Rainbowfishes - Their Care & Keeping in Captivity by Adrin R. Tappin

RAINBOW
FISHES
Their
care &
keeping in
captivity
Rainbowfishes ~ Their Care & Keeping in Captivity
Adrian R. Tappin
Melanotaenia trifasciata (Cato River, Northern Territory) photo: Dave Wilson

Rainbowfishes
Their Care & Keeping in Captivity
Adrian R. Tappin
Copyright 2010, Art Publications. All rights reserved.
This publication is distributed free of charge for personal use only.

Any commercial use or publication of this resource is strictly
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in writing from the publisher.
rainbowfishes@optusnet.com.au
The aim of this publication is to provide a comprehensive and
illustrated guide to the remarkable rainbowfishes found in Australia
and New Guinea. The information provided covers topics such as
descriptions, habitats, biology, ecology, distribution and their care
and keeping in captivity.
This project would not have been possible without the enthusiastic
assistance and support of many friends and fellow hobbyists all over
the world that gave me direct and indirect help in providing their
experience, knowledge and assistance. I owe a great deal of gratitude
to the contributing photographers, who graciously shared their
photographs and expertise on the pages of this book.
Adrian R. Tappin
“Familiarity will save ecosystems, as the better an ecosystem is known, the less likely it
will be destroyed. In the end, we will conserve only what we love, we will love only what
we understand, and we will understand only what we are taught.” ~ Baba Dioum (1968)
Foreword
Millions of people all round the world keep fish in ponds and aquaria to
enjoy their beauty and their habits as they try to replicate a little piece of
nature in their backyard or their living room. For some it is a chance to keep
species from the four corners of the globe while for others the lure is for
natives of ones own country. While Australia may have fewer species of
native freshwater fishes suitable for aquarium life than the traditional
tropical aquarium fish suppliers of Asia, Africa and the Americas, what we
lack in numbers we make up for in quality and interest.
Currently there is world-wide enthusiasm for aquarium fish from our

region – especially for the rainbowfishes and blue-eyes from Australia and
New Guinea. Consequently there is a matching desire for information on
these fishes from enthusiasts both here and abroad. The information sought
concerns not only how to best care for them but also anything and
everything about where they come from. To many the ultimate challenge is
to research the species, travel to the habitat and capture the specimens,
transport them home, look after them well, breed them and make them
available to others.
If you want to know anything about these fishes this is the source for you –
as comprehensive and authoritative as is currently possible. Adrian Tappin is
an acknowledged paramount expert on the Aquariology of this group based
on a lifetime of aquarium hobby experience and decades of personal
involvement with all aspects of native fish interest. Not only is this the best
reference I know of for these fishes, but in my opinion it sets the benchmark
for the future when it comes to hobby guides. Adrian knows his stuff and is
happy to share his expertise so that the hobbyist can get the most
enjoyment and the fish will be cared for optimally.
~ Bruce Hansen
Photographic Contributors
Glynn Aland - Australia Jennifer Palmer - Australia
Gerald Allen - Australia Laurent Pouyaud - France
Neil Armstrong - Australia Silke Prinage - Germany
Hans Herbert Boeck - Germany Gunther Schmida - Australia

Hans Booij - Netherlands Arsène Schneider - France
Bernard Delsarte - Belgium Jim Tait - Australia

Alan Travers - Australia
Joël Félix - Belgium
Graeme Finsen - Australia Greg Ure - Australia
Heinrich Gewinner - Germany Graham Weston - Papua New Guinea

Dirk Godlinski - Germany Dave Wilson - Australia
Norbert Grunwald - Germany Iain Wilson - West Papua
Johannes Graf - Germany
Bruce Hansen - Australia

Hristo Hristov - Bulgaria
Buddy Jonkers - Germany

Bernd Jung - Germany
Gary Lange - United States America
Christophe Mailliet - Germany

Barry Meiklejohn - Australia
Bunitj Miles - Australia
Franz-Peter Müllenholz - Germany
Leo O'Reilly - Australia Cover Design - Hans Booij

Contents
Introduction 1 Breeding & Raising 79
Breeding Rainbowfishes 80
History of Rainbowfishes in Captivity 4 Breeding Blue Eyes 84
Artificial Incubation of Eggs 84
Distribution & Habitat 7 Hatching Problems 86
Distribution 8
Nursery Aquarium 87
Natural Habitat (Australia) 11
Hybridisation 88
Tropical Rivers 16
Inbreeding 92
Aquatic Habitat (Australia) 19
Deformities 95
New Guinea 24
Foods & Feeding 97

Collecting & Shipping 29 Feeding Rainbowfishes 98
Collecting Rainbowfishes 30
Feeding & Reproduction 99
Shipping Rainbowfishes 39
Feeding in Captivity 101
Feeding Skills 104
Keeping & Caring 41 Feeding and Nutrition 105
Keeping & Caring 42
Feeding Larvae 106
Lighting 42
Feeding Program 107
Water Quality 42
Formulated (Dry) Diets 108
Temperature 44
Frozen Food 109
Water Chemistry 44
Larvae Food 110
Water Quality Factors 45
Infusoria 111
Alkalinity 45
Phytoplankton 113
Carbon Dioxide 46
Greenwater Culture 115
Dissolved Oxygen 47
Microalgae Feed Supplements 116
Water Hardness 50
Culturing Algae 117
Dissolved Salts 50
Copepods 118
pH of Water 51
Rotifers 119
Summary 53
Microworms 122
Stocking Density 54
Vinegar Eelworms 126
Aquarium Filtration 54
Whiteworms 127
Biological Filtration 55
Grindal Worms 130
Loss of Biological Filtration 58
Wonderful Worms 131
Filter Turnover Rate 59
Brine Shrimp 133
Aeration and Circulation 59
Hatching Brine Shrimp 134
General Maintenance 60
Decapsulated Brine Shrimp Eggs 136
Outdoor Ponds 61
Growing Brine Shrimp 138
The Pond Ecosystem 63
Mosquito Larvae 140
Feeding Pond Fish 63
Bloodworms 141
Outdoor Growing Ponds 65
Drosophila 143
Pond Fertilisation 65
Daphnia 145
Aquatic Plants 67
Summary 149
Brackish Water Aquarium 77
Rainbowfish Species 150 Melanotaenia corona 227
Rainbowfish Family 151 Melanotaenia duboulayi 228
Scientific Names 152 Melanotaenia eachamensis 234
Common Names 153 Melanotaenia exquisita 242
Unpublished Names 154 Melanotaenia fluviatilis 247
Synonyms 154 Melanotaenia fredericki 251
Pronunciation of Species Name 154 Melanotaenia goldiei 252
Abbreviations and Contractions 154 Melanotaenia gracilis 255
Melanotaenia herbertaxelrodi 257
Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides 155 Melanotaenia irianjaya 260
Chilatherina alleni 158 Melanotaenia iris 262
Chilatherina axelrodi 160 Melanotaenia japenensis 263
Chilatherina bleheri 161 Melanotaenia kamaka 264
Chilatherina bulolo 163 Melanotaenia kokasensis 266
Chilatherina campsi 164 Melanotaenia lacustris 267
Chilatherina crassispinosa 166 Melanotaenia lakamora 270
Chilatherina fasciata 167 Melanotaenia maccullochi 272
Chilatherina lorentzi 172 Melanotaenia maylandi 279
Chilatherina pricei 173 Melanotaenia misoolensis 280
Chilatherina sentaniensis 174 Melanotaenia monticola 282
Melanotaenia mubiensis 283
Glossolepis dorityi 177 Melanotaenia nigrans 284
Glossolepis incisus 179 Melanotaenia ogilbyi 289
Glossolepis kabia 181 Melanotaenia oktediensis 290
Glossolepis leggetti 185 Melanotaenia papuae 291
Glossolepis maculosus 186 Melanotaenia parkinsoni 292
Glossolepis multisquamata 187 Melanotaenia parva 295
Glossolepis pseudoincisus 190 Melanotaenia pierucciae 297
Glossolepis ramuensis 194 Melanotaenia pimaensis 298
Glossolepis wanamensis 196 Melanotaenia praecox 299
Melanotaenia pygmaea 302
Iriatherina werneri 199 Melanotaenia rubripinnis 304
Melanotaenia sexlineata 305
Kiunga ballochi 205 Melanotaenia solata 308
Kiunga bleheri 205 Melanotaenia splendida 311
Melanotaenia splendida inornata 314
Melanotaenia affinis 206 Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata 319
Melanotaenia ajamaruensis 209 Melanotaenia splendida splendida 321
Melanotaenia ammeri 211 Melanotaenia splendida tatei 330
Melanotaenia angfa 212 Melanotaenia sylvatica 332
Melanotaenia arfakensis 213 Melanotaenia synergos 334
Melanotaenia australis 214 Melanotaenia trifasciata 336
Melanotaenia batanta 219 Melanotaenia utcheensis 352
Melanotaenia boesemani 220 Melanotaenia vanheurni 354
Melanotaenia caerulea 224
Melanotaenia catherinae 225 Pelangia mbutaensis 355
Rainbowfishes (other) 356 Worms 443
Hydra 444
Pseudomugil connieae 367 Planaria 446
Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis 369 Mycobacteriosis 448
Pseudomugil furcatus 372
Pseudomugil gertrudae 375 Chemical Treatments 452
Pseudomugil inconspicuus 379 Effects on Nitrifying Bacteria 458
Pseudomugil ivantsoffi 381 Antibiotics 459
Pseudomugil majusculus 383 Antibiotics in Aquariums 462
Pseudomugil mellis 384 Aquarium Calculations 464
Pseudomugil novaeguineae 388
Pseudomugil paludicola 390 Source of Information 466
Pseudomugil paskai 391
Pseudomugil pellucidus 392
Pseudomugil reticulatus 394
Pseudomugil signifer 395
Pseudomugil tenellus 400
Rhadinocentrus ornatus 403
Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis 410
Disease Prevention & Control 417

Disease Prevention & Control 418
Diagnosing Disease Problems 419
Responding to Disease 420
Chemical Treatment 420
Obtaining Medications 421
Disease Prevention 422
General Maintenance 423
Handling Specific Problems 425
Parasitic Infections 425
Bacterial Infections 427
Fungal Infections 427
Picornavirus 427
Obtaining Information 428
White Spot Disease 428

Velvet Disease 432
Trichodiniasis 434
Gill & Body Flukes 435
Bacterial Disease 437
Fin & Tail Rot 439
Columnaris Disease 439
Fungal Disease 441
Introduction
“Australian fishes still are very little known, but I have In contrast to the Australian species, very little indeed is
reason to believe that their number is very considerable. In known about the New Guinea fauna and collecting has
fact any person collecting even the most common kinds, mainly focused on the major river systems. Freshwater
particularly the small ones, in any river, lake or stream, is fishes of New Guinea were reviewed by Allen (1991), who
almost certain of rendering good service to science.” listed 320 species, which including some estuarine forms;
~ Count F.L. de Castelnau, 1878. subsequent collecting and research have taken this count to
about 360.
Melanotaeniidae and Pseudomugilidae are two closely related
families of freshwater fishes restricted in distribution to Australia Increased understanding of freshwater fish systematics and
and New Guinea. They are commonly known as rainbowfishes and distribution in the region has largely stemmed from the
blue-eyes respectively. Ten genera are currently recognised: application of collecting and systematic techniques by
Cairnsichthys, Chilatherina, Glossolepis, Iriatherina, Kiunga, professional ichthyologists. However, no less significant has
Melanotaenia, Pelangia, Pseudomugil, Rhadinocentrus, and been the input from amateur ichthyologists and aquarists. In
Scaturiginichthys. Melanotaenia is by far the largest genus. The particularly, during the last three decades a profound increase in
Pseudomugilidae family has been well studied in recent years interest in keeping freshwater fishes has resulted in the formation of
but controversy still exists as to whether they should be regarded as various specialty societies e.g., Australia New Guinea Fishes
a separate family or in a subfamily of Melanotaeniidae. No less Association (ANGFA) and the Internationale Gesellschaft für
controversial in recent years has been the position of their Regenbogenfische (IRG), and in numerous amateur collecting
relationship to other atheriniformes, most notably to the expeditions. Aquarist interest has particularly concentrated on the
Telmatherinidae and Bedotiidae families. endemic rainbowfishes, and this, in combination with taxonomic
and field studies, mainly by Gerald R. Allen, has resulted in a
Australia and New Guinea are much more than just adjacent dramatic increase in the number of species recognised in this
land masses as they have been connected throughout most of family; of the approximately 75 species and subspecies currently
their history. The Sahul Shelf, beneath the shallow Arafura Sea recognised, more than 60% have been described since 1978.
and Torres Strait that now separate the two countries, was
above sea level until as recently as about 6–8,000 years ago Other notable discoveries include Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis,
during the latest glacial lowering of the sea level, and a new genus and species of pseudomugilid from an artesian
southern New Guinea streams were confluent with those of spring system in central Queensland (Ivantsoff et al., 1991); and
the adjacent Australian coast. Indeed, about 50 species of numerous rainbowfish species endemic to various river and lake
freshwater fishes from southern New Guinea also occur in systems in New Guinea. There have also been significant
northern Australia, emphasising the historical link between advances in our understanding of the phylogenetic relationships
the regions, and many of these are endemic to the two and biogeography of melanotaeniid fishes in Australian and
regions. The Olive and Jardine Rivers of Cape York Peninsula New Guinea (Zhu et al. 1994; McGuigan et al. 2000; Unmack
show some of the strongest relationship, with 81% and 63% of 2001).
the fish species found in these rivers being common between
the two countries. The first rainbowfish (Melanotaenia nigrans) was scientifically
described in 1843 from a collection of freshwater fishes acquired in
Australia and New Guinea are perhaps better known for their the Northern Territory. They were collected by John Gilbert in
marine fish fauna rather than for their freshwater fauna. 1840, from the King River, near Victoria Settlement in the
Nevertheless, the freshwater fishes of Australia and New Northern Territory, Australia. A single specimen ended up in the
Guinea are distinctive and have been the subject of British Museum in London where John Richardson described it as
significant discovery over the last 30 years. The amount of a new species of hardyhead named Atherina nigrans. The
recent ichthyological activity in Australia and New Guinea can be differences between A. nigrans and the real hardyheads were
gauged conservatively from the number of recently described enough for the American, Thomas Gill, to create the genus
species or subspecies. Since 1970 about 70 Australian and about Melanotaenia for this lone species in 1862, still within the
130 New Guinea freshwater fish species or subspecies were family Atherinidae. The next step was the creation of a
described or are awaiting description. New species have been subfamily Melanotaeniinae by Gill in 1894 to stress the
found and described at rates as high as any in the history of differences with the hardyheads even more.
Australian and New Guinea ichthyological exploration.
Another 70 years were to pass before Ian Munro treated the
The Australian fauna has been reasonably well studied, in rainbowfishes as an independent family for the first time in
terms of their systematics, but new species continue to be 1964. Although a greater variety of Australian rainbowfishes
described based mainly on genetic taxonomic research of were by then scientifically identified, many New Guinea
known species. Australian freshwater fishes were reviewed rainbowfishes were still undiscovered. Gerald Allen, whilst
by Allen (1989), who recorded 187 species and subspecies; employed with the Western Australian Museum, undertook a
subsequent collecting and research have taken this count to full generic classification of the rainbowfish family in 1980.
around 302 (Allen et al. 2002).
Rainbowfishes—Their Care & Keeping in Captivity 1

Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia nigrans
Rainbowfishes form the most speciose group of fishes inhabiting the many widespread species, as it is highly likely that such
freshwaters within the Australia-New Guinea region. Despite this, study will lead to a significant increase in the number of
relatively little is known about the biology and ecology of the recognised species. For example, variation in morphology
majority of rainbowfish species in their natural habitat. A within the Melanotaenia genus is high, with species differing
review of the literature currently available does highlight a from one another though small variations in colour, morphology
number of gaps in our knowledge of many species. There are and meristics. Indeed, one species, Melanotaenia trifasciata, has
some species where there is a considerable amount of been divided into many geographic forms, each with highly
information available while there are other species where there restricted, allopatric distributions. Populations of almost every
is little or no information available. In addition, there are river system they occupy have their own distinctive body
specific gaps in the information available in otherwise well colour and pattern. At the same time, body form within species
documented species. As well as a number of species that are in is relatively pliant and appears to be dependent upon streamflow
need of additional research, information such as reproduction and correlated habitat characteristics, which can sometimes make
and natural habitat conditions is limited. These include water identification in the field difficult. Much could be gained from
quality requirements, spawning frequency and habitat preferences. careful analysis of the many morphological characters already
Spawning information in the wild is particularly lacking for at hand, such as the colouration characters noted for many of
almost all species, as is general information on egg and larvae the rainbowfish “varieties”. Colouration characters, however,
development, habitat preference and water quality tolerances. when not supported by other characters, have generally been
dismissed by ichthyologists working on rainbowfishes from
Despite such a variety of species, research into their basic Australia.
natural biology and ecology is lacking and most information
that is available is mainly based on aquarium observations. The recognition of taxonomic diversity is a key issue
Obviously, there is urgent need for such studies in order that underlying the problems associated with assigning species
species can be properly conserved and managed. status to this group of fishes. Can we be sure that a species is
truly defined, or is it a species complex, or multiple species
Clearly, there is also need for much more survey work to be with distinct characteristics - sufficiently isolated to be
done in Australia and New Guinea, as some areas remain recognised as a species. Where a single species might be seen
poorly collected. There is also a need for more careful study of as common, in reality there might be numerous species.
2 Rainbowfishes—Their Care & Keeping in Captivity

OTML
Mount Fubilan (Ok Tedi Mine)
Distinct geographic clades within species are regarded alternatively and animals facing possible extinction due to slash-and-burn
as ‘Evolutionarily Significant Units’ (Moritz 1994) and are not subsistence farming, transmigration, rampant logging, illegal
named. An evolutionarily significant unit is a population of poaching, unregulated mining and other practices. Many human
organisms that is considered distinct for purposes of conservation. activities are increasingly disturbing and, in some cases, destroying
This term can apply to any species, subspecies or geographic freshwater habitats. Wherever human populations are expanding, so
population. Subspecies are morphological variants distinguished too are the harmful waste products of mining, industry, agriculture,
at the level of the population — 75% or more of the individuals of and population growth. These impacts have negative and sometimes
the populations of one subspecies can be distinguished from those devastating effects on aquatic life and habitats. Freshwater fish
of other subspecies. species and aquatic communities have also been placed in harm’s
way by the introduction of non-native species.
Existing data suggest that New Guinea is worthy of the highest
conservation priority due to its extraordinary species diversity, Specific rainbowfishes that are considered threatened are: Chilatherina
significant endemism, and high degree of threat. It is not axelrodi, C. bleheri, C. bulolo, C. sentaniensis, Glossolepis incisus, G.
surprising that there are still many new rainbowfish species in maculosus, G. pseudoincisus, G, ramuensis, G. wanamensis, Kiunga
New Guinea that await discovery. More than half the known ballochi, K. bleheri, Melanotaenia ajamaruensis, M. angfa, M.
species of rainbowfishes are endemic to New Guinea. There arfakensis, M. boesemani, M. catherinae, M. corona, M. eachamensis,
are several areas that have particular potential as reservoirs of M. exquisita, M. gracilis, M. herbertaxelrodi, M. iris, M. lacustris, M.
undiscovered species. New Guinea is today less known than maylandi, M. misoolensis, M. monticola, M. ogilbyi, M. oktediensis,
any other habitable area of equal size on the globe. M. papuae, M. parva, M. pimaensis, M. praecox, M. pygmaea, M.
sexlineata, M. vanheurni, Pseudomugil connieae, P. furcatus, P.
These are also times of serious concern for the present and future majusculus, P. mellis, P. paskai, and Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis
health of rainbowfish populations, and other aquatic organisms. (Conservation International 2002; IUCN 2009).
New Guinea, particularly the Indonesian province of West Papua,
is one of the most threatened biological hotspots, with its plants

History of Rainbowfishes in Captivity
Australian rainbowfishes have been maintained in home aquaria
at least since the beginning of the last century. As early as 1915,
Albert Gale in his book Aquarian Nature Studies & Economic
Fish Farming made known the hobby of keeping Australian
freshwater fishes. This book covered many subjects on the
captive maintenance and care of a number of species. A section
of the book also explored the possibilities of commercially
breeding Australian freshwater fishes for the aquarium hobby.
Albert Gale was a member of the Royal Zoological Society of
New South Wales and regularly wrote articles about Australian
freshwater fishes for Aquatic Life. This magazine was edited by
W. A. Poyser and published by Joseph E. Bausman in the USA
during the early part of the last century.
During the late 1920s and early 1930s large Aquarium Societies
were established in major cities all around the world. Fish
shipments at the time were in old-fashioned flat metal
“German” cans, with a small neck and very wide body to give
maximum air surface. As sea voyages were long and no oxygen
was used, the fish generally arrived in poor condition. However,
some survived the journey and were bred by experienced
hobbyists.
During this early period rainbowfishes were known as sunfish.

When exactly this group was called rainbowfish nobody really
knows. In January 1934, National Geographic Magazine
published an article written by Walter H. Chute, then director of
the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago USA, called “Tropical Fish
Immigrants Reveal New Nature Wonders” in which appeared a
reference to the Australian rainbowfish. However, the earliest
record that has so far been found is in the German aquarium
magazine “Wochenschrift für Aquarien und Terrarienkunde” Fish shipments at the time were in old-fashioned flat “German” cans,
with a small neck and very wide body to give maximum air surface.
in September 1931 by Erich Henzelmann, who wrote an article
about the ‘Regenbogenfisch’ Melanotaenia nigrans (which was
actually Melanotaenia duboulayi). The earliest reference to the They are probably the species upon which today’s common
name rainbowfish that I have been able to find in Australia is in name “Rainbowfish” is based. In 1930, three specimens of
an excursion report of the Aquarium and Terrarium Society of Melanotaenia duboulayi were collected in the Mississippi
Queensland. It was written by the then secretary, Amandus River. This was one of the earliest accounts of an introduced
Rudel, and referred to a collecting trip on March 6, 1932. After ornamental fish found in the USA (O'Donnell 1935).
this date, all collecting reports generally referred to the name
rainbowfish. The common name of ‘Sunfish’ was designated to Amandus Rudel was also responsible for introducing another
Rhadinocentrus ornatus, e.g., Moreton Island Sunfish. rainbowfish to the international aquarium hobby. In 1934, he
sent 12 specimens of Melanotaenia maccullochi, collected by
Amandus Rudel was a founding member of the Aquarium & him near Cairns, in northern Australia, to Fritz Mayer in
Terrarium Society of Queensland, and in 1927 he introduced Hamburg, Germany. Four arrived alive and developed into two
the Australian rainbowfish to the international aquarium pairs. They were one of the most popular aquarium fish from
hobby when he sent specimens of Melanotaenia duboulayi Australia. In the German aquarium magazine “Wochenschrift
by steamship to Germany, and which were later bred by the für Aquarien und Terrarienkunde” in May 1935, Fritz Mayer
Berlin Aquarium. Speaking of Melanotaenia duboulayi, gave the first account of their breeding, which was translated by
Amandus said, “I was astonished at the beauty of this fish F. H. Stoye in Innes’ “The Aquarium” in December 1936.
the first time I saw it. Like a living rainbow, there is no
other fish which can compare with its beauty. Naturally it The hobby went into recess during the Great Depression and
has been my favourite ever since.” It is believed that from this following war years, and very few aquarium specimens survived
initial shipment Melanotaenia duboulayi were introduced to the that period. The aquarium hobby didn’t really recover until the late
organised aquarium hobby throughout Europe, and then to 1950s when shipment with plastic bags and oxygen, in insulated
North America. containers was developed. This, together with faster air travel,
enabled the aquarium hobby to flourish and was considered one of
the most popular hobbies of the period.

