women, while commercial pottery production in workshops is more often men's work (ABBINK 1999, 39; SINOPOLI 1991, 100; RICE 1987, 184). This might weil apply to the past as weil. The northern Netherlands during the first half of the 1't millennium AD was a subsistenee economy, despite contacts with the Roman Empire. The heterogeneity of the hand-built wares of the northern Netherlands until weil 2769 '--------'--------' 2776 Sc m 2778 Figure 4. Pottery assemblage from Midlaren, found in a pit (find nos 2649 and 2650, trench 95, feature 70). Id-numbers with underlining indicate pottery in Rhine-Weser-Germanic style, double underlining indicates RWG-pottery with outward bevel led rims. Drawing: A. Nieuwhof. 298 into the Middle Ages stands out; although we can distinguish a limited number ol types, there are no identical pots. There is little to suggest that these wares were manulactured by prolessional potters, either travelling or in workshops. Pottery production was most likely at household level and it is entirely possible, therelore, that the pottery was produced by women. Although conjectural, this type ol scenario may explain the intrusive non-Iocal lorms manulactured in local labrics. Women through marriage or service might travel to new places and introduce new ceramic lorms and decorative details. Pots and sherds Potters Irom alar might explain part ol the loreign pottery in a settlement, but that may not be the only explanation. Some ofthe loreign pottery not only has different shapes, but also different fabrics and is clearly not made locally. In Ezinge and Midlaren, imported sherds have been identilied lrom the west ol the Netherlands (the present provinces ol Noord- and Zuid-Holland), from the province of Friesland, from the south (Rhine-Weser-Germanic pottery), and Irom several regions in Germany (Figs 5--7). The origin ol the pottery Irom Friesland and the west of the Netherlands can olten be established with the aid ol published typologies (rAAYKE 1990; 1996b; VAN HEERINGEN 1992), but most ol the pottery lrom the east cannot be identilied more accurately than having an origin in Germany. A number ol more or less complete pots derive Irom elsewhere (Fig 7). These are all isolated unique samples ol hand-built vessels and do not represent regular trade. They are relatively smalI, well-linished and usually decorated and have aesthetic appeal suggesting creative potters. They are also light and relatively easy to transport compared to large and heavy cooking pots and may have been received as gilts during visits to other settlements or Irom visitors. These unique, non-indigenous pots indicate that people within a large area, Irom the west ol the Netherlands lar into Germany, maintained contacts and visited each other on occasion. In addition there are conspicuous single sherds lrom loreign, decorated vessels; although they are easyto recognise, the remainder ol the pots is usually missing. It is possible that these came to the settlements as sherds, not as vessels. John Chapman (CHAPMAN 2000; CHAPMAN and GAYDARSKA 2007) has argued on the basis ol Neolithic pottery Irom the Balkans that even in certain closed contexts, Iragments can be missing Irom vessels and sometimes these Iragments can be lound in remote places suggesting deliberate removal and deposition elsewhere. Chapman and Gaydarska have suggested that Iragments might be exchanged as a way ol maintaining social relations by enchainment and could be passed on again and again, th us creating networks ol people who were connected by the possession ol a piece ol the same object. Following Chapman, it is possible that the linds ol single loreign potsherds Irom Ezinge and other excavations might be Iragments ol personalised objects or memorabilia, which circulated and were exchanged between individuals and groups. Deposition olloreign pots and sherds The way in which some loreign pots and sherds were deposited appears to corroborate their special nature and treatment. The clearest example is represented by a small loreign pot Irom Ezinge, no 1176-4225 (Fig 7), which was lound in the grave ol an adult man and dated, on the basis ol a calibrated radiocarbon date and stratigraphy, to the 3" century AD (GrA47563: 1740 ± 40 BP. cal AD 170--410 (95.4%)). This is one ol the lew graves found in Ezinge (NIEUWHOF 2013b) and gravegoods data bie to belore the Middle Ages are virtually unknown Irom the terp reg ion ol the northern Netherlands. The pot itsell must have come to Ezinge in the 1" century, perhaps as late as AD 100 and thus was kept carelully lor several generations. Many other loreign pots and sherds are part ol special deposits that are less straightforward. For instance, no 1168-4230 (Fig 7) was deposited complete with nearly 2 kg ol potsherds, including two wheel-thrown, terra nigra-like sherds NAN Es 1967, pis 82, 11), which date this deposit to the lirst part ol the 2" century AD, probably some time alter this small pot came to Ezinge. A Frisian sherd, no 943-2251 (Fig 5), was buried or lelt in a house in the 2" century AD with two pots of local types and the lower hall of a pot with a perforated base. Pots with perforated bases were used in a clearly ritual context in the nearby terp of Englum (NIEUWHOF 2008b). Another Frisian sherd no 711-3238 was lound with 12 different, indigenous, large rim sherds including half a small pot and a piece ol Ilint, right near a house. No 254-2764 and an exceptional pumpkin-shaped spindie whorl come lrom a partially excavated rectangular pit dated to the middle Roman Iron Age. Among the MigrationPeriod pottery shown in Fig 7, only find no 695 can be linked to a reliable context. No 695-3206, a partial survival, was lound in a sunken hut, together with part ol a miniature pot and a complete and usabie whetstone. Although the finds context is not always clear cut, these discoveries do suggest that intentional deposits ol loreign pottery could include items that were already old-fashioned at the time ol deposition or had already had a biography as circulated Iragments. The long survival ol some complete pots belore deposition also suggests that they were not regularly used prior to deposition. Conclusion There is ample evidence Irom the material culture that groups in the northern Netherlands and neighbouring Germany 299 Pottery of Frisian origin I \}9(\ - - ｾ＠ 711-3238 I ) 1486-4124 : )t 1794-1595 I 987-2440 ｾ＠ ))1794-1596 Pottery from the west of the Netherlands ｾｧ＠ 5cm 254-2764 ＨＰｻｽｏｧ｀ｾｯ＠ Figure 5. Pottery from different areas in Friesland and the west of the Netherlands (Noord- and Zuid-Holland), found in Ezinge. Drawing: A. Nieuwhof. maintained contacts during the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period. Contacts seem to have involved the exchange of pottery, potters and even potsherds. Although speculative, it is possible th at some of the pots were manufactured by potters who had arrived from other regions, and these may have been women who arrived as a result of marriage or perhaps servitude. Special fine imported pots were used for special purposes and appear in distinct contexts. Pottery sherds also had important value, perhaps as mementos. These types of exchange may have involved neighbouring groups as weil, but the close nature of fabrics and farms make this almost impossible to detect. Hand-built pottery on the basis of ethnographic analogy may have been produced by the women of a household 300 Figure 6. A sherd from Ezinge of unknown date, probably coming from a region in Germany. Illustration: A. Nieuwhof. 5cm ｾＭＳ Ｗ Ｕ＠ / / 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 ｧ｣ＺＬｾ＠ 000000000 329-1 641 '- 10 1-4214 695-3206 Figure 7. Pottery from north-western Germany from the 1" century AD (find nos 1176 and 1168). Rhine-Weser-Germanic pottery from the Roman Iron Age (find nos 185, 329 and 674), pots and potsherds from unknown areas in Germany, dated to the end of the 3'd, 4th and 5th centuries AD, all found in Ezinge. Drawing: A. Nieuwhof. 301 and loreign lorms ol vessel created in local wares might suggest that potters moved, taking their skilIs to new homes and households. 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