Other shipping containers in the 1920-30s were merely a straight-sided metal pail with a tight fitting lid that were packed in a wooden shipping
box. The wooden shipping box was lined with cane fibre-board for insulation and the metal container was packed inside it in sawdust.

During this growth period however, due to limited and the fish themselves are clean, quiet and non-demanding,
availability, rainbowfishes were never readily available to given a few simple requirements. Rainbowfishes have very
the general aquarium hobby. The only rainbowfishes that similar breeding habits, their food requirements are similar, and
were available in the retail trade were a colourless water that suits one particular species will suit all. All are of
assortment bred in Southeast Asia fish farms that looked good-natured temperament and will live harmoniously, more or
nothing like the wild species, and were never very popular less, with one another. They also possess all the attributes we
with fishkeepers. look for in aquarium fishes; ease of breeding, hardy, beautiful
colours, peaceful disposition, and they won’t destroy your
Rainbowfishes from New Guinea started to arrive in Australia plants or move the gravel around in your aquarium. They also
around the mid 1950’s. They were being maintained by only a come in a variety of sizes to suit almost any aquarium.
handful of enthusiasts and were virtually unknown to the
international hobby. There are some reports that specimens of Most rainbowfishes available in the retail hobby today are bred
Melanotaenia affinis, M. goldiei, M. rubrostriata and M. sexlineata in captivity. This is due in the main to the difficulties involved
(although probably M. papuae) were being maintained in the in collecting and transporting live rainbowfishes from their
Australian hobby as early as 1959. During the 1960’s and 70’s a natural habitats in remote areas of Australia and New Guinea.
small trickle continued to arrive in Australia from New Guinea. This is even more relevant in New Guinea where dense
However, the publication in 1982 of Rainbowfishes of Australia rainforests, virtually no infrastructure like roads and airports has
and Papua New Guinea by Gerald Allen and Norbert Cross, meant that organised collecting for the aquarium trade is just
greatly increased the popularity of keeping rainbowfishes, and simply not possible.
the desire for the newly discovered New Guinea species, turned
that trickle into a flood. ANGFA, the Australia New Guinea Rainbowfishes spawn readily in captivity and there is now a
Fishes Association was also formed in 1982; further promoting large captive breeding pool that generally satisfies most of the
the keeping of rainbowfishes. commercial demand, thus negating the need for wild-caught
fish. However, there is probably some limited collecting of wild
The importation of New Guinea rainbowfishes into Australia fish in New Guinea, although reliable data is lacking.
during this period did not have any significant restrictions and a
number of different species were brought into the country by One of the major problems affecting the popularity of
private collectors, which were subsequently distributed in the rainbowfishes is that they generally don’t display their best
hobby. However, the increasing importation of New Guinea colouration when kept under normal retail store conditions.
rainbowfishes eventually attracted the attention of the Most retail stores maintain their fishes in bare, over-crowded
Advisory Committee on Live Fish (ACOLF), the then Federal aquariums. This is done mainly for economic reasons and to
Government body responsible for controlling the importation of facilitate their ease of capture and sale. However, rainbowfishes
live fishes. In late 1983, ACOLF for some obscure reason maintained under these conditions will feel stressed and lose
decided to ban the importation into Australia of all species of the beautiful colours that they are renowned for. In addition to
freshwater fishes from New Guinea. Despite the ban, however, this, too many species are offered for sale at a small size
new rainbowfish species from New Guinea continue to be before they have developed their full adult colouration.
imported, bred and distributed widely in the general aquarium Unless the general fishkeeper knows what they will look like
hobby around Australia. when taken home they will more than likely be passed over
for some other species.
During the mid 1980s, Heiko Bleher, an intrepid aquarium
fish collector started collecting the newly discovered New Blue-eyes (Pseudomugilidae) are small colourful fishes rarely
Guinea species, breeding and distributing them into the exceeding 5-cm in length. Their natural habitats are similar to
International aquarium hobby. This trend has continued over that of rainbowfishes, although they are usually found in
the past two decades, developing side by side with the shallower water. Some species are found in brackish and marine
increase in the discovery of numerous new species. More waters. Blue-eyes are so called because of the striking blue
than 68 species have been discovered and the possibility of colour of the iris. They are close relatives of the rainbowfishes
this number increasing in the next decade is almost certain. and were previously classified with them but were given family
rank by Saeed et al. (1989). Although, Dyer and Chernoff (1996)
Most rainbowfish species that have been introduced to the consider pseudomugilids as a subfamily of the Melanotaeniidae.
aquarium hobby has been by various private collectors.
Rainbowfish enthusiasts travel to far-off places in Australia In general, male blue-eyes are brightly coloured, and their fins
and New Guinea to collect new and different coloured have elongate filaments that are utilised in elaborate courtship
forms. Many of the rainbowfishes that are available in the displays. They are valued as aquarium fishes due to their
hobby today have resulted from the activities of these beauty, small size, and peaceful disposition and are easy to
enthusiasts. These same hobbyists generate a substantial maintain and breed in captivity. They are hardy aquarium
amount of data on habitat conditions, collecting locations, fishes despite their small size, and adapt well to captivity
colour varieties and reproductive biology. showing their colouration at all times. Ideally, they should
share their aquarium with similar sized tankmates and be kept
Keeping rainbowfishes in an aquarium can be a fascinating in small groups. Unfortunately, they are not as prolific as
activity for the whole family with a number of advantages rainbowfishes and it is for this reason that most commercial
over the keeping of more conventional pets. Relatively little breeders have ignored them and therefore are not generally
space is required; an aquarium can be aesthetically pleasing, available in the retail aquarium trade.

Rainbowfishes
Distribution & Habitat
Photo: Alan Travers

Distribution
Rainbowfishes are one of the most speciose groups of New Guinea began to form then, along the northern edge of the
freshwater fishes inhabiting the Australia–New Guinea Australian continental plate, developing in two parts. One part
region. Australia lies between latitudes 10°41’S (Cape was the northern rim of the Australian plate itself and the other
York) and 43°39’S (South East Cape, Tasmania) and a string of islands off the north-east coast, away from Laurasia.
between longitudes 113°09’E (Steep Point) and 153°39’E The islands and mainland only came together towards the end
(Cape Byron). The latitudinal distance between Cape York of the Tertiary, forming the high and rugged mountains and
and South East Cape, Tasmania is 3,680 km. The longitudinal giving New Guinea its present form. That process is on-going,
distance between Steep Point and Cape Byron is about with some mountains having now reached 4,884 metres ASL in
4,000 km. With a total land area of 7,682,000 km2, it is the little more than 3 million years since the beginning of the
lowest, the flattest and, with the exception of Antarctica, the accelerated uplift. This had a number of important consequences,
driest of the continents. The continent has a wide range of including the formation of the New Guinea highlands, and
climatic zones, from the tropical regions of the north, providing an opportunity for the dispersal of Asian taxa to the
through the arid expanses of the interior, to the temperate now relatively close Australia, and similarly for Australia taxa
regions of the south. Seasonal fluctuations can be great, with to emigrate.
the temperatures ranging from above 50°C to well below zero.
The continent often experiences natural disasters, particularly New Guinea itself should be considered part of greater
droughts, floods, tropical cyclones, severe storms and bushfires. Australia, because, for a great deal of its history, it has been part
of the Australian mainland (as has Tasmania). New Guinea’s
Australia is an isolated continent, with the Indian Ocean to proximity to the Sunda Shelf and many islands may well have
the west, South Pacific Ocean to the east, and Southern provided a stepping-stone for taxa to move between the two
Ocean to the south, but with New Guinea and Southeast worlds. The Sahul Shelf, constituting Australia, Tasmania, New
Asia just to the north. The birth of Australia began soon Guinea and adjacent islands, possibly including Halmahera Island,
after the dinosaurs disappeared, 65 million years ago. It was has continued on a northward path ever since.
the last landmass to split away from the ancient southern
super-continent Gondwana. The world’s continents were The Sahul Shelf is a structural platform of the ocean floor and is
once all joined in a single landmass called Pangaea. In the bounded to the northeast by a series of deep-sea troughs and to
Jurassic period (about 160 million years ago) a northern the northwest by troughs, a chain of coral reefs, and a series of
continent, Laurasia, and a southern continent, Gondwana, submarine ridges. The Sahul Shelf was once above sea level,
split apart. The exact nature of the break-up of Gondwana is and its surface still bears erosional features formed when
not understood with precision, but it gradually fragmented streams crossed it to the oceans. The shelf was slowly warped
over geological time, with India and then New Zealand downward by crustal forces. This subsidence is evidenced in
moving away from the Australia-Antarctica-South America coral atolls along its edge, composed of coral that grew as the
group during the Cretaceous period (140 million years ago). land sank. The shelf’s main divisions are the shallow Arafura
The latter group of continents separated from each other Shelf, covered by the Arafura Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria; the
during the Tertiary period (from about 70 million years Sahul Shelf under the Timor Sea; and the Rowley Shelf
ago). underlying a part of the northwest Indian Ocean extending to
North West Cape, Western Australia. To the north lay the
It took many millions of years for Australia and Antarctica to deeper Timor tough and the volcanic Lesser Sunda Islands,
fully separate, with Tasmania caught in the middle. But finally, separating the Sahul from the Sunda Shelf.
about 40 million years ago, they parted and commenced a
northward drift. Australia dragged Tasmania north, leaving Australia and New Guinea have been alternately land-linked and
Antarctica alone at the bottom of the world. With Australia out separated by water on a number of occasions over millions of
of the way, ocean currents were free to circle the South Pole, as years. The alternating global warming and cooling episodes of the
they still do today, greatly influencing the world’s climate. last three million years repeatedly isolated then reconnected New
Guinea and Australia, as the Arafura Plain successively submerged
During this time, Australia experienced numerous changes and emerged with changing sea levels. Global sea levels are
in climate, but the overall trend was towards greater aridity. currently higher than at anytime during the last 120,000 years,
The great inland seas and lakes dried out. Much of the long- separating Australia and New Guinea by sea. However, Torres
established broad-leaf deciduous forest began to give way to Strait has been acting almost consistently as a land-bridge since
the distinctive hard-leaved sclerophyllous plants that the last interglacial about 118,000 years ago up until 6~8,000
characterise the modern Australian landscape. For many years ago, when marine transgression closed the bridge. About
species, the primary refuge was the relatively cool and well- 12,000 years ago, sea levels were low enough that the Arafura
watered Great Dividing Range. Even today, pockets of Shelf was exposed, and 20,000 years ago, sea levels were 120
remnant vegetation remain in the cool uplands, some metres below present levels. The water barrier, which is now
species not much changed from the Gondwanan forms of 60 the Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria, and Torres Strait, which
or 90 million years ago. separates Australia and New Guinea are extremely shallow,
with average depths ranging from about 15 to 60 metres.

Between 12,000 and 55,000 years ago, the Gulf of Carpentaria There is convincing geological evidence for the historical
was a large (~30,000 km2) inland lake. Not only did Cape York existence of Lake Carpentaria. Moreover, it has been
Peninsula provide a land link between New Guinea and north-east suggested that the outflow of Papua New Guinea’s Fly
Australia, but also Lake Carpentaria would have provided a River was diverted westward into Lake Carpentaria during
freshwater aquatic link. The lake would have been fresh or this period, although this hypothesis is still controversial.
brackish for much of its existence. Evidence from deep core Harris et al. (1996) found no evidence for a past westward
drilling reveals a pattern of establishment and marine inundation of diversion of the Fly River, and suggested that the outflow of
Lake Carpentaria that appears to have been repeated. It was a the river in ‘recent’ geological time has always remained on
freshwater lake in the Jurassic then inundated by a marine an easterly course into the Coral Sea. However, the
transgression (in limestone deposits), and there was a further hypothesis that Lake Carpentaria provided habitat for, and
freshwater episode in the Miocene, followed by another marine facilitated gene flow among freshwater Macrobrachium
transgression. As the sea levels rose, this lake disappeared. populations during the late Pleistocene is supported by
recent analyses (De Bruyn et. al. 2004).
One reminder of this ancient lake is the current fragmented
distribution of rainbowfishes such as the Iriatherina werneri
and Melanotaenia maccullochi in rivers of the Northern These maps show the changing shape of Australia and New
Territory, northern Queensland and southern New Guinea. The Guinea that mimics the rise and fall of sea levels over the past
fish species of Cape York Peninsula also have a strong affinity 10,000~50,000 years. The green sections of the map indicate
with New Guinea. The Olive and Jardine Rivers show some of dry land. It was during such periods that rainbowfishes were
dispersed between Australia and New Guinea.
the strongest relationship, with 81% and 63% of the fish
species found in these rivers being common between the two Monash University - http://sahultime.monash.edu.au/
countries.
10,000 years ago. 20,000 years ago.
30,000 years ago. 50,000 years ago.

Cape York Peninsula provided the main land link, but a The western half of New Guinea is the Indonesian province of
second land link between Arnhem Land and New Guinea West Papua. However, Indonesia is part of the Asian
formed at much lower sea levels. This made possible the continental plate and was, until 20 million years ago, well
movement of terrestrial plants and animals so that a separated from Australia and New Guinea. The Indonesian
potential biological ‘bridge’ existed between the continent archipelago spans two major biogeographical regions divided
and sub-continent with a wide plain across what is now the by Wallace’s line. West of this line lies the Indo-Malayan
Arafura Sea. The only high ground on the plain were low region, which includes the islands of Java, Borneo and Sumatra
hills that are now islands fringing the Kimberley coast and on the Sunda Shelf; to the east lies the Australasian region.
Arnhem Land, the islands in Torres Strait and the low hills Wallacea is a biogeographical designation for a group of
that fronted the north-western coastline of the Arafura plain Indonesian islands separated by deep water straits from the Asian
(now the Aru Islands). Major river systems flowed across and Australian continental shelves. Wallacea, comprising the
this plain, arising from both the south and the north. The Lesser Sunda Islands, the Moluccas and Sulawesi, has had no
plain had vast shallow lakes, and embayments fringed with recent land connection to either continent.
mangroves and salt-marsh. Rainforests were largely
confined to the mountains and slopes to the north and to The islands of the Sahul Shelf which include Waigeo, Batanta,
riparian zones and protected gorges in the south, with much Salawati and Misool to the west; Aru Islands to the south; and
of the Arafura plain a savannah, similar to parts of northern Japen to the north in Cenderawasih Bay all had recent intermittent
Australia today. land connections with mainland New Guinea. Those which lie off
the Sahul Shelf had no connections with New Guinea in the recent
The connections were especially strong, close and more past. The island of Bougainville is part of Papua New Guinea, but
enduring between Cape York Peninsula and New Guinea. is biogeographically most similar to the Solomon Islands. Similar
There are several plant and animal species, which only occur biogeographical and governmental boundaries exist across the
on Cape York Peninsula and in New Guinea. Plants, birds, Torres Strait between the southern part of Papua New Guinea and
reptiles, and mammals with this distribution are largely found the northern tip of Queensland, Australia.
in the northern half of the Peninsula and reach their greatest
diversity in the mid-Peninsula rainforests. The rising sea also Map of Sunda and Sahul Shelves and the Wallace Line
fragmented the range of many other plants and animals.
Comparable environments and species assemblages persist in the
Fly River region, Port Moresby and Popondetta areas of southern
New Guinea, and across northern Australia.
The current distribution of a number of northern Australian and

southern New Guinea rainbowfish species can be explained by the
opportunities the lake and the exposed Arafura shelf provided. The
Arafura Shelf that defined the western boundary of Lake
Carpentaria would also have provided a land-bridge to New
Guinea presumably with drainages flowing west to the Timor Sea.
This would have allowed potential interchange of forms between
West Papua, Arnhem Land and the Kimberley via coastal rivers
and associated habitat quite different from that provided by Lake
Carpentaria. It would also have isolated the rainbowfish fauna
from these western and west-central rivers from those flowing into
the eastern seaboard of Australia and south-eastern New Guinea.
This may explain the different species found in the Kimberley and
western Arnhem Land.
Although the region today includes two very different nations
Unfortunately, no rainbowfish fossils exist so their evolutionary and part of a third, and although the two main landmasses are
history will probably remain obscure. However, there is some currently separated by Torres Strait, from a biological and
belief that rainbowfishes probably originated in the north of geological point of view, it is a single unit. Most of the fauna
Australia, or in southern New Guinea and then spread eastward, and flora of New Guinea are shared, at least in their origin, with
north into New Guinea and southward down the northeast coast of the continent of Australia. While much of the rest of the world
Australia, differentiating into the various species we know today. underwent significant cooling and thus loss of species diversity,
In south-eastern Australia, the primary driving force behind Australia–New Guinea was drifting north at a pace such that the
current rainbowfish distributions appears to be climatic. overall global cooling effect was roughly equalled by its gradual
movement toward the equator. Temperatures in Australia–New
Many factors affect the distribution of rainbowfishes but one of Guinea remained reasonably constant for a very long time, and
the most important is biogeographical boundaries. As far as a vast number of different plant and animal species were able to
rainbowfishes are concerned, the most important biogeographical evolve to fit particular ecological niches. Because the continent
features are the drainage division boundaries. It is important to was more isolated than any other, very few outside species
note that biogeographical boundaries do not necessarily arrived to colonise, and unique native forms developed
correspond with governmental boundaries. unimpeded.

Natural Habitat (Australia)
Source: AUSLIC
“Habitat can be defined as the specific type of place where
a plant or animal lives. For plants and animals which live
in water, habitat is available only when it is submerged.”
In Australia, rainbowfishes generally occupy three broad climatic

zones. Above the Tropic of Capricorn has a tropical climate
characterised by a generally hot, humid summer with strongly
seasonal rainfall, and a mild to warm, dry winter. Below the
Tropic of Capricorn is sub-tropical with a similarly hot, humid
summer and seasonal rainfall, but with some significant rainfall
occurring during the mild winter. The interior portion of Australia
occupied by rainbowfishes experiences an arid sub-tropical
climate. Summers can be extremely hot and dry, with variable
rainfall; winters are cool to warm and dry, with irregular light rain.
The majority of rainbowfishes found in Australia are

distributed throughout the northern and eastern coastal
strips. The presence of substantial rainfall and the range of There are three major landforms on the mainland of Australia; the Great Dividing Range
habitats found in these regions accounts for the relatively and its associated smaller ranges, the Central Eastern Lowlands (west of the Great
Dividing Range) and the Great Western Plateau.
greater number of species found in this part of the continent.
In southern Australia, their distribution is almost certainly
controlled by winter minimum water temperatures. The
family’s distribution is exceptionally broad, ranging from
the tributaries of the Murray-Darling system in Victoria,
northwards up the east coast to Cape York, and west to the
north-west coast of Western Australia. They also occur
throughout the inland rivers of the arid Lake Eyre drainage
in central Australia.
There are three major landforms on the mainland of

Australia; the Great Dividing Range and its associated
smaller ranges, the Central Eastern Lowlands (west of the
Great Dividing Range) and the Great Western Plateau.
These landforms influence the major drainage patterns of
the mainland. The Australian Water Resources Council has
defined twelve major drainage divisions - eleven on the
mainland and Tasmania’s drainage system is the twelfth, Australia’s major drainage divisions
which are sub-divided into water regions which are in-turn
sub-divided into river basins. Within major drainage basins,
there are always minor drainage basins. Minor basins
sometimes have two or three rivers in a system. Other minor
basins have only one river, rising in a mountain range and
draining away into lonely desert land. The waters that soak
away into the sands from these rivers are not always lost.
They may drain into an artesian or sub-artesian basin. The
Great Artesian Basin is the world’s largest and deepest
artesian basin. It covers an area of 1,082,400 km2.
The Australian 1:250,000 scale map series shows about three

million kilometres of rivers and streams. However only around
1400 are named rivers (approx. 166,018 km) many of which
are intermittent or ephemeral. Some only flow after heavy
rains, which may be years apart. Of these rivers and streams,
only about four percent are dam-free. Australia stores more
water per head of population than any other country, so as to
provide security of supply for agricultural and urban use. Topography of Australia

Ord River Dam (Western Australia)
Inland waters include all water inland of estuaries, both in Extended periods of low flows during the dry season not
surface features like streams, lakes, wetlands and reservoirs, only separate main-channel habitats from off-channel
and in the subsurface as groundwater. The chemistry of our floodplain lagoons, but can also reduce contiguous main-
surface inland waters differs from most waters elsewhere, channel habitats to a string of shallow, isolated pools. In the
often being dominated by sodium chloride rather than drier areas, these habitat changes can dramatically influence
calcium and magnesium bicarbonates. Groundwater is often fish community composition by increasing density dependent
very old; for example, in the Great Artesian Basin water interactions and causing extreme water quality conditions.
travels across Queensland, to emerge in central Australia in
bores one to two million years after it entered the ground. Aquifer-fed streams such as the Daly River in the Northern
The generally arid climate means that mainland Australia Territory, the Gregory River in the Gulf, and the Jardine River
has relatively few permanent and freshwater lakes. Lakes on on Cape York Peninsula, continue to have significant flows
the mainland are often shallow, dry and salty. Only on the even at the end of the dry season. Such aquifer fed perennial
Central Plateau of Tasmania do a number of larger permanent rivers are especially important for many terrestrial and aquatic
fresh-water lakes occur. species. As a consequence of the water releases from Lake
Argyle and Lake Kununurra the downstream portion of the Ord
Australia, by virtue of its size, contains a large variety of River in Western Australia is also now perennial.
different freshwater ecosystems. Broadly, the north of the
continent has a monsoonal rainfall pattern, while the south Rivers never flow in a straight line. Even when there are no
generally has a temperate, winter-rainfall pattern. The eastern obstacles, flowing water has an inherent tendency to meander
seaboard and the extreme south west of the continent are and, over time, the meanders themselves also move. Within the
reasonably well-watered, while the arid interior is characterised boundaries of their floodplains, river channels shift from side to
by rainfall which is extremely variable. side, shuffling old sediment and pushing it downstream toward
the sea. A river pushes sediment along a floodplain a bit like
Most rivers, even the larger ones, are ephemeral in most you might use a running hose to squirt dirt from a concrete
years having highly seasonal and variable flow. Many cease path - sweeping from one side to the other, progressively
to flow during the dry season and tidal influences can moving the dirt along. Similarly, rivers sweep from side to side
extend some 80–100 km upstream. Some are little more within their floodplains. Each meander moves the sediment
than a chain of elongated waterholes for much of the year. along a little then leaves it behind for the next.

▲ Daly River Billabong (Northern Territory) ▼ Gregory River (Queensland)
Murray River (New South Wales)
As a floodplain river moves, it leaves tracks in its wake: The Murray-Darling is also one of Australian’s most
repeated, curved rills called ‘scrolls’, which fill with water to degraded river basins, an issue of special concern to South
become billabongs. Changing flows also frequently cut off Australia - the State at the “bottom end” of the catchment.
whole loops of river channel, called meanders, to create flood- The lower Murray now experiences drought level flows three
filled ‘oxbow’ billabongs. years out of every four, compared to one in twenty years
under natural circumstances. The loss of biodiversity in the
Fast-flowing rivers with steep gradients have small region and degradation of its rivers is well documented. In
meanders, which can sweep across their narrow floodplains particular, the native fish species of the Murray-Darling Basin
in just a few decades. But slow-moving lowland rivers - have suffered serious declines in both distribution and
such as the Murray, the Ovens and the Murrumbidgee - abundance resulting in the threatened status of one-quarter of
have far larger, looping meanders that sweep much more the thirty-five species present.
slowly across wide floodplains. River meanders are
irregular, but not random. Their looping paths have quite The Murray River and its tributary, the Darling River, are the
measurable wavelengths, which depend on the downhill main rivers in the Murray-Darling River Basin. The Darling
gradient and the volume of water the river carries. Lower River flows south from the junction of the Culgoa and
volume rivers have smaller loops, which in the underfit Barwon rivers. Although the Culgoa is longer than the
rivers of the Murray Basin are often superimposed on the Barwon, the source of the Darling is generally agreed to be
wider loops of older, greater rivers. the Barwon River as it has the greater volume of water.
By world standards, Australia has only one large river The headwaters of the Darling can be traced to the MacIntyre
system, the Murray-Darling, whose catchment drains the River, which starts in the Great Dividing Range, and forms
western slopes of the Great Dividing Range and the arid part of the border between NSW and Queensland. It
interior. The Murray-Darling Basin covers an area in excess eventually flows south into the Barwon. The Barwon-
of a million square kilometres (14% of the entire continent) MacIntyre section is sometimes referred to as the Upper
and occupies large areas of southern Queensland, inland Darling. When measured from its source in Queensland to its
New South Wales (NSW), and northern Victoria, as well as mouth on the coast south-east of Adelaide, the Murray-
South Australia’s south-east. Darling river system is 3,370 kilometres long, about half the
length of the world’s longest river, the Nile.

▲ Jardine River (Queensland) ▼ Gilbert River [Dry Season] (Queensland)
Tropical Rivers to increase ten-fold or more. As the waters concentrate there
Tropical freshwater ecosystems in northern Australia are is a steady progression towards the composition of seawater.
considered to be the most biologically diverse and healthy In some billabongs there is a sudden marked rise in
aquatic ecosystems in Australia today. These systems are conductivity at the end of the dry season; pH also rises
dominated by monsoonal rainfall patterns and consequently slightly over the dry.
have the most seasonally-restricted discharges in the
country. More than half the annual flow occurs within just a When flow begins early in the wet season the composition
three-month period, followed by a relatively long period of of the first flush water depends on the manner in which it
little or no flow. The marked seasonality of rainfall and arises. When the downstream progression is at a steady pace
subsequent discharge drives massive changes in the extent the advancing water may develop a front with high solute
of river and wetland habitats; often leaving floodplains concentrations leached from the soils over which it passes
inundated for several months each year. and the pH may also be quite low (3.5–4.5). Consequently,
when this mixes with the water in the billabongs, the water
The majority of Australia’s tropical river systems are quality for the biota may be very unfavourable for a time
characterised by large catchments, with expansive, until it is diluted by following, more dilute, waters. In some
seasonally-inundated floodplains. Covering an area of more floodplain areas with jarosite soils, oxidation of sulphide to
than 1.3 million km2, the tropical rivers region includes more sulphate occurs after the soil becomes wet again after
than 60 major rivers and hundreds of smaller streams flowing drying out during the dry season and allowing aeration of
directly into the sea. These extend across all catchments from the soil. This causes very acidic conditions in the soil water
the Fitzroy River near Broome in Western Australia to the and this allows aluminium to dissolve.
Fitzroy River near Rockhampton in Queensland. It includes
some of Australia’s largest river systems, which are (by area High levels of aluminium and sulphate can then be leached
size) the Flinders, Roper, Victoria and Fitzroy Rivers and (by from the soil by the slowly advancing water and transported
volume) the Nicholson and Mitchell Rivers. Combined, these to billabongs. When this happens the water is potentially
rivers and their tributaries extend over one million kilometres toxic to fish and mass fish kills may occur. These kills are
and the discharge from these rivers represents ~70% of the invariably associated with very low oxygen levels in the
freshwater run-off in Australia, which is highly seasonal in water which is probably also caused by the influx of organic
almost all catchments. matter with the new water. Fish kills can also occur at this
time solely from oxygen depletion resulting from influx of
In tropical rivers, one of the most important temporal organic matter with storm events. When, as often happens,
phenomena affecting fish is seasonality of the flow regime. the first flush occurs as a large flood with rapid progression
The duration and magnitude of elevated flows determine the across the floodplain, there is less potential for these harmful
availability of various habitat types, by regulating lateral conditions to arise.
and longitudinal connectivity, influencing local hydrology
and geomorphology, removing instream vegetation, and In seasonal water bodies growth and production of submerged
affecting water quality. After the first flush of water in the and emergent aquatic macrophytes begins in the early wet
wet season, surface waters in the region generally have very season each year when dry ground becomes saturated by rain
low levels of dissolved solids reflecting the highly leached or floodwater. Maximum biomass of the dominant grasses
land surface of the region (Conductivity range 5–20 µS/cm). occurs in the late wet–early dry season. With the senescence of
The waters are slightly acidic (pH 5.2) with a very low these plants there is a large increase in decomposing detritus. In
buffering capacity and generally very clear with low levels some billabongs this decomposition results in the water
of suspended solids (5–60 mg/L). The soft, acidic water becoming anoxic for a period and this can also be a cause of
probably contributes to a low diversity of molluscs in the fish kills.
region. With each flood event, there is a further general
decline in the concentration of solutes. Most of the surface
water at this time is derived from surface runoff (or direct ▼ Fish Kill (Northern Territory)
precipitation on parts of the floodplain) rather than ground
water. Consequently, the proportions of major ions of
surface waters closely resemble that of local rainwater.
Plants and soil remove over 90% of P, NH4 and NO3 from
rainwater.
During the dry season the water chemistry changes and the
pattern of change varies with different kinds of waterbodies.
The spring-fed permanent headwaters and the deep channel
billabongs change very little over the year. On the other
hand, the standing waters of the shallower floodplain
billabongs and backflow billabongs of the lowlands
evaporate to some extent and concentrate their dissolved
salts steadily during the season. In some billabongs the
addition of ground water from seepage may cause the solutes

Surface water temperature averages around 30°C but may Rivers in the wet tropics region of Queensland are the
range from 25°C to 38°C depending on location and time of exception to this general trend. Here, ‘dry’ season base
year. Highest temperatures are recorded late in the dry flows are maintained at relatively high levels by orographic
season. Thermal depth gradients are typically absent during rainfall on high peaks in catchment headwaters. There are a
the wet season but frequently develop during the dry. There greater number of river systems in Queensland than in any
is some diurnal variation in this gradient as surface waters other Australian State and run-off from these rivers
cool at night. However, even small temperature differences accounts for more than 45 percent of the total discharge
of 1–2°C may be sufficient for stratification to occur and this from all Australian rivers.
can cause deoxygenation of deeper waters. This happens in
many billabongs. Freshwater fish diversity is high in the region: at least 103
native species, representing 37 families, are known to occur
Dissolved oxygen levels are generally at their lowest levels in the area. These species account for approximately 45% of
at dawn after a night of steady oxygen consumption by the continent's freshwater fish species, 70% of the genera
respiration by the aquatic community and before any and 70% of the families. Species assemblages are quite
photosynthesis have occurred to produce more oxygen in consistent across catchments, with each river featuring
the water. Oxygen levels typically then begins to rise soon upstream reductions in species richness caused by the
after sunrise and reach maximum levels around mid presence of natural barriers to upstream fish movements.
afternoon.
There is not much data on the frequency with which total

oxygen depletion occurs by this process, but it has been
observed on a number of occasions. Whenever this occurs
many fish species can be seen gulping at the water surface
flushing their gills with the oxygenated surface film of water.
The effect of these short periods of anoxia on fish has not
been examined in detail. Fish can recover from short periods
of this stress but more frequent and prolonged periods may
have more harmful effects. Fish have been observed to jump
out of the water and strand themselves on fringing vegetation
in response to this oxygen depletion.
Australian tropical rivers region
Roper River (Northern Territory)

▲ O'Shannassy River (Queensland) ▼ Flinders River (Queensland)
Aquatic Habitat (Australia)
Quality of habitat depends on how well the available habitat Riverine habitats include open water areas over sandy or
meets organisms’ requirements for survival and reproduction. muddy bottom substrates. Aquatic vegetation fringes the
Different organisms have different requirements and tolerances margins and consists mainly of aquatic beds of floating
for such habitat characteristics as flow, substrate, temperature, leaved species and reeds. Mostly the vegetation is in a thin
water chemistry, food availability, shelter etc. Overall there is a band along the margins, with leaf litter accumulating below.
scarcity of aquatic habitats in Australia, particularly in the arid Water flow varies from permanent to seasonal and may dry
and semi-arid areas. back to non-flowing deeper holes during dry conditions.
Some only flow after heavy rains, which may be years
In contrast with most other countries, the area of saline apart. Oxygen levels decline during the dry season; pH is
wetlands in Australia far exceeds that occupied by fresh water. mostly neutral and specific conductivity is low. Water flow
Inland waters are often broadly referred to as ‘freshwater’ due is relatively slow except for short periods following wet
to a traditional distinction between marine aquatic environments season rainfall. Saltwater enters the lower reaches of coastal
and non-marine ones. However, in Australia, the relative riverine habitats and they generally have some tidal movement.
abundance of saline inland waters, up to and exceeding the
salinity of sea water, makes the term ‘freshwater’ inappropriate Tributary streams are mostly slow-flowing, and seasonal in
as a general descriptor of inland wetlands. Despite this, nature. They can be clear or turbid with fringing water
Australia has a variety of wetland habitats provided by areas plants such as waterlilies, emergent grasses, and sedges.
such as the Kakadu wetlands area in northern Australia and the Flowing water in the river channels provide few niches for
lower Cooper wetlands, including the Coongie Lakes, in the rainbowfishes to live in, while lagoons have a diverse range
centre. of areas for breeding and feeding. Substrates are mud or silt,
and there is an abundance of water plants growing to the
Many rivers in Australia are floodplain rivers, and during the surface around the margins. Sometimes they may have
wet season they break their banks to cover large areas of flat water plants growing in the deeper water in the middle.
country. Floodplains are important areas for rainbowfishes Rainforest streams are characterised by their clear water,
moving upstream or downstream and for feeding and usually high current, sparse aquatic plants, and almost
spawning. The floods covering floodplains in most areas are complete shade of the water by riparian forest.
short lived. Flow in the river channel may persist for a longer
period, but the period of extensive flooding rarely exceeds two Lagoon (billabong) habitats differ significantly from
to three weeks. However, this may occur several times in the riverine habitats. Billabongs are pools or lagoons left behind
course of a good wet season, but is dependent upon cyclones, in a river or in a branch of a river when the water flow
rain depressions and monsoonal development. The floodplain ceases. Billabongs are often formed when floodwaters
surrounding lowland rivers contains a mosaic of habitats. All recede, replenished only when the stream floods again.
are replenished, regularly or irregularly, by flooding. Such Flowing water in the river channels provide few niches for
waterbodies include intermittent lakes, billabongs (lagoons) rainbowfishes to live in, while lagoons have a diverse range
and various types of flood runners (deep channels that only of areas for breeding and feeding. Substrates are mud or silt,
have water in them during high floods), as well as backwaters, and there is an abundance of water plants growing to the
anabranches and creeks. Equally importantly, river floodplains surface around the margins. Sometimes they may have
also contain swamps, marshes and other intermittently wetted water plants growing in the deeper water in the middle.
areas, all of which play crucial roles in conserving river health. Lagoons are habitats for decomposition of organic matter
Indeed, the whole of a river floodplain can be considered a from terrestrial sources, often having a thick layer of leaf
single, but extremely diverse, wetland. litter around the margins. In the wet season they often turn
green, due to influx of nutrients in runoff water. A number
Extensive floodplains in the near-coastal lowlands adjacent of the smaller species of rainbowfishes and blue-eyes appear to
to some of the largest northern rivers form some of be dependent upon these specialised habitats for their survival.
Australia’s largest and most diverse wetlands. Examples Iriatherina werneri and Pseudomugil gertrudae are almost
include the Kakadu wetlands; in the wet season, 2,700 km2 exclusively found in vegetated lagoons.
of Kakadu may be inundated with floodwaters. Floodplains
on large rivers are large; when several rivers in the Gulf of Swamps can be broadly defined as areas featuring
Carpentaria merge in major floods they create a single, vast permanent or temporary shallow, open water. This includes
wetland of around 20,000 km2. virtually any land, which is regularly or intermittently
inundated. Swamps near river mouths are mostly slightly
While perhaps not important as habitat for some species, saline. Upstream swamps tend to be shallow and support
floodplain and temporary wetland habitats may be mainly emergent water plants. There may be standing water
important to rainbowfishes through the entrainment of in these swamps for most of the year. The ground storey
terrestrial organic matter into organic food webs thereby may contain insectivorous plants (Byblis and Utricularia
increasing the abundance of food for larval and juvenile spp.), ferns, grasses, and a variety of sedges.
fish.

▲ South Alligator River Floodplain (Northern Territory) ▼ Keatings Lagoon (Cooktown, Queensland)
Large stretches of dune field and coastal heathland swamps; Since riparian (stream-side) vegetation is out of the water for
lakes and streams are found dotted along the eastern most of the year its relationship to and importance for
Australian coast. Within southeast Queensland and northern rainbowfishes is not immediately obvious. However, this
NSW, these coastal lowlands are known as the “wallum”. vegetation plays a critical role in the health and vitality of
The word ‘wallum’ is an aboriginal word which was used to stream organisms by contributing to food supply, shade,
describe the small woody tree, Banksia aemula. Over time, protection from predators, shelter (from fast flowing water)
the use of the term has been extended to describe other plant and water quality. Terrestrial insects have been found to form
communities, which tend to be dominated by Banksia a large proportion (20–50%) of the diets of rainbowfishes.
aemula and other similar Banksia species. The coastal Riparian vegetation also plays an important role in the
lowlands are distributed across low lying undulating alluvial maintenance of daily and seasonal water temperatures.
plains (approximately 1 to 10 metres above sea level) found Research in tropical Australia streams has found that cleared
in behind coastal dune systems. Wallum habitat associated stream sites were 3–5°C warmer than nearby forested stream
with the perched lake systems of the Fraser Island–Cooloola sites and the daily fluctuation in temperature was three times
sand masses and those of Moreton and North Stradbroke greater.
Islands generally consists of extensive, dense reed beds in
shallow areas of the lakes and the fringing areas of the lake As well as providing food and habitat for rainbowfishes,
support stands of Melaleuca quiquenervia. riparian vegetation significantly influences the quality of water
in a stream or river system. It does this by filtering and/or
One of the most distinctive features of wallum is the tea-like absorbing nutrients, chemicals and sediments derived from
colour and low pH of the water bodies associated with this terrestrial sources. Vegetation on the banks of streams and
habitat. These habitats are generally acidic, have low rivers also helps to reduce or prevent bank erosion and hence
conductivity (dissolved ions), but vary in their pH levels, sedimentation, which smothers habitat, food sources and
dissolved organic matter, ionic composition, and colour. spawning sites.
Factors contributing to these variations are age, formation,
layers of low permeability and peats, proximity to the sea, The health of Australia’s fish communities has declined as the
surrounding vegetation, and the extent to which leaf litter rivers in which they live have deteriorated. In a government
accumulates and decays in the water. The creeks and commissioned report to identify the key threats to Australia’s
swamps contain dissolved organic acids (humic acids) which freshwater fisheries, Kearney et al., (1999) list the following:
give the waters their dark brown colour and low pH (2.8 to habitat degradation; pollution/water quality/water temperature;
6.8). The sandmass water bodies are usually well oxygenated reduced environmental flows; barriers to migration and
but highly oligotrophic (low nutrient levels due to the introduced species.
surrounding infertile sands) and of low biological
productivity. Rainbowfishes often found in these habitats include Rainbowfishes have a number of basic habitat requirements in
Iriatherina werneri, Melanotaenia maccullochi, Pseudomugil order to survive from day to day, to breed and to maintain long
gertrudae, Pseudomugil mellis and Rhadinocentrus ornatus. term populations. A change in any one of these factors can
reduce the ability of the population to survive in the longer
Major sedimentary basins where groundwater can be found term. A reduction in two or more factors will seriously threaten
extend under 60% of the Australian mainland. The Great the population. A feature of any pristine environment is the
Artesian Basin is the world’s largest and deepest artesian basin. huge variety of habitats that are available. Rainbowfishes will
It covers an area of 1,082,400 km2. Artesian springs are found not survive in bare, barren habitats. Cover is required to
in large numbers on the fringes of the Great Artesian Basin and provide protection from predators and to provide flow refuges
these springs are refuges for a variety of fish, invertebrates and to prevent downstream displacement. In some cases, deep
plants, some of which are dependent on the springs for their water provides adequate shelter, though more generally, rocks,
survival. The spring water emerges as seepages, as flowing logs, fallen branches, and aquatic and riparian vegetation
springs, or form pools of standing water. Depending on the rate provide the necessary cover. Without sites to deposit eggs and
of water flow, moderately large pools may form over the spring allow their fertilisation and development until hatching,
site, some feeding streams or tails several kilometres long. rainbowfish populations will not survive. Important breeding
Many species of fish appear to be restricted to particular groups sites include submerged aquatic and riparian vegetation.
of springs such as Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis, the redfin
blue eye, which is only found at Edgbaston Springs. Almost all rainbowfish species need to move within their
habitat to access food resources, escape predation or
Extensive areas of intertidal mangrove forests occur at the lower competition, access breeding sites, escape unfavourable
reaches of coastal topical rivers in Australia. These mangrove environmental conditions such as low or high water
forests are comparable in diversity to those of Southeast Asia, temperatures, and recolonise dry season habitats. Their habitat
which are acclaimed as being among the richest mangrove areas requirements are complex, and it is unlikely that they will
in the world. During the wet season, freshwater flowing into ever be fully understood. An adequate supply of suitable
these habitats dilutes the waters to nearly fresh. Water thus quality water is the most fundamental requirement. Without
varies from saline through brackish to fresh. Rainbowfishes are this, rainbowfishes will not survive for more than a few
seldom, if ever; found in these habitats, all live exclusively in minutes. Important water quality parameters include
fresh waters. However, they are the preferred environments for dissolved oxygen and temperature. Extreme levels of these
a number of Pseudomugil species. parameters can cause massive fish kills.

▲ Searys Creek (Queensland) ▼ Edgbaston Springs (Queensland)
▲ “pristine” Kimberley habitat (Western Australia) ▼ “modified” habitat (Queensland)
New Guinea
New Guinea, with a land area of approximately 876,800
km2, is located south of the equator in the south-western
Pacific, just north-east of Australia. The term New Guinea
refers to the entire island, consisting of both the Indonesian
province of (West) Papua and the independent nation of
Papuan New Guinea (PNG). The political boundary follows
the 141st meridian east of Greenwich (141°E). The border
does not actually run through 141°E all the way. From the
northern coast near Wutung, the border follows 141°E until
it reaches the Fly River, and then follows the river
southward until it reaches 141°01’E, and then along 141°
01’E until it reaches the southern coast near the mouth of
Bensbach River. To the north, a small section of the Sepik
River also lies to the west of 141°E between 4°S and 5°S.
Nevertheless, no such compromise has been made to the
borderline at the two points where the Sepik River crosses Puncak Jaya the highest point in New Guinea
141°E.
cooler (12°C at 3000 metres) conditions in the highlands.
The mainland of New Guinea and its associated archipelagos On the south coast of West Papua, the mountains rise up in
stretch across a distance of almost 3,000 km between the abrupt steep slopes from the alluvial plain. Here it takes less
equator and 12° south on the south-eastern rim of the than half an hour’s drive along the Freeport road to pass
Pacific Ocean. The climate is basically equatorial and it is from the tropical rainforest to the montane moss forest. Not
hot, wet and humid throughout most of the year. Rainfall is much further along the road, Alpine vegetation takes over,
heavy throughout the island but sharply seasonal in followed by glaciers. The distance from the glaciers to the
character, with a relatively dry period between June and Arafura Sea is but one hundred kilometres. No other region
August. New Guinea has a mountainous cordillera which on earth offers such fast ecological transition.
runs along its centre and here ridges rise to 4509 metres at
Mount Wilhelm the highest point in Papua New Guinea and New Guinea offers several major land forms, each with many
to 4884 metres at Puncak Jaya (formerly Carstensz Peak) different ecological zones for its biota. The southern plains and
the highest point in West Papua. These highland regions are lowlands stretch in various widths from the Arafura Sea to the
cooler and less humid but generally equally wet. Temperatures central mountain chain. Toward the centre of the island, this
vary along an altitudinal gradient, the hot (25–30°C) wet can be as much as 400 kilometres, narrowing to the east and
tropical climate of the coastal plains giving way to much west. Most of this lowland area is alluvial, made up or

Photos: Graham Weston
▲ Fly River (Middle Floodplain) ▼ Lake Murray (PNG)
eroded material from the mountains. Three quarters of the floodplain lakes, alpine streams and lakes, and large
country is covered by tropical rainforests and the remainder highland rivers. Both the northern coastal plain and the
consists of flat grassland, lowland floodplains and the interior highlands feature numerous lakes. The southern
world’s largest and most diverse mangrove area. While a costal plains have extensive and inaccessible swamps and
relatively small portion of south-central New Guinea can be mangrove forests. The central cordillera serves as the major
classified as savannah, most of the areas close to Australia divide causing all river systems to drain either northward or
are covered with tropical rainforest. Today, we find similar southward.
tropical rainforest in only two very small areas in the north-
east corner of Australia. New Guinea is drained by 6 major and numerous minor
river systems. Three of these, Mamberamo, Sepik, and
Biographically and geologically, New Guinea is physically Markham, flow northward. The remainder, Digoel, Fly, and
divided by an extensive mountain range that extends from Purari flow south into the Arafura Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria
the Vogelkop Peninsula to the Owen Stanley Ranges in the and Torres Strait. As a result of the high rainfall and rugged
south-east. The mountain range varies in width from some topography, most rivers in New Guinea have large flow
50 km to around 200 km. This mountain chain forms the volumes and high sediment loads, and are generally fast-
backbone of the island and divides the island into a northern flowing and turbulent. However, water levels in the main
and a southern zone. The mountains, rivers and valleys all rivers fluctuate dramatically through the year, creating a
act as biological barriers to the movement or migration of variety of aquatic habitats including swampy and flooded
plants and animals around the island. Indeed, geologically, forest, swampy grasslands, oxbows, and small lakes.
the island is extremely complex, comprised of many terrains
that have accreted. The biogeography of the island often Mangroves, brackish swamps, freshwater swamps and
reflects the independent evolutionary history of these different alluvial plains account for 7.5 percent of the total land area
terrains. The complexity of the province’s biogeography of the country. Lowland freshwater wetlands are a mosaic
contributes to its rich biodiversity. There are several areas that of open water, herbaceous swamp, swamp savannah, and
have particular potential as reservoirs of undiscovered woodland. Soft, slightly alkaline water chemistries
species. characterise the larger rivers and most lakes. Acidic
conditions are found in many small creeks flowing through
The mountainous topography, in combination with high swamps or intact forest along the coast.
rainfall, results in numerous drainage systems, and a large
array of freshwater habitats that include short coastal
streams, large lowland rivers, coastal swamps and
Sepik River (PNG)

Gary Lange
Lake Sentani
Gerald Allen divides New Guinea into several major the east lies the Australasian region. During the Pleistocene
ecosystems to better delineate the freshwater fish species in period some 10,000 years ago, sea-levels were much lower
each. Blackwater streams (so called because of their than at present. The Greater Sunda Islands were connected
colouration due to the tannins leached from decomposing by dry land to the Asian mainland, while New Guinea and
vegetation) commonly hold rainbowfishes, gudgeons and the Aru Islands were joined to Australia. Wallacea,
gobies. These rivers are generally richer in fish fauna than comprising the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusa Tenggara), the
the large muddy rivers. In the lowland rivers, with turbid Moluccas and Sulawesi, has had no recent land connection
waters and silty or muddy bottoms, the aquatic vegetation is to either continent. The islands of the Sahul shelf which
poor, and thus less fish life. The floodplain lakes, swamps include Waigeo, Batanta, Salawati and Misool to the west;
and backwaters cover huge areas with good quality water and Japen to the north in Cenderawasih Bay all had recent
rich in aquatic plants providing ample hiding places for intermittent land connections with mainland New Guinea.
juveniles. Common here are rainbowfishes, gudgeons and Those which lie off the Sahul shelf had no connections with
gobies and the ubiquitous catfishes. In the upland tributaries, New Guinea in the recent past.
with very clear water rapidly changing level and a general
lack of aquatic plants, we find rainbowfishes, hardyheads, Because of its mountainous terrain and consequent
gudgeons (especially the genera Oxyeleotris and Mogurnda), abundance of isolated freshwater drainage systems, New
and gobies. Guinea represents a particularly rich area for rainbowfishes.
More than 80% of the known species of rainbowfishes are
The Wallace Line (or Wallace’s Line) is a boundary that found in New Guinea, and no doubt more will be discovered
separates the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australasia. as a result of future systematic surveys.
West of the line are found organisms related to Asiatic
species; to the east, mostly organisms related to Australian The freshwater ichthyofauna can be clearly divided into two
species. The line is named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who biogeographical regions. Freshwater bodies to the south of
noticed the apparent dividing line during his travels through the central cordillera have an ichthyofauna closely allied
the East Indies in the 19th century. West of this line lies the with that of northern Australia, reflecting a former land
Indo-Malayan region, which includes the Greater Sunda connection. While several of those species with diadromous
Islands of Java, Borneo and Sumatra on the Sunda shelf; to habits can be found in both southern and northern rivers, the

fish permanently inhabiting freshwater in the north are Gerald Allen has added at least 80 new fish species to the
invariably different species from those in southern water scientific literature. This includes about 40 species of
bodies. Apart from the land barrier formed by the central rainbowfishes (including one new genus), 9 species of blue-
cordillera, northern rivers are much younger than southern eyes, 14 species of gudgeons, 9 species of gobies, plus
rivers. Of those fish families common to both northern and various species in other families.
southern rivers, species diversity is invariably lower in the
north. Only two species, Chilatherina campsi and Oxyeleotris Most recent research has involved Papua New Guinea, the
fimbriata have managed to ‘cross’ the central mountains as island’s eastern half. Comprehensive surveys have been
they are found both in northern as well as southern drainages. conducted for the Fly, Purari, Laloki, Kikori, Sepik, Ramu,
and Gogol rivers, as well as many other regions. As a result
Existing knowledge of the fishes of New Guinea have been of these investigations there now exists a fairly comprehensive
published in field guides and checklists, but more research knowledge of the fishes inhabiting the eastern half of the
remains to be done. Freshwater fishes of New Guinea were island. Unfortunately, the western half, the Indonesian
reviewed by Allen (1991), who listed 320 species, including province of West Papua, remains poorly studied. Our
some estuarine forms; subsequent collecting and research knowledge of the fishes of this vast area is still largely
have taken this count to around 360 of which approximately based on the now out-dated work of the early Dutch
46% are endemic. Of great concern is the observation that explorers. The Timika region and sections of the Mamberamo
this endemicity is matched by the numbers of exotic fish basin have been sampled, but most regions still remain
(17%), introduced since the 1970s. The Snakehead (Channa unsurveyed.
striata) and Climbing Perch (Anabas testudineus) are
particularly threatening to the native fish. Since the 1950’s, more than thirty species of freshwater fish
have been introduced into New Guinea waters. Not all of the
Since 1970 about 130 New Guinea freshwater fish species or introductions were successful however, but more can be
subspecies have been described or are awaiting description. expected, especially in the Indonesian province of (West)
New species have been found and described at rates as high Papua. Most of the introductions have had a negative impact,
as any in the history of New Guinea ichthyological either by competing for space and limited food resources, or
exploration. In general, the fish fauna of New Guinea is by feeding on natives species, including their eggs and fry.
closely related to that of northern Australia. Nearly all the
families, most genera, and numerous species are shared Several species including Oreochromis mossambica,
between these two areas. As in Australia, the most diverse Clarias batrachus, Cyprinus carpio, Channa striata, Tor
taxa in New Guinea are also Eleotrididae and Gobiidae, with putitora and Anabas testudineus appear to be undergoing
about 115 species, followed by Melanotaeniidae with about rapid population increases and therefore pose a serious
60 species. About 50 species from southern New Guinea also threat to native fishes. Oreochromis mossambica and
occur in northern Australia and are restricted to these two Cyprinus carpio have established self-recruiting populations
areas (Lundberg et al. 2000). in almost all the lakes and have subsequently become the
dominant species in their respective fisheries. Although the
There has been a pronounced renewal of interest in the invasive fish species already present in New Guinea appear
freshwater fauna during the past 30 years, in part due to the to be undergoing population expansions the specific impacts
development of an efficient air transport network, as well as of such species on aquatic organisms endemic to New
road construction in previously inaccessible districts. The Guinea have for the most part not been determined.
number of fish species found in New Guinea seems to
increase each time a qualified collector enters a new area.

Rainbowfishes
Collecting & Shipping
Photo: Jennifer Palmer

Collecting Rainbowfishes
While aquarium shops or fellow enthusiasts can offer a wide collecting from riverine locations. Later in the dry season fish
selection of rainbowfishes suitable for stocking your aquarium, diversity and abundance declines. There is also a peak in fish
if you live in the appropriate area, you may wish to collect your activity in the hour before sunrise and after sunset and some
own. Field collecting is an interesting, educational, and enjoyable species are likely to be missed if these times are not included.
activity for aquarists so long as a few simple but important rules
are followed. Collecting rainbowfishes from their natural Government regulations control the collection of certain
habitat is only the first step, the second, and perhaps the most aquatic animals and plant species with regulations varying
rewarding, is keeping and breeding them once they have been considerably from State to State. Be sure to check regulations
established in your own aquarium. with the local wildlife, fisheries, and/or natural resources
departments. In general, a permit will be required to undertake
Australia still has many pristine freshwater habitats where one the collection of rainbowfishes from their natural habitat. The
can find rainbowfishes. Visiting one of these unpolluted collecting permit will probably state the maximum number of
streams, collecting a new species for your aquarium, or just fish of any species per location that can be taken as well as the
studying the aquatic flora and fauna, I’m sure, is the dream of methods used to collect the fishes. In Queensland, most
every rainbowfish enthusiast. As well as major and minor rainbowfish species have a take and possession limit of 20.
rivers, the coastal plains are threaded by innumerable smaller
streams, lagoons and swamps. These areas contain different Collecting should always conform to an accepted standard
species of fish, crustaceans, plants and many other forms of of behaviour and guidelines:
aquatic life. Within each of these environments there are
different habitats that influence the fish species composition. Know State and Federal Government regulations.
There can also be large seasonal changes in the composition Federal and (or) State laws govern the collection of
and abundance of fish communities at different times of year. endangered or threatened species.
This raises the issue of deciding on when is the most Before removing animals or plants from their native
appropriate time to collect. It is advisable to schedule your habitat, prepare a suitable environment for them and be
collecting when fish abundance and diversity is known to be aware of their needs for survival.
highest. Avoid collecting at times when conditions are out of
the ordinary, like during drought or flood periods. Safety is also Do not collect any restricted, vulnerable, or endangered
important when collecting fishes from secluded areas, always species. Special care should be taken in areas where a
have a good quality first aid kit and wear suitable footwear threatened species of fish has previously been recorded
when collecting in water. or are predicted to occur.
Rainbowfishes have strong associations with certain habitats. Obtain the owner’s written permission to collect on
The major habitat features influencing rainbowfish distribution private property.
are temperature, water quality, depth, current and density of
aquatic vegetation. Therefore, the collecting should include a Collecting should always be conducted so as to leave
range of habitats present at a site. In deep pools of streams this the habitat as undisturbed as possible. Put rocks,
would include the deep open water zone and the margins, both driftwood, etc. back in the position in which they were
shallow and deep, with associated vegetation, woody debris found.
and rocky substrates. In flowing streams shallow riffles and
runs should be sampled as some species aggregate in the faster Never take more than you need and do not take all
currents present in these areas. In lagoons both the open water specimens at a site; always leave the majority of the
zone and densely vegetated littoral zone should be sampled. fauna and flora undisturbed.
These habitat features also affect the performance of different
collecting equipment and methods. Consequently, different
Try to keep the handling of the fish to a minimum to
habitats may require collecting by different methods.
reduce the potential for stress and to increase the
survival chances of unwanted specimens released back
Many northern rivers and wetlands in Australia are dry for a
into the water.
large part of the year and need to be visited at an appropriate
stage of the wet season when (a) water and fish are present and
Release unwanted organisms at the collection site (only
(b) it is possible to obtain access. Access to riverine sites is very
release organisms into an area from which they
difficult during the wet season due to high flow rates and risk of
originated).
flooding that can make collecting difficult. Consequently, the end
of the wet season is when access becomes possible and
declining water levels make collecting easier. Fortunately this Treat all animals, collected in a humane and ethical
is when fish diversity is highest in lowland river habitats manner.
making the late-wet or early-dry season the optimal time for

“Sometimes you may have to cross rivers!”
“Sometimes you just don’t quite make it”

“Sometimes you can get beached!”
“Sometimes you have time to just hang around!”

“Sometimes you can get lost!”
“Sometimes you can get very lonely!”

“But it is all worth while in the end!”
Equipment in and minimise their escape. Catch is dependent on mesh

The type of collecting equipment you decide to use will size but is also biased towards slower fish that are less able
depend largely on the type of habitats you are surveying and to avoid the net. Seine nets are good in habitats that are
your target species. Different equipment is effective under relatively shallow yet open water about one to two metres
different conditions. For example, when collecting in deep and along the edge of emergent vegetation. Small
vegetated or non-vegetated areas, you may need to use mesh seine nets can be used to collect rainbowfishes and
different types of equipment. I have a homemade net that other small bodied fish that are more abundant in shallow
consists of a rectangular stainless steel frame about 75 x 45 and bank edge habitats. Seine nets of varying lengths can
cm to which some soft plastic insect screen has been affixed. also be pulled through the water with two or more people or
To complete the set-up, a long broom handle is attached to smaller pole seines can be pushed through the water by one
the frame. It can be used either as a long-handled dip net or person. This technique is ineffective in areas densely
without the broom handle in the same manner as a hand-held covered in submerged plants and logs and can be difficult if
scoop net. However, the following collecting equipment can used in habitats with extremely soft sediments.
be used individually or in combination to ensure that a wide
range of species can be collected, even though conditions Dip/Scoop Nets
may prevent you from using some types of equipment. The simplest of all nets, the dip net is also the most versatile,
with shapes and sizes that allow use in capturing a wide variety
Seine Nets of species. Dip or scoop netting is a useful technique in areas
Seine nets are lengths of netting weighted at the bottom and where water is shallow and or contains vegetation, thus making
supported by floats at the top which is set to enclose an area it too difficult to apply other trapping methods. These can be
and then dragged to the shore. Scientific researches rely used to net through submerged vegetation, under and near the
heavily on this type of seine in certain freshwater and coastal banks of rivers and streams. Using a mesh size of 5 to 10 mm
environments, and have learned that disturbing the bottom in allows the net to be dipped into and dragged through the water
the path of the seine (by shuffling their feet) or adding a weight rapidly, increasing the chances of catching fish. Long-handled
to the lead line may increase the size and diversity of the catch, dip nets may be used from the bank, eliminating the need to
especially in streams with rocky bottoms. On larger nets there enter the water.
is often a deep pocket built into the centre for fish to collect

Photos: Greg Ure
▲ ▼Collecting Activities
Bait (Shrimp) Traps significantly. The higher the water temperature the faster the
Small bait traps (40 cm x 20 cm x 20 cm, 3 mm mesh) can be metabolic rate and oxygen requirements of the fish contained.
highly selective and variable in effectiveness. These work well At the same time the water’s oxygen content will decrease as
for many rainbowfish species. They are very good in shallow the temperature rises causing increased stress levels. Therefore,
littoral habitats. Bait traps may be set in areas difficult to holding them at a cooler temperature will often mean the
sample by other methods and can be left while other tasks are difference between partial losses and the total loss of
performed or overnight. Bait the traps with dry dog or cat food specimens. Fish can be held temporarily in insulated coolers or
and then situate them among overhanging vegetation or similar containers with aeration and (or) frequently changing
amongst submerged logs and vegetation. Baited traps can be the water.
set individually, or in a group attached to a set line. Ensure that
you flag their location adequately so they can be found easily Accidental death of fish can occur during the collecting
later. Nearly any container can be baited and used as a trap. process. If this occurs, you could preserve some of the
Low numbers of fish are caught in bait traps compared to other specimens to increase museum records on fish distribution. The
techniques. Traps need not be baited to successfully capture preferred way of preserving fish involves storing them in 70%
fish; sometimes fish enter unbaited traps out of curiosity, for ethanol or 50% isopropanol for processing later. If you have
companionship (schooling behaviour), or to eat smaller difficulty in obtaining ethanol, preservation in an 80:20
organisms already in the trap. Often unbaited traps catch just as methylated spirits to water mix preserves the fish adequately. If
many fish. you find new species it is extremely important to get
confirmation on their identification. It is also important to
Cast Nets check your identifications for accuracy by preserving
Cast nets are circular nets that are heavily weighted along the specimens or keeping photographs of the fish you catch. Most
perimeter and thrown over fish from shore or boats. The Australian museums can identify specimens if you can provide
retrieval mechanism pulls the weights into the centre of the net, a well preserved sample.
trapping the enclosed fish. Cast nets are usually fished by a
single individual, and typically require practice by the user to Good collecting practice always involves the use of detailed
make the net take on a flat or umbrella shape when cast. field notes. Specific information about seemingly unimportant
Floating patches of vegetation may harbour fishes that can be facts such as the time of day or weather conditions is often
collected by covering the vegetation with a circular net, and important when interpreting data. Take along some test kits to
then sorting through the plant matter or shaking it. test the water parameters and a camera to record the collecting
site and those wonderful memories. Recording of habitat
parameters such as temperature, pH, etc., and collecting
Collecting Procedure method is also advisable for later analysis, especially where
I have found the best way to catch rainbowfishes is with the comparison of different sites is involved. Record this
scoop net technique and bait traps. Choose a spot and go information on a habitat survey datasheet.
downstream a few metres. Open, reasonably shallow water is
best for collecting. Manipulating a net through areas with rocky A small glass tank comes in handy also, to be used as an
substrate, abundant aquatic plants or sunken tree branches etc. observation or photographic tank. Specimens can be placed in
requires practise and patience. These areas are more suitable the tank to check for skin damage or disease, and to make
for the placement of the bait traps. Wade out and position the identification and photography easier. Colour photographs of
scoop net with the bottom edge slightly ahead of you. As you each species collected should be taken and documented. Any
move forward the net will trap whatever is in its path. Move fish that is unable to be identified, or of any diseased or
forward walking upstream from deeper to shallower water. parasitised fish should also be photographed. Photographic
When you can see some fish caught in the net, carefully lift the documentation of fish specimens can be an important means of
scoop net while keeping the fish submerged. Move to where validating field identifications. Each photograph should include
you have stored the holding containers, and then transfer the an object of scale, such as a ruler, to indicate the relative size of
fish from the net. Use a small plastic bowl for this purpose and the fish. Collectors also are encouraged to take photographs of
avoid handling the fish by hand if possible. the collecting sites. Photographs of habitats have the benefit of
documenting localised conditions.
Try to keep the handling of the fish to a minimum to reduce the
potential for stress and to increase their chances of survival. Record the dominant emergent and submergent aquatic plant
The use of surgical gloves may enable better handling of active species, and an approximate percentage of their coverage of the
fish, help prevent injury to the fish during collection, and habitat’s surface area. Identify plants to the genus level or to
reduce loss of protective mucus, thereby minimising the species level if possible. If required, a representative specimen
likelihood of bacterial or other infections in fish following their of all unidentifiable plant species may be collected and
capture. If heat and/or accumulated wastes diminish the water submitted to a herbarium. Do not leave them out in the sun
quality in the holding containers, partial or complete water even briefly as they will wither very quickly and become
changes can be made by using clean water from the habitat, or useless as specimens. Generally, the whole plant should be
if necessary, water from a different habitat. Common sense collected. Some groups cannot be identified to species without
should be used such as shading the holding containers from the mature fruits or flowers. Emergent plants should not be
sun. If you are collecting in the summer time and its very hot submerged, but kept in a bag with a little water in the bottom to
weather, the temperature in the holding containers can rise maintain high humidity. It is best to keep each species in its
own bag.

Field Photography
Cast Netting
Transporting Home water for the bags should be collected in buckets before anyone
Netting rainbowfishes from their natural habitat and enters the stream and stirs up any sediment. The buckets are
transporting them home often causes them considerable placed aside in a shady position until the fishes are ready to be
stress. The effects will vary from species to species and from bagged. If you have a battery operated air pump to provide
fish to fish. The intensity of the stress created will determine aeration, then all the better, although it is not usually
whether the fish lives, dies immediately, or dies later. The necessary.
most common cause of death among newly caught specimens
is over-crowding in the holding or transport containers. The arrival of the fish at home can be the most critical stage of
Collect only a small number for your own requirements and the collecting process. The rainbowfishes will be under some
you will have a much better chance of success. degree of stress and sudden exposure to water of differing
characteristics can further stress the fish, often beyond what
Fish are coated with a protective layer of slimy mucous that they can stand. Draining two thirds of the water from the
protects them from infection, certain parasites and the effects of aquarium and refilling it with the water that you bought home
water. Any handling of the fish removes this mucilaginous can ease the harmful effects of differing water conditions.
layer and when the animal is returned to water it suffers Carefully place the fish into their new aquarium, which
“waterburn”, which is similar to sunburn that humans incidentally, should be a quarantine tank. All wild-caught
experience. Without their protective mucilaginous layer, the rainbowfishes should be quarantined for at least three weeks.
fish are prone to infection and disease. Further, minor scratches As you do your normal water change routine on the quarantine
and wounds as a result of the fish thrashing about when tank, you will slowly replace the stream water with your local
collected may take longer to heal and may be predisposed to tap supply. This makes it easier for the newly captured fish to
infection. adapt.
The effects of handling can be reduced by the addition of The vast majority of problems with wild-caught rainbowfishes
sodium chloride (salt) to the transport water. Salt will often having settled into an aquarium can be traced directly or
reduce the effects of stress, osmotic imbalance, and surface indirectly to poor aquarium management. Good aquarium
damage. Bacterial and parasitic infection can also be reduced management is keeping the tank conditions relatively constant.
by the addition of ordinary salt. The higher the water Many well-meaning hobbyists in their quest to duplicate the
temperature, the more salt is required, and a salt concentration water conditions of the fish's natural habitat fiddle about with
of 7 grams/litre has been used with success at temperatures of various chemicals and compounds trying to maintain pH and
25°C. A salt concentration of 3 grams/litre was found to be hardness levels. Duplicating the water conditions under which
sufficient at lower temperatures of 10°C while 5 grams/litre the specimens were collected may seem ideal, but this often
can be used at intermediate temperature levels. Commercial causes more problems than it solves.
salt (about 98% NaCl), cooking salt or ordinary table salt can
be used for this purpose.
Consistent Biological Nomenclature
Methylene blue and salt can also be used to prevent the Biological nomenclature used to document fish species collected
proliferation of bacteria during fish transport. Research has should follow the “Australian Fish Names Standards” (AS SSA
shown that both methylene blue and sodium chloride were 5300–2007), or the “Codes for Australian Aquatic Biota” of
effective in reducing bacterial load during transport of fish. common and scientific names published by the CSIRO Marine
Methylene blue is a redox dye which raises the oxygen and Atmospheric Research Committee. Use of the standardised
consumption of cells. This means that the hydrogen to be list of common and scientific names is critical to maintaining
oxidised is passed on to the oxygen. Each molecule of the consistency and uniformity across Australia. New fish species
dye is oxidised and reduced about 100 times per seconds. are occasionally discovered, and systematic studies frequently
Thus, while disinfection results from this, methylene blue is lead to changes in fish taxonomy and nomenclature. Thus, the
also excellent against methaemoglobin intoxication most recent edition should be used. Codes for Australian
(methemoglobinemia) during transport. Dosages rates of 2 g/ Aquatic Biota - is a continuously maintained and expanding 8-
L sodium chloride and 1 mg/L methylene blue are generally digit coding system for aquatic organisms in the Australian region
recommended, while 1 g/L sodium chloride and 3 mg/L maintained by CSIRO Division of Marine and Atmospheric
methylene blue have also been used. Research. Initially developed to cover fishes and selected other
organisms of research or commercial interest, it has more
While out collecting, try to collect some natural water from the recently been expanded to provide more comprehensive
site to take home. 20 litre buckets with tight fitting lids are coverage of a number of aquatic groups, as information is
perfect for transporting water. The reason for doing this is to available.
provide similar water conditions for the fish when you return
home. Try to collect about two-thirds the capacity of the
aquarium in which they will be housed on arrival at home.
By far the best method for transporting rainbowfishes home is

polyethylene bags packed in styrofoam boxes. With the lid in
place, there will be little temperature change to worry about,
and the fish will remain restful in the darkness. Clear, clean

Shipping Rainbowfishes
Shipping live fishes is another feature of the rainbowfish The fish can be bagged singly or in small groups, depending on
hobby, with enthusiasts exchanging fishes with each other. the species and the relative sizes of the specimens. The bags
The system used for packaging rainbowfishes for air can contain trapped atmospheric air or you can use bottled
transport is a closed one in which all factors to meet the oxygen - with just enough water to completely cover the fish. If
requirements of the fish for survival are self-sustained. properly packaged, rainbowfishes can be expected to survive
Rainbowfishes are usually transported in sealed plastic bags for at least 48 hours in the shipping box. Common packing
containing small quantities of water and pure oxygen. densities used in the commercial shipping of rainbowfishes and
Excess air is removed from the bag and replaced with pure based on a single seven-litre capacity size bag is 150 individuals at
oxygen. The bag is sealed, placed in an insulated container 25 mm size, 100 at 50 mm, and 50 at 65 mm. After packing, the
and finally into a cardboard shipping box and shipped. bags with fish are placed in an expanded polystyrene foam box,
usually four to eight bags to a box, to provide thermal
During the 1920-30s fish shipments were in old-fashioned flat insulation to prevent sudden changes in temperature of the
“German” cans, with a small neck and very wide body to give transport water, especially when the consignments are in the
maximum air surface. Other shipping containers used in the cargo hold of aircraft during air transport.
1920-30s were merely a straight-sided metal pail with a tight
fitting lid that was packed into a wooden shipping box. The The health of the fish can be affected by changes in water
wooden shipping box was lined with cane fibre-board for quality parameters while in the plastic bags during the shipping
insulation and the metal container was packed inside it in process. The parameters to be considered are temperature,
sawdust. As sea voyages were long and no oxygen was used, dissolved oxygen, pH, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and the salt
the fish generally arrived in poor condition. However, some balance of the fishes’ blood. The rate of change of each
survived the journey and were bred by experienced hobbyists. parameter is affected by the weight and size of fish to be
transported and the duration of transport. In order to implement
The aquarium hobby didn’t really recover until the 1950’s a successful shipment you must first have an understanding of
when shipment with plastic polyethylene bags and oxygen, in what changes will take place, chemically and physically, inside
insulated containers was developed. This, together with faster the shipping bag during the transport period.
air travel, which allowed a much wider variety of fish to be
successfully imported from distant regions of the world, The most important single factor in transporting rainbowfishes
consequently attracted new hobbyists and enabled the is the provision of adequate concentrations of dissolved
aquarium hobby to flourish. The polyethylene-bag transport oxygen. The importance of supplying adequate levels of
system had greatly reduced the shipping weight of aquarium dissolved oxygen cannot be over emphasised. Failure to do so
fish consignments, and made them a feasible option for air results in severe stress, which may cause the fish to die two or
transport. Nevertheless, the freight cost of fish consignments is three days after transport. The amount of oxygen that can be
still a major cost of the aquarium hobby. For consignments dissolved in fresh water is based primarily on water
from Asia to Europe and the USA, shipping cost is often more temperature. The water is referred to as 100% saturated when
than the fish in the consignment. the upper saturation level is reached.
The key limiting factor for the live-fish transport system is the The volume of pure oxygen supplied to the transport bag by
deterioration of the water quality due to accumulation of metabolic commercial operators used to be up to six times the volume of
wastes. However, a variety of techniques have been developed to transport water, but it has now been reduced to three to four
manage the quality of water during transport. These include times the volume of water. Even at these reduced volumes,
starving fish before packaging, lowering the temperature of dissolved oxygen content is never a limiting factor. Several fish
transport water, addition of anaesthetics, ion exchange resin, packaging experiments have recorded over-saturated oxygen
buffers or drugs in the transport water. content of above 10 mg/L (@ 25°C, 100% saturation = 8.26
mg/L) after 24–48 hours shipment, even then there were high
Airfreight shipments have to comply with the IATA Live fish mortalities of up to 20%.
Animal Regulations. The outer container should be made of
sturdy expanded polystyrene or Styrofoam with an inner Dissolved oxygen saturation is higher for cool water than for
plastic liner. Shipping boxes used must be an approved warm water. If pure oxygen is used during bag transport, then
type. Care must be taken to ensure no sharp edge punctures low oxygen levels usually should not be a problem unless the
the inner plastic bags that can expand from changes in bag is improperly sealed or develops holes caused by the
altitude. The inner bags should be plastic (polyethylene) and spines of large fish. Nevertheless, it is important to have a 75
fastened by twisting the top and folding the twisted part so percent volume of oxygen in the bag to insure adequate
that it can be sealed with elastic bands. Each bag is then diffusion of oxygen at the surface of the water.
doubled bagged with a similar size bag to prevent leakage
of water. Bags may be double or triple layered, with Once a bag has water, fish and oxygen sealed inside it, certain
newspaper between the layers to prevent punctures and chemical changes take place due to the metabolism of the fish.
leakage from fish spines. When fish breathe, they absorb oxygen and excrete other gases

and metabolites, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen Each molecule of the dye is oxidised and reduced about 100
in the form of ammonia. Total ammonia nitrogen consists of times per seconds. Thus, while disinfection results from this,
two forms that exist in a pH and temperature dependent methylene blue is also excellent against methaemoglobin
equilibrium of unionised ammonia (NH3) and the ammonium intoxication (methemoglobinemia) during transport. Dosages
ion (NH4+). The unionised form (NH3) is toxic to fish while the rates of 2 g/L sodium chloride and 1 mg/L methylene blue are
ammonium ion (NH4+) is relatively non-toxic to fish. It can, generally recommended, while 1 g/L sodium chloride and 3
however, in high concentrations, produce external burns that mg/L methylene blue have also been used.
are identical to acid burns. This is often seen when fish are
crowded in shipping bags. On receipt of the fish the plastic bags containing the fish should
not be floated in the aquarium despite popular belief.
The proportion of NH4+ to NH3 increases with decreasing pH Polyethylene bags do not allow the transfer of liquid-to-liquid
and decreases with increasing pH. The percentage of NH3 also or air-to-air. Apart from temperature, a plastic bag floating in
rises with increasing temperatures - so conditions with both the aquarium does not allow the fish to become adjusted to the
relatively high pH and elevated temperature are especially water conditions of the aquarium. When the fish are released
dangerous. Since NH3 cannot be measured directly, several from the bag, they will still be subjected to the stress of
tables have been created based on an equilibrium formula that differing water conditions.
predicts the relative percentages of unionised ammonia at
different temperatures and pH. Total ammonia concentrations The best way to reduce the harmful effects of differing water
may reach more than 14 ppm during transport. However, the conditions is to empty the contents of the bag into a clean
easiest way to reduce toxic ammonia build-up in transport bucket or other suitable container especially kept for aquarium
water is to lower the temperature of the transport water and to use. Then, add small amounts of water, at intervals of 5
stop feeding 48 to 96 hours prior to shipment. minutes, from the aquarium into which the fish will be placed,
into the bucket or container until a 50-50 water ratio is
As the fish respire they produce carbon dioxide as a by- achieved. Place the fish into the aquarium and dispose of the
product. Carbon dioxide reacts with water reducing the pH. If water in the container. Do not add the container water into your
the alkalinity of the transport water is less than 100 ppm, some aquarium.
type of buffering compound should be added to the water.
Properly buffered water will help remove free carbon dioxide, For anyone contemplating sending or taking live rainbowfishes
which causes drops in pH. High levels of carbon dioxide (or eggs) out of Australia please note that the export of all
(greater than 20 ppm) will interfere with the oxygen uptake in native fishes requires a permit from the wildlife protection
the fishes’ blood. Cation exchange resins such as clinoptilolite, authorities. Approvals to export live rainbowfishes may be
a natural zeolite, is commonly used to remove ammonia from given where the fish were produced lawfully in an aquaculture
the transport water. The resins have the ability to absorb facility operating in accordance with the relevant State
ammonia by selective ion exchange. They are either wrapped Fisheries Acts and subordinate legislation, or taken under an
in a net bag or added directly into the transport water at 15–20 approved collecting permit. To export captive bred fish, a copy
g/L of water. They do not however, control the accumulation of a State aquaculture permit indicating the species held in
of carbon dioxide in the transport water. captivity will need to be provided with the application to
export. The relevant authorities of the States and Territories
Osmoregulatory dysfunction is common in fish that are control the collection of rainbowfishes from the wild and
exposed to transport stress, and the addition of salt to transport permission will only be granted where the taking of the species
water is effective in reducing the osmoregulatory dysfunction from the wild is not detrimental to the survival of that species
and other physiological responses to stress, resulting in reduced or its habitat.
fish mortality. Freshwater fish have a blood salt concentration
higher than the salts of the transport water. Therefore, the fish The export of native fishes from Australia is controlled by the
are continually losing salts to the surrounding water. Commercial Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act
exporters commonly use coarse salt containing 95–98% and Regulations. Controls under this Act apply to museums,
sodium chloride to reduce the effects of stress on the fish. It zoos, scientific institutions, commercial organisations, tourists,
is added directly to transport water at 0.5–3.0%, and the and the general public. This Act regulates the importation and
concentration used varies with species and exporters. exportation of most live animals and plants. These controls are
in addition to those exercised under the Quarantine Act.
Bacterial growth is another major source of metabolic wastes.
Bacteria not only increase the ammonia load and compete with All aquatic species exported from Australia also are required to
fish for oxygen in the transport water, but also weaken or cause meet the importing country health requirements. An export
diseases. Drugs such as antibiotics, methylene blue and permit and a health certificate must be prepared by the
acriflavine are commonly added to the transport water to Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) prior to
control bacterial growth. Methylene blue and salt can also be export. If there are no importing country health requirements
used to prevent the proliferation of bacteria during fish then no export permit or health certificate is required and AQIS
transport. Research has shown that both methylene blue and is not involved in the export. The receiving countries set the
sodium chloride were effective in reducing bacterial load requirements for imports and in Australia this function is
during transport of fish. Methylene blue is a redox dye which managed by AQIS. However, always check with the relevant
raises the oxygen consumption of cells. This means that the authorities, as these rules and regulations are subject to change.
hydrogen to be oxidised is passed on to the oxygen.

Rainbowfishes
Keeping & Caring
Photo: Hans Booij

Keeping & Caring
Keeping and caring for rainbowfishes in captivity is relatively When choosing an aquarium the largest size one can afford
simple as far as general aquarium conditions are concerned - is usually recommended. However, any size aquarium can
they are one of the easiest fishes to maintain. Nevertheless, be successfully maintained, although aquariums smaller
rainbowfishes do have a number of basic requirements in order than 55 litres are not worth considering. The problem with
to survive from day to day, to breed and to maintain populations small aquariums is that the environment can degrade so
over the longer term. They require suitable habitat, proper rapidly that the hobbyist is unable to solve the problem in
nutrition, and a stress-free existence if they are to grow and time to save the inhabitants. The small 55-litre aquarium is
remain healthy. often the most popular size with beginning hobbyists
because of its moderately low price. However, problems
If you want to be successful at keeping rainbowfishes then you start when they assume that this size aquarium can do more
must make an effort to learn some basic aquarium principles to than is realistically possible.
maintain and care for them. More than a few fishkeepers have
watched the inhabitants of an unhealthy aquarium die because Rainbowfishes are mid-water to surface swimming fish and
they had failed to learn the basics. If you do not have time to require sufficient space to swim. They are also highly social
learn the basics, then I suggest that you seriously reconsider the and form schools for most of the time. It is obvious,
idea of keeping rainbowfishes in captivity. Practical experience therefore, that the shape of the aquarium in which
can only be gained through time and exposure to the aquarium rainbowfishes are kept is of great importance to them. In a
environment. It’s a combination of learning aquarium disciplines small aquarium, they will feel stressed, resulting in health
and experience that will make you a successful aquarist. The actual problems. The actual surface area of an aquarium is more
learning that is required is relatively easy and the rewards so much important than depth. The depth of the aquarium is of no
greater. importance, except that it should never be so shallow nor so
deep that the aquatic plants fail to grow properly.
In order to design more natural aquarium environments it is
essential to have a broad understanding of the biology and An aquarium depth for rainbowfishes may be anything from
ecology of the fish species in question and especially the 30 cm to 60 cm, in proportion to its superficies. Aquarium
environment that the species inhabits. A feature of any pristine width should be at least 45 cm, particularly for the larger
environment is the huge variety of habitats that are available. species. Rainbowfishes can jump, and it is therefore important
Few species of rainbowfishes flourish in bare, barren habitats. to keep the aquarium covered at all times. Covers should be
Habitat is provided by rocks, logs, fallen branches, aquatic and made of clear plastic or glass and fit tightly because
riparian vegetation. However, many aquarium environments are rainbowfishes can escape through even relatively small slits.
completely devoid of structure. They are usually featureless, It is advisable to use extra strong tape to secure one end of
monotonic enclosure with no opportunity for the inhabitants to the lid to the aquarium.
display any natural behaviour. They bear no resemblance
whatsoever to the fish’s natural environment and densities can
be up to 100 times greater than those in nature. Reductions in Lighting
density alone seem to have mixed results but it appears that Adequate lighting should be installed above the aquarium
intermediate densities will produce better quality fish. and is best kept on a 14-hour light – 10-hour dark cycle,
using appropriate timers. Although rainbowfishes will also
Simple measures like increasing filter performance, providing do well in dim light, proper illumination of the room is
dark backgrounds, natural substrate material, submerged generally desirable. Light (excessive or rapid changes in
structures, such as driftwood, and floating plant cover could intensity) should be minimised. Rainbowfishes will often
improve the aquarium environment. This also leads to lower dash frantically about the aquarium injuring themselves in
levels of aggression, better health and improved growth rates. response to normally harmless stimuli such as turning on
Aquarium-reared rainbowfishes that spend some time in outside the fishtank light in a dark room. Red-light lamps can be
ponds improves growth, colour and survival rates substantially. installed in fishrooms that will allow hobbyists to perform
In the pond environment the fish are not only exposed to natural tasks at night time while the fish are ‘sleeping’.
temperature and light fluctuations, they also have access to a
range of naturally occurring live foods.
Water Quality
Successful set-ups can range from a standard 55-litre aquarium The all-important factor in successfully maintaining rainbowfishes
with a modest box filter costing very little, to a huge 650-litre in captivity is water quality. Without this, rainbowfishes will
aquarium with elaborate trickle filtration, carbon dioxide not survive for more than a few minutes. Water quality is
injection and computer operated lighting systems. Some important to rainbowfishes as air quality is to you and me.
hobbyists believe that the more expensive the life support Every particle of waste matter in the aquarium will affect
system is, the better their success will be. However, all the health of your rainbowfishes, and determines not only
aquariums despite how simple or how specialised, share the how well they will live and grow, but also whether or not
same principles for maintaining rainbowfishes successfully. they survive.

Some water quality factors are more important such as nitrogenous It is worthwhile to note here that domestic water supplies often
waste levels, dissolved oxygen, pH and temperature. Others, such change in character, and must be tested regularly from time to
as alkalinity, hardness, and clarity have some affect, but usually time for contaminants, changes in pH values, etc., using
are not significant. Each water quality factor interacts with and aquarium test kits. It is not uncommon for the level of
influences other parameters, sometimes in complex ways. chloramines in municipal supplies to change drastically, for
What may be harmful and cause mortalities in one situation example, due to some local problem and during that period
can be harmless in another. Regular testing of your aquarium additional conditioner has to be used. Private water supplies
water and your water source is important and it should allow are not consistent in their output either, and should be checked
you to detect and correct problems before your fish are on a regular basis.
adversely affected. Therefore, knowledge of water testing
procedures and interpretation of the results are important for Many hobbyists fiddle about with various chemicals or
the successful maintenance of rainbowfishes in captivity. compounds trying to maintain what they regard as natural water
conditions, but this often causes more problems than it solves.
The first consideration is the availability of a good quality Duplicating the natural water conditions under which
water supply to fill the aquarium. Surface water from a natural rainbowfishes are found in the wild may seem ideal. However,
stream or pond is not recommended as it may contain creating natural water conditions in an aquarium is almost
contaminants, diseases, pests or parasites, any of which may impossible. The natural environment of rainbowfishes is vastly
harm the aquarium’s ecosystem. Rainwater drawn from a well- different from that of an aquarium. Most rainbowfishes live in
established water-tank can be used. However, rainwater is not the tropical and sub-tropical climates of Australia and New
pure water because it has gases and a range of other particles Guinea. They occupy virtually every type of freshwater
from the atmosphere dissolved in it, which may include carbon ecosystem, from slow-flowing, acidic, tannin-stained water in
dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, dust, coastal swamps and streams to fast flowing clear-water
pollens, bacteria and numerous other compounds. This mountain rainforest streams; riverine habitats and their
difference varies with location and proximity to oceans, tributaries; lagoons, billabongs and the waterholes of arid desert
industry, cities and other contributors. Using rainwater in the country. Intermittent streams that are subjected to seasonal or
aquarium can have a number of benefits by providing a much frequent drying are also a common feature in Australian inland
more natural source of water for your rainbowfishes. waters. As drying proceeds, decreases in water volume
Nevertheless, rainwater should not be used exclusively. concentrate the aquatic life into a reduced area. These isolated
Rainwater contains none of the essential trace elements that pools tend to experience physicochemical extremes in the form
fish need, and also have no buffering capacity to stabilise the of elevated temperatures, fluctuating pH levels and low
pH. It can however, be mixed with a certain percentage of dissolved oxygen.
tapwater. It is possible to produce various water conditions in
this manner such as lowering the water hardness or pH of your The chemistry of natural waters inhabited by rainbowfishes
normal tapwater. If the changes are within the parameters that depends on the equilibrium reached with the normal physical,
the fish can adjust to, then suitable conditions can usually be chemical and biological characteristics of the surrounding
established. environment. Water that flows over granite rock will tend to
remain soft, low in calcium and bicarbonate. Water flowing
The most common source for water is reticulated (town) water. over limestone will become alkaline with hardness depending
The domestic water supply of most cities and towns if suitable on the amount of dissolved calcium and bicarbonate that it
for human consumption will generally be suitable for use in the contains. Water with a low pH (<5.0) will dissolve naturally
aquarium. Therefore, most hobbyists will fill their aquarium occurring minerals from the soils and rocks. To some extent
with city water drawn from the household tap. Nonetheless, the water quality will depend on the type of vegetation
municipal water supplies are typically treated with chlorine covering the watershed, since the products of plant decay will
compounds to control bacteria and make it suitable for find their way into the streams draining the area. Such waters
drinking. If used for fish keeping, then these compounds must may be clear, or brown with varying amounts of dissolved
be removed or neutralised with chemicals designed for that humic substances. Water draining these areas will be acidic,
purpose. One week of continuous aeration will dechlorinate and can be extremely so with sudden rainfall after a prolonged
most town water supplies if the chlorine source is liquid or dry period, leading ultimately to ‘blackwater events’.
gaseous chlorine. However, many municipal water supply Documented fish kills from blackwater events are common
authorities have switched from using chlorine to chloramine. throughout Australian inland rivers and streams, particularly
Chloramine is a compound formed by mixing ammonia and during extended periods of inundation and prolonged periods
chlorine in water. of low flow. Therefore, the quality of natural water is never
constant; it is constantly changing in response to daily,
Chloramine is very stable and can not be easily driven off, even seasonal and climatic rhythms.
by heavy aeration. Chloramine is very toxic and high levels can
cause all rainbowfishes to die within 24 hours. The actual Mention should be made here of the diurnal and seasonal
toxicity will depend on the individual fish, water temperature, fluctuations of temperature. Changes in water depth and flow rates
and dissolved organic levels in the aquarium water. Most can affect the rates of diurnal warming and cooling. These physical
rainbowfishes will exhibit serious signs of stress or die at levels changes as such, have little effect on the chemical quality of the
above 0.01 mg/L. Some species are particularly sensitive and water. However, they can affect the natural biological community
will die with even the slightest amount in their water. that can live in equilibrium with the particular chemical and
physical characteristics of that environment.

The natural environment of rainbowfishes is complex, and it is associated problems, while the preferred range is thought to
unlikely that they will ever be fully understood. It is not as be the range where physiological processes are optimised.
simple as having the water at a particular temperature or pH. Each species has a preferred or optimum temperature range
There are so many variables in their natural environment that where it grows best. At temperatures above or below
are either difficult to replicate or are difficult to control in a optimum, their growth is reduced and mortalities may occur
captive environment. Most rainbowfishes can adapt to these at extreme ranges. Rainbowfishes can tolerate the seasonal
natural fluctuations of water conditions as they occur. All the changes in temperature in their natural environment.
same, they will not tolerate sudden changes so well. However, these temperatures fluctuations are not recommended
Maintaining a constant stable environment is more important for aquarium keeping.
for their long-term survival in captivity. The easiest way to do
this is by regular water changes. In their natural environment, rainbowfishes can search for
more favourable conditions by moving into cooler or
warmer water. However, in captivity this is not possible. In
Temperature captivity, a temperature range of 22–24°C is recommended
Rainbowfishes are poikilothermic animals, that is, their while an increase to 28°C can be used for breeding
body temperature is the same as, or 0.5–1°C above or below purposes. However, these changes should not be abrupt;
the temperature of the water in which they live. The temperature shock can occur if the fish are put into a new
metabolic rate of rainbowfishes is closely correlated to the environment where the temperature is colder or warmer
water temperature: the higher the water temperature, the than the original water. Under these conditions fish may die,
greater the metabolism, and their need to take in nutrients. showing symptoms of paralysis of the respiratory and
Therefore the temperature of their environment is a major cardiac muscles. With young fry, problems may arise even
and even the deciding environmental factor in determining where the difference in temperature is as low as 1–3°C.
growth rate, metabolism, and nutritional efficiency. In fact,
temperature will influence all biological and chemical
processes in an aquarium. In tropical waters, which have Water Chemistry
prevailing high temperatures, rainbowfishes generally grow Water chemistry can seem intimidating at first, but once a
faster, mature younger, and have a shorter life span than few basic principles are memorised, it becomes quite easy.
rainbowfishes in temperate waters. Rainbowfishes do, The parameters of prime concern are dissolved oxygen,
however, display a wide range of sizes, growth rates and life temperature, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and carbon dioxide.
spans in captivity. Water temperature also has a great Everyone involved in fishkeeping should invest in water
influence on the initiation and course of a number of fish quality test kits. An excellent water quality management
diseases. program will result in fewer fish disease problems, better
growth and less use of chemical treatments. The cost of test
In their natural environment, rainbowfishes are exposed to kits will pay for themselves many times over; both in numbers
temperatures that vary considerably. This is dependent on of fish saved and increased enjoyment of the hobby. For
the size and depth of the body of water, water flow, whether aquarium keeping, the high precision of sophisticated analytical
exposed to the sun or in shaded rain forest streams, the time methods is not required to make informed decisions.
of day and the season. A deep shaded backwater, for
example, can be strikingly cooler than a shallow section that Intensive stocking in recirculating aquarium systems
is exposed to the sun. The overall range has been reported requires frequent monitoring. If fish are maintained at high
from a low of 5° to a high of 38°C, and even higher in a densities, then temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia,
shallow body of water exposed to full sun at midday. nitrite, and pH should be monitored regularly. At lower
Temperatures in these water bodies commonly fluctuate stocking densities, water quality parameters can be monitored
from 8–12°C each day. less frequently. However, regardless of the frequency,
monitoring should be conducted at a standard time of the day.
It should be noted that the survival rates for rainbowfishes The time of measurement and observed values should be
in their natural habitats declines sharply when the water recorded, as good record keeping is essential for successful
temperature is high and will often die at temperatures above fishkeeping.
36°C. Such increases in temperature are common in tropical
waterbodies of Australia during the late dry season. Alkalinity and hardness can be measured less frequently,
Although, the cause of death is more likely to be caused by perhaps once a week, as they do not fluctuate as rapidly.
lowered oxygen levels rather than higher temperature levels. Carbon dioxide should be monitored closely and the means
Dissolved oxygen and temperature are critical water quality to correct problems should be readily available. It is
parameters and extreme levels of these parameters can preferable to monitor dissolved oxygen early in the
cause fish kills. morning, when conditions stressful to fish are most likely to
occur. Conversely, temperature and pH in ponds are best
The temperature conditions of the rainbowfishes natural measured during the late afternoon. Chlorine or Chloramine
environment can be subdivided into extreme, tolerable and levels in domestic tap water should be determined so that
preferred ranges. In the extreme temperature range their corrective measures can be initiated.
survival time is strongly dependent on the exposure time. In
the tolerable range, the fish survives without temperature-

Numerous test kits are available on the market from which Alkalinity
you can choose, but they can vary in quality and price. You Alkalinity is the concentration of bases dissolved in water
are therefore advised to select test kits carefully and not buy and expressed as parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per
the first one you see on the shelf. Outdated reagents are a litre (mg/L) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3). These bases are
major source of inaccurate tests resulting from kits that have usually bicarbonates (HCO3-) and carbonates (CO3-), and, in
a limited shelf life. If used beyond their shelf life, then they rare instances, hydroxide (OH-) ions. These ions, called
will not give accurate, reliable results. buffers, are important because they slow the rate at which the
pH changes. The magnitude of change is determined by the
Some manufacturers’ print use-by dates on their kits but water’s buffering capacity or its ability to absorb acids and/or
unfortunately, these manufacturers are in a minority. If you alkalis (base) and is an often overlooked, though extremely
have a test kit without a use-by date, and you have had it for important component of pH balance in an aquarium. The
over six months, then you should replace the test chemicals. term “alkalinity” comes from the fact that these compounds,
Test kits containing dry reagents are usually superior to kits mostly the carbonates, collectively shift the pH to the
that contain liquid reagents. Liquid reagents are generally alkaline side of the pH scale. This term also has little to do
less expensive but over time become unstable. Reagents in a with hardness, waters may be very soft (low hardness) yet
dry form generally remain stable for longer periods. The have high alkalinity.
most stable way of storing dry reagents is in sealed foil
pouches; this protects them from oxygen, moisture, and light Without a buffering system, free carbon dioxide will form
until they are used. Several aquarium test kit manufacturers large amounts of carbonic acid that may potentially decrease
have adopted this type of packaging. the night time pH level to 4.5. During peak periods of
photosynthesis in a heavily planted tank, most of the free
carbon dioxide will be consumed by the plants and, as a
Water Quality Factors
Water quality factors, commonly used monitoring procedures, and preferred ranges for keeping
rainbowfishes in captivity. Details for specific test procedure can be obtained from the supplier or
appropriate literature.
Water Quality Factor Test Procedure Preferred Ranges
Alkalinity Titration 50-200 ppm CaCO3
Colorimetric
Ammonia
(Nesslerisation or Salicylate) No detectable level
(ionised and unionised)
Electrochemical
Carbon dioxide Titration <10 ppm
Chlorine/Chloramine Colorimetric No detectable level
Colorimetric
Dissolved Oxygen Electrochemical >5 ppm
Titration
Hardness Titration 50-250 ppm CaCO3
Nitrate Colorimetric <20 ppm
Nitrite Colorimetric No detectable level
Colorimetric
pH Electrochemical 6.5-7.8
Titration
Temperature Thermometer 22-24°C (28°C Breeding)

result, drive the pH levels above 10. Rainbowfishes grow Aquarists often measure alkalinity in units of °dKh which is the
best within a certain range of pH values and either of the German scale of carbonate hardness (KH = from the German
above extremes can be lethal to them. In aquariums where “KarbonatHaerte”). The prevalence of this measurement was
plants are non-existent, a good buffering capacity can due to the fact that a lot of aquarium literature originated in
prevent excessive build-ups of carbon dioxide and lethal Germany. However, °dKh shouldn’t be used anymore. Alkalinity
changes in pH. In planted aquariums better growth rates are should be quoted in milliequivalents per litre (mEq/L), or
attained in high alkalinity waters because phosphorus and milligrams per litre of calcium carbonate (mg/L CaCO3).
other essential nutrients become more available to the
plants. The term “total carbonates” may also be used by some
testing laboratories to refer to alkalinity of a solution. Some
Alkalinity is not the same as hardness. Calcium (Ca2+) and laboratories assume that all alkalinity is derived solely from
Magnesium (Mg2+) are primarily responsible for hardness. bicarbonates (HCO3-) and will report alkalinity as bicarbonates
However, in most waters, alkalinity and hardness have using ppm (mg/L) or mEq/L. To convert between these two
similar values because the carbonates and bicarbonates units, use the following values: 1 mEq/L HCO3- = 61 mg/L
responsible for total alkalinity are usually in the form of HCO3-.
Calcium carbonate or Magnesium carbonate. However,
waters with high total alkalinity are not always hard, since For aquarium purposes, you can use the following
the carbonates can be in the form of Sodium or Potassium conversion factors:
carbonate. 1 mEq/L = 2.8 °dKh = 50.04 ppm CaCO3
1 °dKh = 17.9 ppm CaCO3
A desirable range of alkalinity for rainbowfishes should be
maintained higher than 50 mg/L (ppm) at all times, with
levels up to 200 mg/L. Alkalinity in excess of 200 mg/L Carbon Dioxide
won’t adversely affect rainbowfishes, but it can interfere with Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a by-product of decomposition of
the action of certain commonly used aquarium chemicals. organic matter, fish, and aquatic plant respiration and can
Alkalinity can remain relatively constant in ponds, but will cause problems for most rainbowfishes if levels build higher
decrease steadily in non-supplemented aquarium systems. than 20 mg/L. Most can tolerate concentrations of 10 mg/L
Adding buffering compounds to ponds or aquarium systems provided dissolved oxygen concentrations are high. Well-
will increase the alkalinity and stabilise the pH. The pH maintained aquariums normally contain less than 5 mg/L of
should always be monitored during alkalinity increases, as a free carbon dioxide. Although, levels may fluctuate daily
high pH increases the toxicity of unionised ammonia. from 0 to 15 mg/L.
The equation below shows that carbonic acid (H2CO3) The presence of carbon dioxide is not usually a major
dissociates into hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions. problem in well maintained aquariums. However, high
The bicarbonate ions can further dissociate into hydrogen concentrations can lower the pH of the water and limit the
(H+) and carbonate (CO3-) ions. When acid (H+) is introduced capacity of fish’s blood to carry oxygen. Fish are able to rid
into well-buffered water, carbonate ions react with the themselves of carbon dioxide through the gills in response to
hydrogen ions to produce bicarbonate. Thus, although acid is a difference in carbon dioxide concentration between fish
added, no change in the overall pH occurs. Furthermore, blood and the surrounding water. If environmental carbon
bicarbonate ions act as an additional reservoir for hydrogen dioxide concentrations are high, the fish will have difficulty
ions. The reactions outlined in the equation below are pH reducing internal carbon dioxide concentrations, resulting in
sensitive and shift to the right as pH increases. accumulation in the blood. This accumulation inhibits the
ability of haemoglobin, the oxygen carrying molecule in fish
H2O + CO2 <=> H2CO3 <=> H+ HCO3- <=> 2H+ + CO3 blood, to bind oxygen, and may cause them to lose
equilibrium, become disoriented and possibly die even if
Test kits measure alkalinity by titrating a water sample with oxygen levels are high. There is some evidence to suggest
an acid (usually dilute sulphuric acid) to an endpoint pH of that the toxicity of carbon dioxide is enhanced by low
about 4.6 (varies from 4.5 to 5.1 depending on the indicator dissolved oxygen concentrations.
dye used and the initial alkalinity). A pH indicator dye
(usually bromcresol green plus methyl red) is added to a Problems with carbon dioxide are only likely to develop in the
known volume of water (indicated in the test kit instructions), aquarium when rainbowfishes are maintained under somewhat
and acid is added until the solution changes colour. With the crowded conditions or if being added as a fertiliser for aquatic
bromocresol green plus methyl red dye system, the colour plant growth. Carbon dioxide can build up to significantly high
will change from green to pink. levels in systems with large numbers of fish and relatively slow
water turnover.
The units used to measure alkalinity will depend on the test
kit. Some use milliequivalents (mEq/L), °dKh (degrees of Advanced aquarists may use carbon dioxide injection systems
carbonate hardness), mg/L or parts per million (meaning to ensure that sufficient levels are available for the plants.
ppm of calcium carbonate equivalents). mEq/L stands for Some injection systems will monitor pH levels and inject
milliequivalents per litre. A milliequivalent is 0.001 of an carbon dioxide as pH levels rise.
Equivalent, which is the weight of substance that will react
with one atomic weight of hydrogen.

In some heavily planted aquariums, carbon dioxide can be a photosynthesis cannot counterbalance the loss of oxygen
limiting factor. If the respiration of the organisms in the through respiration and decomposition, dissolved oxygen
aquarium cannot produce enough carbon dioxide, plants concentration may steadily decline. It is lowest just before
will not be able to photosynthesise. If they cannot dawn, when photosynthesis resumes. Low dissolved oxygen
photosynthesise, their growth will be slow; they may lose concentrations in a water body can also lead to associated
leaves, exhibit poor colour and may even die. Carbon toxic effects, such as the release of ammonia and sulphides
dioxide should be monitored in heavily planted aquariums from bottom sediments to the water column. The consequences
to ensure that sufficient concentrations are available for of these processes are sometimes seen in natural
photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide can be measured directly environments where the combined effects may be the death
with a relatively easy titration test kit, which is fairly of fish and other aquatic animals. These changes in
accurate. dissolved oxygen that occur every 24 hours are called the
‘Diurnal Oxygen Cycle’.
While oxygen and ammonia levels are often viewed as
critical to fish health, carbon dioxide tends to be ignored Photosynthesis is a fundamental biological process that uses
and very few aquarists regularly monitor carbon dioxide light energy to produce sugar from carbon dioxide and
levels in most fish-only or lightly planted aquariums. This is water. Submerged aquatic plants (including planktonic
partly due to an assumption that, if the other water quality algae), increase dissolved oxygen levels in water. Emergent
parameters, particularly oxygen, are OK, then carbon and floating plants generally release oxygen into the air but
dioxide will not be an issue. all submerged plants release oxygen directly into the
surrounding water. Under adequate light, bubbles of oxygen
Research would suggest that poor water quality in can often be seen on the leaves of aquatic plants. However,
aquariums, particularly high carbon dioxide, may lead to an since photosynthesis requires light, plants don’t produce
increased susceptibility of fish to pathogens which later oxygen during the night but respire and remove a small
leads to disease. By paying appropriate attention to this amount of oxygen from the water which slightly decreases
aspect of water quality in the early stages, this may reduce oxygen levels. As a general rule, submerged aquatic plants
vulnerability to disease. It has also been suggested that high produce about six times more oxygen through photosynthesis
carbon dioxide levels may cause bone demineralisation than they consume through respiration. However, under low
resulting in spinal abnormalities. light conditions these submerged plants are net consumers
of oxygen.
Adequate aeration or surface agitation, and buffering of the
water will keep carbon dioxide at acceptable levels. Oxygen is not as abundant in water as it is in air. Air can be
Adequate buffering will initially remove free carbon dioxide regarded as having a constant percentage (approximately
and store it in reserve as bicarbonate and carbonate buffers. 20.9%) of oxygen. Wherever air is exposed to water, the
Small water exchanges will also reduce the levels of carbon oxygen in the air will dissolve in the water. The amount of
dioxide. oxygen that dissolves in the water depends on many factors:
whether there is adequate time and adequate mixing to fully
saturate the water, the water temperature, the air pressure,
Dissolved Oxygen etc. Water that contains the maximum amount of oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is oxygen gas that is dissolved in water. that can be obtained from the overlying air under the
Like terrestrial animals, oxygen is essential to the survival prevailing conditions is said to be saturated and the
of fish and other aquatic organisms to live. As water moves dissolved oxygen concentration is 100 %Saturation. The
past their gills (or other breathing apparatus), oxygen gas is concentration of oxygen dissolved in water can be
transferred from the water to their blood. Like any other gas expressed as mg/L or as percentage of air saturation value.
diffusion process, the transfer is efficient only above certain Water temperature, atmospheric pressure and contents of
concentrations. In other words, oxygen can be present in the salts dissolved in water have to be taken into account when
water, but at too low a concentration to sustain aquatic life. the values in mg/L are converted to %Saturation or vice
Oxygen is also required by virtually all aquatic plant life, versa.
and is important for many chemical and biological reactions
that occur in water. There are two main sources of dissolved oxygen in an
aquarium: Oxygen diffuses into the water from the air
Light, temperature, pH, the number of photosynthetic especially when the surface is agitated and also from the
organisms, depth, turbulence, altitude, and salinity are all photosynthesis of aquatic plants. On the other hand, oxygen
factors that affect the dissolved oxygen level in water. By is removed by the aerobic degradation of organic substances
manipulating these factors, the dissolved oxygen in water by bacteria and by the respiration of all the organisms
can be increase or decreased. Oxygen is produced during present in the water. Most indoor aquarium systems lack
photosynthesis and consumed during respiration and sufficient photosynthesis. Therefore, mechanical means of
decomposition. Because it requires light, photosynthesis aeration is the only alternative for supplying oxygen to
occurs only during daylight hours. Respiration and aquatic animals maintained in these systems. Providing
decomposition, on the other hand, occur 24 hours a day. some form of aeration or surface agitation to aquarium
This difference alone can account for large daily variations water will allow more water to contact air at the surface,
in dissolved oxygen concentrations. During the night, when increasing dissolved oxygen levels and maintaining oxygen
at safe levels.

Different fish species have different requirements for the accuracy needed for professional quality data. However,
concentration of oxygen dissolved in water. The oxygen most are reliable if used correctly and can provide good
requirements of fish also depend on a number of other results for aquarium use. Specific instructions on how to use
factors, including the temperature, pH, and CO2 level of the kits are provided with the kits and will vary according to the
water, and the metabolic rate of the fish. The major criteria manufacturer. Commercial test kits are based on the
for the oxygen requirement of fish include temperature, and “Azide-Winkler” titration method. It is the most reliable
the average individual weight and the total weight of fish method, against which the others are compared to test for
per unit volume of water. Oxygen requirements increase at a accuracy. It’s important to become familiar with water
higher temperature; a higher total weight of fish per unit testing and know how to use the associated test kits.
volume of water can lead to increased activity and thus
increased respiration as a result of overcrowding. Oxygen Dissolved oxygen concentrations are commonly reported as
deficiency causes asphyxiation and fish will die, depending milligrams per litre (mg/L) or as percentage saturation (%
on the oxygen requirements of the species and to a lesser Saturation). They measure the same thing, but sometimes
extent on their rate of adaptation. your test kit will use only one of the measurements. Most
oxygen meters can read oxygen concentrations as both mg/
In general, it is recommended that the dissolved oxygen L (ppm) and %Saturation. If the water temperature, salinity
concentration be kept near to saturation. Typical values in a and barometric pressure are known, either of these can be
healthy aquarium system should be 8 mg/L (85–95 % calculated from the other. There is confusion in the
Saturation at 24°C). If the level declines below 3 mg/L they literature regarding which is the better measure to employ in
begin to show signs of suffocation. In aquariums equipped testing aquarium water. In practice both measures are
with proper filtration and aeration, insufficient dissolved needed to fully interpret data, but %Saturation is the most
oxygen is seldom a problem. It is therefore generally readily interpreted and ecologically relevant of the two.
unnecessary to test oxygen in aquariums. However,
corrective measures need to be initiated if conditions Percent Saturation (%Saturation) is the amount of dissolved
become unfavourable. Remedial action is to aerate the oxygen in the water compared to the maximum amount that
water. Aeration can be with air or oxygen pumps, by could be present at the same temperature. As temperature
agitating the water surface, or by increasing the input of increases, the concentration at 100% saturation decreases.
aerated water. These factors affect the percent saturation (the highest
dissolved oxygen level possible even in well-aerated water).
Fish exposed to oxygen deficient water do not take food, Living organisms require specific minimum levels of
collect near the water surface, gasp for air, gather at the dissolved oxygen to survive. Saturation values less than 60%
inflow of filters where the oxygen levels are higher, become or over 125% are undesirable. Dissolved oxygen percent
sluggish, fail to react to irritation, lose their ability to escape saturation values in the range of 80–120% are desirable.
capture and ultimately die. The major pathologico-anatomic
changes include a very pale skin colour, congestion of the It is the saturation level that directly indicates how much
cyanotic blood in the gills, adherence of the gill lamellae, oxygen is available for aquatic organisms to breathe, not the
and small haemorrhages in the front of the ocular cavity and amount that is dissolved in the water. As a rule of thumb, a
in the skin of the gill covers. In the majority of fishes the fish in water that is 100% saturated with oxygen is able to
mouth gapes spasmodically and the operculum over the gills gain access to an amount of oxygen equivalent to that in the
remains loosely open. The only way to know for sure if low overlying air. If the concentration falls to 50 %Saturation
oxygen levels have caused fish deaths in an aquarium is to then it can only obtain half the amount of oxygen that is
measure the oxygen in the water when the deaths occurred. present in the overlying air. The mg/L concentrations of
Indications of oxygen depletion as a probable cause of a fish dissolved oxygen required to achieve these saturation levels
death include: vary enormously, particularly with temperature, so results
expressed in terms of mg/L are much more difficult to
All fish die at approximately the same time (often interpret. At saturation the partial pressure in the water is
during the night or in the pre-dawn hours). equal to that in the thin layer of moisture-saturated air at the
surface layer.
Large fish may be affected more than small fish.
Well-aerated water (in free interchange with the air) will
Moribund fish may be seen at the surface “gasping” for usually be 100% saturated. In general, the colder the water
oxygen. the more oxygen it can dissolve, the more saline the water
the less oxygen it can dissolve, and the lower the
Some species may die with their back arched, gills atmospheric pressure (e.g., the higher the elevation), the less
flared, and mouth open. oxygen it can dissolve. These generalities come from the
gas laws of physics. Oxygen saturation is calculated as the
Dissolved oxygen can be measured with an electronic percent of dissolved oxygen relative to a theoretical
metering device or with a chemical titration test. Dissolved maximum concentration given the temperature, pressure,
oxygen meters can be expensive, so most aquarists will and salinity of the water. It is possible to get more than
generally use the chemical titration method. Most aquarium 100% saturation. The water can be supersaturated in an area
test kits do not meet the requirements for precision and where there are a lot of plants or algae on a sunny day (due
to photosynthetic activity).

Calculating oxygen levels in an aquarium can be somewhat pressure, e.g., at the bottom of a lake or reservoir, in ground
complicated. Water saturated with oxygen at 15°C contains water, or if air is drawn into a centrifugal water pump. It can
about 9.8 mg/L, whereas water at 30°C is saturated at about also occur if cold air-equilibrated water is warmed up
7.6 mg/L. A reading of 1 mg/L @ 30°C (13.15 %Saturation) without re-equilibration to the higher temperature. A bottle
is a higher concentration than 1 mg/L @ 15°C (10.2 % containing such water will show either minute bubbles
Saturation) and represents more available oxygen. The forming as a cloudy suspension which will clear from the
figures below gives the amount of dissolved oxygen in mg/L bottom upwards, or larger bubbles forming on the glass
(ppm) that represent 100 %Saturation in freshwater at normal wall. This is analogous to that seen in an opened bottle of
pressure and different temperatures. To calculate the carbonated drinking water.
percentage of dissolved oxygen, test the amount of oxygen
present in your tank (in mg/L or ppm), and divide the number If fish are exposed (at a lower atmospheric pressure) to such
by the mg/L value below that correspond to your tanks water, their blood equilibrates with the excess pressure in
temperature. The answer is the percentage of dissolved oxygen the water. Bubbles form in the blood and these can block
in your system. Answers over 100% are perfectly valid, and the capillaries; in sub-acute cases the dorsal and caudal fin
indicate supersaturation of the water. So if you have a can be affected, and bubbles may be visible between the fin
temperature of 25°C and you measure an oxygen level of 5 mg/ rays. The epidermal tissue distal to the occlusions then
L (ppm) you divide the ppm (5) by 8.3 = 60 %Saturation. becomes necrotic and cases are known where the fins have
become completely eroded. In severe cases, death occurs
Freshwater: rapidly as a result of blockage of the major arteries, and
@ 20°C normal pressure 9.1 mg/L = 100 %Saturation large bubbles are clearly seen between the rays of all the
@ 22°C normal pressure 8.7 mg/L = 100 %Saturation fins. A similar effect of gas bubbles forming in the blood
@ 24°C normal pressure 8.4 mg/L = 100 %Saturation can be experienced by deep-sea divers when they return to
@ 25°C normal pressure 8.3 mg/L = 100 %Saturation the surface. The remedy is either to remove the fish to
@ 28°C normal pressure 7.8 mg/L = 100 %Saturation normally equilibrated water or to provide vigorous aeration
@ 30°C normal pressure 7.6 mg/L = 100 %Saturation to strip out the excess gas.
Dissolved oxygen levels change according to the time of There is little information available on how rainbowfishes are
day, the temperature and the weather. Levels are usually affected by low levels of oxygen. The minimum dissolved
lowest in the morning and highest in late afternoon. The oxygen level that rainbowfishes can safely tolerate depends
ability of oxygen to remain in the solution decreases as upon individual species and temperature. Different life stages
water temperature increases (e.g., dissolved oxygen (i.e., eggs, larvae, juveniles and adults) may also have
saturation decreases by about 2% for each 1ºC increase in different oxygen needs. Several experiments have been
temperature). Temperature also increases the metabolic rate conducted on the effects of low oxygen on rainbowfishes and
of aquatic animals, resulting in increased consumption of other freshwater species. One such study (Flint 2003) reported
oxygen. As a result water temperature has a significant that Melanotaenia splendida and M. utcheensis died when
influence on dissolved oxygen levels. Therefore, dissolved dissolved oxygen saturation reached 7%. Lower egg
oxygen in an aquarium must be maintained above levels production was also noted over the duration of the study in
considered stressful to the fish. Prolonged exposure to low tanks with lower oxygen levels. However, the eggs of M.
oxygen may cause a slowing in growth rates, reproductive utcheensis and M. splendida were found to be remarkably
difficulties, stress, susceptibility to disease, and in severe tolerant to low dissolved oxygen. Eggs were able to survive
cases of depletion, premature death. Usually larger fish are and produce viable larvae at dissolved oxygen saturations
more affected by low dissolved oxygen levels than smaller levels lower than those that killed their parents (lowest tested
fish. was 5% at 28°C).
Problems caused by too much oxygen dissolved in water are In another study (Pearson et al. 2003), experiments were
seldom encountered. However, it may happen, for example, conducted to identify acute threshold values for M. splendida
when fish are transported in polythene bags with an oxygen- exposed to various low dissolved oxygen levels. Fish
filled air space. The critical oxygen level of water is 250 to exposed to oxygen levels of 25–35 %Saturation or higher for
300% of the air saturation value; fish may be injured at 5 days experienced negligible mortality. In contrast, all fish
these higher values. The gills of such affected fish have a exposed to <10 %Saturation died within 24 hours after the
conspicuous light red colour and the ends of the gill start of the experiment.
lamellae fray. When such fish are placed in the aquarium
water they may suffer from secondary fungus infections and Five-day exposure to dissolved oxygen levels of 25–35 %
some of them may die. It is possible that fish adapted to Saturation did not affect the survival, and did not appear to
such high oxygen levels need to be progressively affect the feeding behaviour, of adult M. splendida, However,
acclimatised to more normal concentrations. This condition the fishes appeared to be more lethargic following exposure to
should not be confused with the supersaturation of water 25–35 %Saturation than individuals exposed to higher oxygen
with dissolved gas, which can cause gas bubble disease. treatments. Relative to normoxia (approximately 100 %
Saturation), breathing rates of M. splendida had doubled by the
Supersaturation with dissolved gas occurs when the time oxygen levels had declined to 55 %Saturation, nearly tripled
pressure of the dissolved gas exceeds the atmospheric by 40 %Saturation and quadrupled at approximately 35 %
pressure. It occurs when water is equilibrated with air under Saturation.

Furthermore, a 24-hour experiment on survival of M. Research has shown that environmental calcium is also
splendida by Pearson et al. (2003) revealed a fine line required to reabsorb these lost salts. In low calcium water,
between survival and mortality. The data suggested that M. fish can lose substantial quantities of sodium and potassium
splendida exposed to lowered dissolved oxygen levels for 24 into the water. A recommended range for free calcium in
hours were able to survive exposure to oxygen levels down aquarium water is 25 to 100 mg/L (50 to 250 mg/L CaCO3
to 13 %Saturation. Levels of approximately 12 %Saturation hardness). A low CaCO3 hardness value is a reliable
were lethal to 90% of fish, while exposure to oxygen levels indication that the calcium concentration is low. However,
of 9 %Saturation was lethal to all the rainbowfishes. high hardness does not necessarily reflect a high calcium
However, it was apparent during the experiment that the concentration. It is not clear however, whether calcium
rainbowfishes were making use of dissolved oxygen plays an equally important role in embryonic development.
gradients in the test tanks that were unable to be measured.
Thus, the recorded oxygen measurements are not indicative Water hardening (swelling process of flaccid newly shed eggs
of the dissolved oxygen concentration that the rainbowfishes when they first contact water and absorb water) of fertilised
were actually exposed to. eggs varies according to the water hardness. When hardness is
low, increase in egg diameter is greater. However, the effect of
Rainbowfishes can perform aquatic surface respiration and water hardness on larvae hatching and growth of rainbowfishes
access higher oxygenated water at the air-water interface to is unknown. For those species, which are found in hard water
survive lower oxygen concentrations for short periods of in their natural environment, hard water may be required for
time. They stay just below the surface, put their snout at the good development, while in others it might ameliorate the
air-water interface, and breathe in the film of water that is in deleterious effect of non-optimal conditions.
direct contact with the air. This thin layer of water is
comparatively rich in oxygen. Typically, rainbowfishes will Water hardness is expressed in a confusing array of scales,
wait until a very low threshold of oxygen concentration is although in the aquarium hobby the influence is to express
before starting surface respiration. This reluctance to them in terms of milligrams per litre of calcium carbonate
breathe near the surface is easy to understand when we (mg/L CaCO3), which is also equivalent to parts per million,
consider that, in nature, many predators of rainbowfishes or in the obsolete German units of “degrees of hardness” (°
are terrestrial or aerial animals that attack from above, and dH). °dH or Deutsche Hartgrad, loosely translated, means
therefore being close to the surface has some risks. German hardness gradient. As a result of the different systems,
it’s not uncommon to see water hardness incorrectly reported
as dH = 85 ppm (an erroneous combination of both systems).
Water Hardness For aquarium purposes, you can use the following
Water hardness is commonly confused with alkalinity. The conversion factors:
confusion relates to the term used to report both measures,
milligrams per litre as calcium carbonate equivalent (mg/L °dH X 17.9 = ppm (mg/L)
CaCO3). Calcium carbonate is a general term that indicates ppm x 0.056 = °dH
the total quantity of divalent salts present and does not
specifically identify whether calcium, magnesium and/or
some other divalent salt is causing water hardness. Dissolved Salts
Confusion can arise from the fact that salinity is sometimes
2+ 2+
Calcium (Ca ) and magnesium (Mg ) ions are the most equated to one of the terms ‘total dissolved salts’ or ‘total
common factor that comprises hardness and aquarium test kits dissolved solids’ – both are sometimes abbreviated TDS.
usually determine both ions as “total hardness”. Despite the
much confused state of misinformation prevalent in the hobby, Total Dissolved Salts is determined by calculation from the
permanent or general hardness is true hardness; carbonate results of analysis for common ions (sodium, calcium,
hardness (°dKh) is not hardness at all but alkalinity. Water chloride).
hardness should be expressed as a concentration of divalent
ions in mg/L (ppm). The terms “permanent”, “general”, and Total Dissolved Solids is determined by filtering a sample,
“carbonate” hardness should be discontinued. drying at a specified temperature, and weighing the residue.
It includes non-ionised substances if present (example:
Calcium and Magnesium are essential in the biological sugars, other organics, colloidal particles too small to be
processes of fish (bone and scale formation, blood clotting, retained by filter medium), so it can be greater than Total
and other metabolic reactions). Fish can absorb calcium and Dissolved Salts.
magnesium directly from the water or from food. However,
calcium is the most important environmental divalent salt in TDS should properly be interpreted as Total Dissolved Salts,
rainbowfish culture. The presence of calcium in aquarium because non-ionised species do not contribute to electrical
water helps reduce the loss of other salts: for example, conductivity of the sample.
sodium and potassium from the fish’s blood. Sodium and
potassium are the most important salts in fish blood and are Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) is a measurement of the total
critical for normal heart, nerve, and muscle function. amount of dissolved salts in water and expressed in ppm of
NaCl. TDS is essentially the same as conductivity.

For aquarium applications it is recommended that the pH serves as a convenient way to compare the relative acidity
conversion formula TDS (in ppm) x 0.68 = EC (in µS/cm) be or alkalinity of a solution at a given temperature. Absolute
used. The conversion formula is only an approximation. TDS neutrality has a pH value of 7.07 (usually taken as 7.0). The
meters are calibrated with a Sodium chloride solution. addition of acid increases the hydrogen (H) ion concentration;
consequently the pH of all acid solutions is less than 7.07.
Conductivity or specific conductance is the measure of the The addition of alkali increases the concentration of the
water’s ability to conduct an electric current. Electrical hydroxide (OH-) ions, and decreases that of the H+ ions, so
conductivity is an inherent property of most materials, and that the pH of all alkaline solutions is greater than 7.07. The
ranges from extremely conductive materials like metals to range of pH values extends about equally on each side of
very non-conductive materials like plastics or glass. About 7.07; for the complete range of pH values forms a graduated
halfway between the two extremes in conductivity are scale from about -0.3 to 14.5.
aqueous solutions, such as aquarium water. In metals, the
electrical current is carried by electrons, while in water it is Since the pH of water is critical to the survival of most
carried by charged ions. In both cases, the conductivity is aquatic animals and plants, monitoring pH values in the
determined by the number of charge carriers, how fast they aquarium is an important part of successfully maintaining
move, and how much charge each one carries. rainbowfishes in captivity. The testing is quick and easy and
can establish a valuable baseline of information so that
Thus, for most aquarium waters, the higher the concentration unanticipated water quality changes can be better understood.
of dissolved salts, which will lead to more ions, the higher the
conductivity. This effect continues until the solution gets “too
crowded”, restricting the freedom of the ions to move, and the Practical Application of pH
conductivity may actually decrease with increasing pH is one of the most common aquarium measurements
concentration. This can result in two different concentrations because many chemical processes are dependent on the pH.
of a salt having the same conductivity. Aquarium conditions can often be significantly altered by
changing the pH of the water. The solubility of many
The specific conductance is measured by passing a current chemicals in solution, and their bio-availability is dependent
between two electrodes (one centimetre apart) that are place on pH. The physiological chemistry of living organisms
into a sample of water. The basic unit of conductance is the usually has very specific pH boundaries.
Siemens (S) and was formerly called the mho. The normal
unit of measurement for conductivity is expressed in A simple test kit which exhibit characteristic colour changes
microsiemens per centimetre (µS/cm) or millsiemens per at different pH values or a hand-held electronic meter can
centimetre (mS/cm). Conductivity meters are calibrated with be used to test pH. Always remove a sample of water from
a Potassium chloride solution. the aquarium to measure the pH with an electronic meter.
Measurement by immersing the electrode directly in the
In natural waters the distributions of freshwater aquarium can be severely compromised by other undetectable
macrophytes, invertebrates and fish are not noticeably electrical currents from power filters, heaters, etc. pH
affected by variations in conductivity if concentrations electrodes which are not routinely cleaned and standardised
remain below 1000 µS/cm (roughly equivalent to total will not provide accurate readings and will be no better
dissolved salt concentration of 500 mg/L). Monitoring of than, and often far worse than, a colorimetric measurement
intermittent inland streams has shown that conductivity made with the cheapest liquid-reagent test kit.
levels fall dramatically during storm events, and rise
gradually during periods of base flow, achieving maximum pH electrodes must be routinely checked against known pH
values when flows stop. standards to insure accuracy and need to be replaced every 9
to 12 months. The popular pocket pH “pens” are disposable
meter/electrode combinations which can be inaccurate,
pH of Water particularly if not calibrated correctly, and do not compensate
The term pH derives from a combination of p for the word for changes in temperature. Therefore, the selection of
power and H for the symbol of the element Hydrogen. measuring devices for pH is largely a situation in which
Together the meaning is the power or exponent of hydrogen. “you get what you pay for”. If you are unable to recognise
The pH value can be defined as ‘a number used to express the the inadequacies of pH meter measurements, you are better
concentration of ionised hydrogen in an aqueous fluid and is off using dye methods. Only dyes with clear-cut colour
thus indicative of the reaction of that fluid, that is, the changes around the target pH should be used.
neutrality or the degree of acidity or alkalinity’. According to
the theory of electrolytic dissociation all liquids of which The commonly used pH indicators for freshwater testing are
water is a constituent contain free, positively charged bromothymol blue (yellow to green to blue as the pH
hydrogen (H+) ions and negatively charged hydroxyl (OH-) increases) and phenol red (yellow to orange to red with
ions. increasing pH). The colorimetric method is the least expensive
but can suffer from interferences due to discoloured water
Much mystery has been made about the pH value of aquarium samples, salinity, organic matter, and substances that can
water, but, in reality, there is nothing very mysterious about it, oxidise or reduce the reagents. In water with very low
nor is the subject so complicated, as some would have us believe. alkalinity, the indicators themselves may actually alter the pH

of the sample. However, for the purposes of routine aquarium previous readings. It is also important to monitor pH values
testing, colorimetric indicators are more than adequate. Some over a long period of time to provide useful data.
scientific supply houses now sell narrow-range litmus paper,
which allows for low-cost, rapid estimation of pH. Most rainbowfish species can survive pH changes down to
4.0–5.0 or up to 9.0-10.0, but exposure to more acidic or
In well-buffered aquariums with alkalinity levels above 50 alkaline waters can be lethal within a few hours. There is no
mg/L, the pH will be more stable. In the morning, carbon definite pH range for maintaining rainbowfishes in captivity,
dioxide levels are high and pH is low because of respiration but a gradual deterioration of their health is likely as the pH
during the night (carbon dioxide forms a mild acid when values are removed from their preferred range. Water with a
dissolved in water). When a suitable light source is provided, pH range of 6.5–7.8 is usually considered best for rainbowfishes
algae and other aquatic plants will produce carbohydrates in captivity. However, studies regarding the survival, growth
and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis. and reproduction of rainbowfishes in acidic or alkaline water
As carbon dioxide is removed from the water, its pH conditions are still inadequate.
increases. In aquarium systems, the pH will generally drop in
relation to the fish load, biological filtration, feeding, and Rainbowfishes will survive reasonably well in waters with a
maintenance schedules. Therefore, acidic water in an pH range of 6.5 to 8.3. If pH readings are outside this range,
aquarium system is biologically different from that found in growth is reduced; their slime coat can suffer, making them
nature. In an aquarium, acids derive primarily from two susceptible to disease. At values below 5.0 or above 9.0,
sources. The first is when carbon dioxide (directly dissolved mortality, impaired growth and reproduction can be expected.
into water or released as a respiration by-product) mixes The gas exchange in the gill membranes will be so reduced
with water to form carbonic acid. that the fish may suffocate. From my own experience, most
rainbowfishes in captivity do not seem to be comfortably in
H2O + CO2 <=> H2CO3 <=> H+ + HCO3- water below pH 6, certainly not for any extended period.
water + carbon dioxide <=> carbonic acid <=> hydrogen ion There may be some isolated populations that have adapted to
+ bicarbonate extreme conditions as low as pH 4.0. However, acidification
of water is thought to have a major impact on fish mortality
The other is when ammonia undergoes nitrification by bacteria. and the structure of their populations. Field and laboratory
studies have shown a clear correlation between low pH and
2 NH3 + 3 O2- > 2 NO2- + 2 H+ + 2 H2O declining fish populations. The recruitment failure by
embryo and larva mortalities is considered as a primary
ammonia + oxygen » nitrite + hydrogen ion + water factor leading to gradual loss of fish stocks of aquarium as
well as of wild populations. In addition, exposure of larvae
If the aquarium water is not well buffered any acid that is at pH 4.5 or lower may impair growth and reduced survival.
added serves to drive down the pH. Consequently, the daily Behavioural responses, such as reduced swimming and
pH swings caused by photosynthesis can combine with feeding activities, have been observed in fish larvae exposed
longer-term acid accumulations and cause the pH to to acidic water conditions.
suddenly drop with catastrophic results for the fish. There
are indirect consequences that can also affect fish. Changes Experimental studies with eggs from different fish species
in pH will affect the toxicity of many dissolved compounds. showed that the sensitivity of embryos to low water pH is
For example, ammonia becomes more toxic as pH increases. related to the developmental stage. Highest mortality occurs
Nitrifying bacteria, essential in the conversion of ammonia immediately after fertilisation of the eggs (‘green’ egg stage)
to nitrate also have a pH range preference, which is between and at the time of hatching. Freshly fertilised eggs, which
7.5 and 8.6. Variations in pH will also have an effect on show no external signs of cleavage, are called ‘green’. When
some disease treatments. Fluctuations in pH, even though eye pigmentation and further development are visible
they may still be within the preferred range, can be stressful through the chorion, eggs are ‘eyed’ and these are less
and damaging to fish health. Therefore it is important to vulnerable to low pH. Most studies on egg development and
monitor pH. The actual time to measure pH will depend on effects of low pH indicate a delay of the hatching time and
what you hope to achieve with your tests. an elongation of the hatching period. Fertilised embryos may
also develop deformities when exposed to pH 4.5 or lower.
It is well-established that levels of pH fluctuate throughout
the day, and a single pH measure taken during the day may Numerous laboratory studies have tested tolerance of fish
not draw a very accurate picture of long-term pH conditions species to low pH. In most fish species, the 96-hour LC50
in the aquarium. Photosynthesis by aquatic plants removes was reported to range from pH 4.0 to 5.0 for early and adult
carbon dioxide from the water; this can significantly life stages. Fish mortality caused by low pH has been
increases pH. A pH reading taken at dawn in an aquarium thought to be associated with disturbance of water and ion
with many aquatic plants will be different from a reading balance, which may eventually lead to disruption of ion
taken six hours later when the plants are photosynthesising. homeostasis. The chloride cells in the gills, opercular
Likewise, in waters with plant life (including planktonic epithelium, and skin of fishes are known to play a key role in
algae), an increase in pH can be expected during the growing regulation of ionic balance.
season. For these reasons, it is important to monitor pH values
at the same time of day if you wish to compare your data with

Although the effects of low pH on fish have been litter accumulates and decays in the water. These water
extensively studied, relatively little is known about the bodies are usually well oxygenated but highly oligotrophic
effects of high pH. Environmental high pH values can be (low nutrient levels due to the surrounding infertile soils) and
caused by enhanced photosynthetic activity of aquatic of low biological productivity. The dominance of humic
plants, and can be accompanied by high temperatures and acids among this organic material and the relatively low pH
supersaturating of dissolved gases. The latter too may are not conducive to bacterial degradation, so particulate and
contribute to fish mortality, which makes it difficult to dissolved humic compounds are metabolised very slowly.
relate observed effects to the high pH value alone. From The brown (tannin) colour of the water severely limits
field studies it appeared that mortality of adult fish is more penetration of light, which, together with low concentrations
pronounced after episodic pH changes, e.g., after heavy of inorganic ions, restricts photosynthetic activity in aquatic
rainfall. plants. Limited photosynthesis and slow bacterial degradation
results in low zooplankton and phytoplankton development.
Acidification of water also decreases photosynthetic activity
in aquatic plants and phytoplankton. Studies (Allen 1995) Rainbowfishes often found in these habitats include Iriatherina
show that a pH of less than 4.0 is directly toxic to the roots werneri, Melanotaenia maccullochi, Pseudomugil gertrudae,
of aquatic plants. Some species of insects have been noted Pseudomugil mellis and Rhadinocentrus ornatus.
to avoid depositing eggs, thereby reducing an important
food source for other species. Many freshwater
invertebrates fail to reproduce in acidified waters. Some
species will avoid entering acidified waters if they have an
alternative.
pH in Natural Waters
In Australia the pH of freshwater streams naturally varies
between catchments due primarily to differences in
catchment geology and vegetation. However, in general,
most freshwater streams have a pH range of 6.5 to 8.0.
There are, of course, exceptions to this general rule. Coastal
streams generally range from about pH 4.5 in tannin-stained Summary
streams associated with coastal ‘wallum’ heathlands, to pH There are numerous water chemistry parameters in the
8.8 in streams at the headwaters of some catchments. aquarium that need to be monitored. Those primarily
Forested areas and coastal areas with high rainfall generally concerned with keeping rainbowfishes are dissolved oxygen,
have the lowest pH. temperature, pH, alkalinity and carbon dioxide. However,
many dissolved substances, which cannot be measured by the
Naturally low pH also occurs due to seasonal wetting and average hobbyist, rapidly accumulate in an aquarium especially
drying of peaty soils in wetlands and waterways. In contrast, if the water is not changed on a regular schedule. These
waterways in the Pilbara and Kimberley areas of Western dissolved substances remain largely unidentified but include
Australia generally have a pH range of 8.0–8.5. The pH organic acids, sugars, microbes, phenolics, proteins, hormones
recorded from a number of coastal streams in Queensland and fine particles of detritus. The toxicity of these dissolved
including several relatively undisturbed rivers i.e., the substances to rainbowfishes is not completely known; however
Endeavour and Daintree range from pH 6.5 to 7.15. Other research has indicated that certain components will inhibit
river recordings include the Russell-Mulgrave, Tully, the growth and development of rainbowfishes and increases
Herbert, Ross, O'Connell and Burrum, all of which have their susceptibility to disease. Some researchers believe that
relatively intensive development and floodplain modification. there is a direct relationship between high levels of these
The pH range for lowland and upland streams was 6.5–8.0 substances and high populations of disease organisms in
and 6.5–7.5 respectively. In areas with highly alkaline aquaria.
subsoils natural pH is generally in the range of 7.0–8.5.
Similar conditions are found throughout northern topical A variable proportion of these accumulated substances is
Australia. Data for streams in New Guinea are generally not readily degradable and consumes significant amounts of
available. oxygen, increasing carbon dioxide levels, lowering the pH,
and contributing towards the deterioration of water quality.
Large stretches of dune field and coastal heathland (wallum) Therefore the reduction of these compounds ultimately leads
swamps and streams are found dotted along the eastern to improved water quality and healthier specimens. Only
Australian coast. These ‘blackwater’ habitats are generally regular waterchanges will lower the concentration of these
acidic, with pH levels from 3.9 to 6.8, have low substances and restore a stable environment. The more
conductivity, and vary in their dissolved organic matter, frequently the water is changed, the lower the stresses on the
ionic composition, and colour. Alkalinity and hardness levels system and its inhabitants. Most rainbowfishes enjoy
are very low. Factors contributing to these variations are age, waterchanges; they seem stimulated by them, so long as they
formation, layers of low permeability and peats, proximity to do not involve so great a change in water parameters that
the sea, surrounding vegetation, and the extent to which leaf they induce stress.

Stocking Density Dietary protein source and content directly affect the amount
The stocking density, that is the volume of water available to a of nitrogen that will enter the water. Interactions between
single fish, can be a significant health factor. Unfortunately, these factors and with the biology and chemistry of the system
people who commence keeping aquaria are usually too anxious must be considered. Filter media should provide maximum
to have as many fish as possible, and most of the problems surface area with media particles and pore spaces large
which overtake their endeavour arise from such over-stocking. enough to minimise clogging. Retention time, which affects
Large numbers of fish confined in the relatively small space filter efficiency but not necessarily nitrification rates, is one of
of the aquarium can often lead to impaired growth and health the most significant factors that must be considered in filter
conditions, and before long it ends in death. This is due to design and operation. Ammonia removal efficiency is most
reduced oxygen levels and increased toxic substances such affected by retention time in the filter, hydraulic and ammonia
as ammonia and nitrite. What follows is that many loading, and amount of organics in the water.
enthusiastic beginners become so thoroughly depressed by
their first mistake that they never try again! There is one sure Flow rate significantly affects the rate of ammonia removal. More
guidance to a beginner in these matters - have too few ammonia was removed in filters with the flow rates of 57.5 L/hour
animals rather than too many. Most important of all, do not than for 111 L/hour. The slower flow rate provided a longer
add too many fish to the aquarium at the same time. residence time and allowed time for bacterial reactions to take
place. Filter flow rate does not significantly affect nitrite levels,
Although there are numerous mathematical formulas to nitrate levels, fish growth rate or fish mortality. Dietary protein
calculate the fish holding capacities of aquariums, they are content will significantly affected nitrate level because of the
essentially without merit. The maintenance of water quality varying nitrogen contents of the food rations, but will not
is the best method to determine the true carrying capacity of significantly affect nitrite level or fish mortality (Brunty et al.,
the aquarium. Start with a very small number of fish and 2005).
check the water quality using test kits for ammonia, nitrite,
and pH. More fish can be added gradually, building up over Maintaining healthy fish in an aquarium involves establishing
the months as your aquarium matures, as long as the water adequate dissolved oxygen levels, removal of wastes, and
quality is not diminished. Ultimately, your own observations sufficient ammonia nitrification. Aquarium fish produce a
and test results should help you determine what is a safe variety of wastes including faecal solids, ammonia, carbon
number of fish for your particular situation. dioxide and other materials e.g., uneaten food and dissolved
substances that will accumulate in an aquarium. These wastes
The hobbyist who undertakes a regular program of water must be removed from the aquarium water or they become
changes and maintenance will be able to successfully keep toxic to the fish. These accumulated wastes act as a nutrient
and maintain larger aquarium populations than those who are source for bacteria that generate nitrogenous wastes, increasing
unable or unwilling, to perform such activities. The more the demand for oxygen, increasing carbon dioxide levels,
fish you have, the more water changes will be needed. Each lowering the pH, and contributing towards the deterioration of
hobbyist must determine for themselves the level of effort water quality.
they are willing to spend on their fish tanks and adjust the
fish population accordingly. This will result in both healthier While poor water quality may not be lethal, little or no growth
fish and greater enjoyment for the hobbyist. as well as increased incidence of disease can result from poor
water quality. Some researchers believe that there is a direct
relationship between high levels of wastes and dense
Aquarium Filtration populations of disease organisms in aquaria, thus increasing the
An effective filtration system needs to remove waste solids, susceptibility of the fish to disease. Maintaining good water
oxidise ammonia and nitrite, remove carbon dioxide, and aerate quality is of primary importance. Therefore, effective filtration
the water before returning it to the aquarium. Waste solids are or bioconversion must be provided to eliminate the effects that
generally removed via some form of mechanical filtration, these waste products have on the rainbowfishes health and
ammonia and nitrite via biological filtration, and carbon dioxide survival.
by the provision of an air/water interface. Aeration of the water
is also achieved across the same air/water interface. In the A properly designed filtration system will remove or reduce such
average aquarium, all these processes are done within the tank. wastes, and enable you to maintain your rainbowfishes for
In more specialised aquarium systems, most if not all of the extended periods without drastic procedures, such as extensive
processes are undertaken external to the aquarium. water changes. All systems should have a method of removing
particulate waste, a method to re-oxygenate the water and a method
Proper biofilter design is critical for the success of aquarium to recirculate the water. Each component of the filtration system
filtration systems. A number of biofilter types have been must work in conjunction with other components of the total
developed and tested in aquacultural systems, but very little system. In choosing any filter component, you should keep in mind
research has been conducted with aquarium filters. The that it must be capable of maintaining an excellent environment for
ability of a filter to remove harmful nitrogenous compounds the fish. However, don’t expect any filtration system to provide
is affected by media type, flow rate/retention time, dietary perfect water conditions. Over a period of time the water quality
protein source/content, water quality, and filter design. will deteriorate and therefore must be changed on a regular basis
Media type and quantity determine the amount of surface and is a necessary part of your aquarium management program.
area available for bacterial growth.

Aquarium filtration can generally be accomplished by a every aquarium. There are a number of technologies available to
number of methods: remove nitrogenous wastes, but the most commonly used
method is biological filtration.
 Mechanical removal of undissolved, particulate
matter. The generation of nitrogenous wastes in aquarium systems
 Chemical removal of dissolved organic matter. occurs with the breakdown of proteins from excess feed,
 Biological conversion of toxic wastes to less toxic excretion from the gills of fish as they utilise feed, and
materials. decomposition of organic waste by bacteria. Fish may
 Any combination of the above. excrete nitrogen in the form of ammonia, urea, uric acid,
amines and amino acids. Nevertheless, fish and other
Removal of particulate matter can be accomplished by aquatic organisms, particularly those in freshwater, release
mechanical filtration through porous material such as sponge, their nitrogenous wastes primarily as ammonia (NH3)
screen, sand or gravel. Particles that are larger than the pore excreted across the gill membranes. Ammonia is also
sizes in the filter media can clog the filter, and lead to reduced released through decomposition of dead animals and
filtering capacity and efficiency. Most of the particulate are plants, uneaten food, bacteria and other organic matter.
made up of organic compounds that will gradually break down
in the system from bacterial activity. Although this process Ammonia is both highly toxic and highly soluble in water.
adds additional oxygen demand to the system, it reduces the At a pH range of 6–8 approximately 90% of the total
need for frequent cleaning if the solids do not become re- nitrogenous waste is excreted across the gills, with
suspended or interfere with normal water flow. Mechanical ammonia accounting for approximately 85% of this total.
filters require regular cleaning since they are prone to Because of its high solubility, ammonia becomes
clogging. effectively diluted by the environment as soon as it is
excreted and it thereby rendered harmless. However, the
Filtration systems should be designed for simplicity of natural environment of rainbowfishes is a much larger
operation. Sufficient time must be allowed for conditioning of aquatic system than an aquarium, and it would be difficult
the biofilter prior to introducing fish. Ammonia and nitrite for ammonia to reach toxic concentrations, unless, of
concentrations must be checked frequently. Dissolved oxygen course, the water was polluted.
should be sustained above 5.0 mg/L and periodically verified.
Alkalinity, hardness, and pH need to be measured and adjusted, On the other hand, in an aquarium, which is far from a
if necessary, at regular intervals. Filters should be inspected balanced ecosystem most rainbowfishes enjoy in nature,
and cleaned as required. Medications used to treat fish diseases ammonia can build up fairly quickly, especially if
may be toxic to bacteria in the biofilter. An ability to isolate overstocked and overfed. The amount of ammonia
fish tanks for disease treatment should therefore be provided. generated by fish varies with the amount of food put into
the aquarium, accelerating as stocking and feeding rates
increase. Generally, 1 to 3 mg of ammonia is produced for
Biological Filtration every 100 mg of feed.
The ability to maintain rainbowfishes in good health is a
An excess ammonia concentration can detrimentally effect
function of the efficiency and health of the aquarium’s
fish growth and health, and ultimately lead to mortality.
biological cycle and the aquarist’s management of the system.
Ammonia has been reported toxic to freshwater organisms at
Providing and maintaining a suitable biological filtration system,
concentrations ranging from 0.53 to 22.8 mg/L. Mortality
together with regular water changes, will facilitate the removal and
results from gill hyperplasia, a condition which decreases gill
detoxification of dissolved wastes. These dissolved compounds
surface area and thereby leads to inadequate transfer of toxic
remain largely unidentified but include organic acids, phenolics,
metabolites from the fish to the aquarium water. Although
proteins, hormones, and other compounds. The toxicity of these
acute ammonia toxicity values vary between fish species, most
dissolved wastes to fish is not completely known, however
aquatic organisms experience significant growth reductions, and
research has indicated that certain components will inhibit the
lower resistance to disease at concentrations between 0.05–0.20
growth and development of fish. As rainbowfishes breathe and
mg/L.
metabolise feed, wastes are released into the water column. If
these wastes are allowed to accumulate they will increasingly
The LC50 toxicity of ammonia for Melanotaenia splendida at
degrade the water quality.
96 hours is 1.99 mg/L [3.49 mg/L @ 24 hours and 2.33 mg/L
@ 48 hours]. Rainbowfish fry can only tolerate up to about
Aquarium systems use biofilters and a continuous flow of
0.57–0.75 mg/L, before they all die. Therefore, ammonia
recirculated water to bring oxygen to the fish and detoxify
concentrations must be consistently maintained below toxic
nitrogenous wastes. Nitrogenous wastes, particularly ammonia,
levels. Preferably, levels should be lower than 0.02 mg/L.
can rapidly accumulate to dangerous levels unless biological
filtration is properly employed. Biological filtration uses
In well-planted aquariums most of the ammonia is taken
naturally occurring bacteria to detoxify nitrogenous wastes and,
up directly by the plants (including algae), as it is the
provided it works efficiently, it does so to the extent that
preferred nutrient form of nitrogen for most plant species.
nitrogenous wastes are virtually undetectable. Thus, the
Existing research suggest that approximately 50% (±
primary purpose of biological filtration is to remove
20%) of the total ammonia load is assimilated by plants.
nitrogenous wastes and is therefore, a critical component in

In the average aquarium however, most of the ammonia will
be converted by nitrifying bacteria to nitrate (nitrification). If
the water quality is allowed to decline or the aquarium fish
population is suddenly increased, ammonia and nitrite levels
can increase rapidly.
Total ammonia-nitrogen consists of ammonia (NH3) and

ammonium (NH4) ions. At any given time there will be both
ammonia and ammonium present. The conversion between
volatile ammonia and ammonium ions strongly depends on the
pH and temperature. When the pH of the water is acidic (<6.9) or
neutral (7.0), the majority of the nitrogen is ammonium. When
the pH increases over 8.0, the nitrogen is mostly ammonia. For a
normal condition of 25°C and a pH of 7.0, ammonia amounts
only to 0.6 % of the total ammonia-nitrogen present. At a pH of
9.5 and a temperature of 30°C, the percentage of total ammonia
present in the ammonia form increases to 72%.
Heterotrophic bacteria exist on the surface because of their higher
Ammonia-nitrogen is an energy source for autotrophic growth rates while the slower growing nitrifiers become embedded
(nitrifying) bacteria that oxidise the ammonia-nitrogen to in the biofilm. A filter with more media surface will naturally support
more nitrifiers, which will convert more ammonia, as long as a
nitrite and nitrate. Nitrate is a stable end product with low sufficient water flow rate is maintained that delivers ammonia,
toxicity and does not harm the fish in the concentrations oxygen, and alkalinity to the nitrifying bacteria (Golz 1995).
typically present, but ammonia and nitrite are both highly
toxic at low concentrations.
However, the biofilter is not the only place in the aquarium
where nitrification takes place. Up to 30% of nitrification in
Both heterotrophic and autotrophic bacteria are common
a typical aquarium system takes place outside of the
bacteria found in the aquarium. Organic waste such as fish
biofilter (e.g., in biofilms on piping, plants, substrate and
faeces, uneaten food, dead plant tissue, and other organic
tank walls). Nevertheless, the majority of biochemical
material serve as the primary source of nutrition for
reactions pertaining to heterotrophic and autotrophic
heterotrophic bacteria, which metabolise the waste into
bacteria occur within biofilters. Biofilters are specifically
ammonia-nitrogen (ammonification). Bioconversion of organic
designed for concentrated bacterial attachment and
material by heterotrophic bacteria is a precursor to nitrification
nitrification via biofilms. Because of its advantages, biofilm
as high levels of organic material can inhibit nitrification.
nitrification has become the standard treatment method for
Therefore the removal of organic wastes from the water will
recirculating aquarium systems.
enhance the efficiencies of the biological filter. To prevent
excess amounts of solids from accumulating in the biofilter,
Heterotrophic and autotrophic (nitrifying) bacteria compete
particulate matter is usually removed prior to, or as the first
for available surface area in biofilters. Under optimal
component of biofiltration.
growth conditions, heterotrophic bacteria grow very
efficiently, doubling in population from about 15 minutes to
The autotrophic (nitrifying) bacteria are particularly important
8 hours. Comparatively, nitrifying bacteria are much less
because they oxidise ammonia to nitrite and ultimately to
efficient, and typically require 15–29 hours for ammonia
nitrate, which is comparatively innocuous except at very high
oxidising bacteria and 10–21 hours for nitrite oxidising
concentrations. Nitrifying bacteria must remove ammonia-
bacteria to double in population. High organic wastes can
nitrogen at a rate equal to production to maintain water quality
result in establishment of large heterotrophic bacteria
at a level adequate to prevent exposure to the fish. The rate of
populations on the filter media, enabling them to out-
reduction corresponds to the rate of growth of the nitrifying
compete nitrifying bacteria for available surface area,
bacteria. When water quality is sufficient to meet their
potentially decreasing nitrification efficacy of the filter.
environmental needs and they are given enough time to reproduce,
Ammonia removal will decrease as organic loading
the nitrifying bacteria will flourish. Their concentration in aquarium
increases. Therefore, a biofilters nitrification capacity
systems therefore becomes the limiting factor of biological
depends first upon the amount of surface area available to
filtration.
the nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrifying bacteria oxidises the ammonia-nitrogen (NH4 + NH3)
The concept of biological filtration is to provide a substrate
to nitrate, allowing the aquarium water to be recycled many
with a large surface area to encourage the growth of
times before a water change is required. The nitrate can be
nitrifying bacteria. As the bacterial population develops, it
ultimately converted to nitrogen gas and oxygen by denitrifying
coats the surface upon which it is growing. Water
bacteria, thus completing total ammonia conversion. However,
containing ammonia and/or nitrite flow over this media (and
the denitrifying process is not well known in the aquarium
the bacteria attached to it). Bacteria use the ammonia as an
hobby and also nitrate is less harmful than ammonia or nitrite in
energy source to drive their life processes. These bacterial
a practical point of view. Nitrates are relatively non-toxic unless
excrete nitrite, require oxygen and produce carbon dioxide
the levels are extremely high, and they are typically maintained
as by-products of their respiration.
at low levels by regular water changes.

A different group of bacteria use the released nitrite and The continuous search for ideal substrates is oriented towards
convert it to nitrate. These bacteria use the nitrite to nitrate materials offering the highest surface/volume ratio, limited
conversion for an energy source; they use nitrite and oxygen, weight, strong mechanical resistance and limited clogging
and produce nitrate and carbon dioxide. The ammonia to nitrite characteristics in addition to being cheap and easy to maintain.
conversion produces hydrogen and uses up alkalinity.
The smaller the particle size, the more the surface area per unit
In aquarium systems, nitrification occurs at a rate of around 200 volume. However, when the particle size is reduced, the
to 400 mg of ammonia per square meter of biofilter surface area probability of filter clogging increases and the ability to mix the
per day. Thus, it is apparent that an important factor in biofilter water within the biofilter decreases. In submerged-bed
design is to get the maximum amount of surface area into a biofilters, such as undergravel filters, the relationship between
given volume. Increasing the surface area in the filter increases surface area and performance is probably asymptotic, because
the number of bacteria leading to more efficient nitrification. blockage and diminished circulation increasingly hamper
Therefore the nitrifying capacity of the biological filter is performance as substrate particle size diminishes. The rate of
largely a function of the type of medium and the volume of the water flow through the biological filter should range from 30 to
filter. Gravel, sand, plastic beads and rings, and plastic plates 100 percent of the volume of the entire system per hour. Higher
are the substrates most commonly used. Each type of biological stocking rates will require the highest turnover rate (70–100%
filtration medium has a defined specific surface area per unit per hour).
volume.
Basically, a biological filter is simply a surface on which the
Predicting the performance of biofilters is an engineering bacteria grow. While growing, the bacteria convert toxic wastes
challenge. The task is complicated by the wide variety of produced by the fish to less toxic wastes. However, in reality, it
environmental conditions in the aquarium system. A myriad is a complex system comparable to a living organism. The
of biofilters designs have been generated that attempt to biofilter must be “fed” and supplied with oxygen in order to
maximise specific surface area and oxygen transfer within the remain healthy and function properly. It also releases carbon
context of biological filtration. In designing biofilters, the dioxide and hydrogen ions as waste products. It can take weeks
principal concerns should be maximum surface area for for bacteria to establish or colonise a biofilter and they grow, age,
bacterial growth, high dissolved oxygen levels, uniform water and die like any other life forms. Although a larger number of
flow through the filter, sufficient void space to prevent water quality parameters affect nitrification.
clogging, and proper sizing to ensure adequate ammonia
removal capability. Mechanical filtration also must be Dissolved oxygen, pH, water temperature, ammonia
employed to ensure consistent removal of particulate matter. concentration, filter flow rate and chemical treatment are the
Particulate matter within the aquarium environment can dominant factors affecting nitrifying bacteria efficacy. Surfaces
significantly increase biofilter clogging. for bacterial growth should be protected from light, which
inhibits nitrifying bacteria.
There are four basic types of biofilter designs: submerged bed,
rotating biowheel, trickle and fluidised bed. While all biological When an aquarium system is first set up or restarted after
filters rely upon the same species of bacteria for bioconversion, cleaning, time must be allowed for colonisation of the
its how the different filter types operate that determines their biofilter. This is a critical time in aquarium systems, because
effectiveness. There are numerous aquarium filters that utilise ammonia levels may increase faster than their removal.
biofiltration, ranging from the humble box filter, which gets Biofilters are often started by artificially adding ammonia,
little recognition these days, to high tech designs with computer such as ammonium chloride, into the system thereby allowing
control. However, it is helpful to remember that the filter itself establishment of the nitrifying bacteria prior to stocking with
only provides a suitable “home” for the bacteria to colonise. fish. This would also be expected to encourage the growth of
Media for biofilters can be virtually any substrate which autotrophic bacteria because without an organic load,
provides maximum surface area for bacterial growth: gravel, competition for attachment surfaces from faster growing
plastic media and sponge foam pads are among popular choices. heterotrophic bacteria would be minimal. However, the effect of
exogenous addition of ammonium chloride can extend the
A good biological filter should have the following criteria: cycling time dramatically; in some cases, as much as 50–60
days (Shimura et al., 1996)
Large surface area for bacterial growth.
Adequate open area to avoid clogging. It may be advantageous to pre-activate the cycle. Pre-activation
Adequate water movement through biological filter and is accomplished by seeding the filter(s) with a ‘starter’ bacterial
around the surfaces designed for bacterial growth. population from an established aquarium. Seeding of nitrifying
bacteria has a positive effect on the nitrification process by
The selection of substrates on which bacteria can form colonies improving performance and stability. Nitrifying bacteria are
has led to a reduction of the size of biological filters. From the usually abundant in the gravel substrate or filters of an
initial substrates of gravel or shell used in submerged or established aquarium; so many hobbyists use a small amount of
trickling filters, now inert fibre cushions, similar to those used this as a bacterial seed. Previous studies have shown that
in the filters of air conditioners, or small moulded pieces of seeding freshwater systems with 3% or 10% of wet filter media
plastic for packing purposes or else blocks of undulated PVC from an established filter decreased the start-up time of a new
sheets are utilised. filter by 48% and 81%, respectively.

The addition of 10% wet filter media from an established Under certain conditions, however, it is conceivable that the
system can reduce the start-up time to around 4–7 days complete nitrification process could become disrupted, with
compared to 20–25 days for ammonia removal and a similar elevated levels developing for one or more of the intermediates.
time scale for nitrite removal (Gross et al. 2003). Under normal operating conditions, there are a variety of
factors that, individually or in combination with each other
In recent years, pre-coating of nitrifying bacteria on filter determines the efficiency of biofilter nitrification. These factors
media has also been used in aquarium biofilters to enhance include fish density, ammonia concentration, flow rate, filter
nitrification, using mixed bacterial cultures from natural water surface area, filter media type, temperature, pH, salinity,
and aquarium systems. However, seeding with a wet media of alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, and filter
an established filter has a major disadvantage because it might type (submerged, trickling, fluidised bed, etc.).
cause transfer of diseases even after the nitrifying enrichment
process, as bacteria and pathogens might survive such conditions.
Loss of Biological Filtration
As an alternative to preactivation, a staggered stocking regime The ability of biological filtration to adequately control
can be used. Once the aquarium water is stable, you can ammonia and nitrite in aquarium systems depends on a variety
increase the animal load to the desired level. The aquarium is of factors. Under normal operating conditions, there are a
stocked with a small number of fish. The bacteria will grow on variety of factors that, individually or in combination with each
the wastes from the animals and plants, and a balance will be other, will reduce the efficiency of biofilter operation. If the
established between the quantity of the wastes produced by the causes of these problems are avoided, the operation of a
fishes, invertebrates and plants and the bacterial population. An biological filter will be trouble free. Several common causes of
increase in wastes will result in an increase in bacteria, but the problems with the operation of biological filters include:
response is not instantaneous. The time required is a function
of the conditions under which the bacteria are growing and the  Overloading
nature of the bacteria themselves. When the biofilter bacteria  Overfeeding
populations grow to meet this ammonia load, additional fish  Loss of biological filtration (filter media change and/
can be added. However, when this technique is used, water or chemical treatments)
changing may be required. You must monitor water quality
and be able to correct any problems when and if they occur, Overloading — When we start a new system a certain time is
there is not much forgiveness and catastrophic failures can required for the bacteria to establish themselves and develop an
happen. adequate population within the aquaria. The bacteria will grow
on the wastes from the animals and plants, and a balance will
Often ignored by those unfamiliar with the metabolic be established between the quantity of the wastes produced by
capabilities of bacteria is the fact that many heterotrophic the fishes, invertebrates and plants and the bacterial population.
bacteria and fungi are able to oxidise nitrogen compounds such An increase in wastes will result in an increase in bacteria, but
as ammonia. The pathways of nitrogen transformation are very the response is not instantaneous. The time required is a
complex. The ability to denitrify ammonia is a facultative trait function of the conditions under which the bacteria are growing
spread among a wide variety of physiological and taxonomic and the nature of the bacteria themselves. Suboptimal
groups of nearly 130 bacterial species within more than 50 conditions for the microorganisms slow their activity and
genera (Zumft 1992). growth time. New systems should be started with less than the
maximal biomass that the system is designed to handle. Once
Newly discovered ‘Anammox’ bacteria have been found that the aquarium water is stable, you can increase the animal load
convert ammonium and nitrite directly to dinitrogen gas. to the desired level.
Anammox is an abbreviation for anaerobic ammonium
oxidation (ANaerobic AMMonium Oxidation). It is a very Overfeeding — The most common problem in aquarium
recent addition to our understanding of the biological nitrogen management is overfeeding, which generates more wastes than
cycle and is the most unexplored part of the cycle. Recent the biological filter can handle. This results in cloudy water,
studies have also revealed the widespread existence of unique spikes, or continuously high levels of ammonia and/or nitrite,
ammonia-oxidising archaea (bacteria-like organisms), rapid mulm accumulation, excessive growth of algae and
belonging to the Archea domain. increased stress and disease susceptibility.
New research is showing that archaea capable of ammonia Loss of Biological Filtration — bacteria can grow on all
oxidation are ubiquitous in marine and fresh water surfaces within the aquarium, but the most important part of
environments. The phylogenetic diversity and species richness the population will be within the biological filter where water
of ammonia-oxidising archaea and bacteria were examined in flow patterns have been designed to assure that water is rapidly
aquarium biofiltration systems. The results showed that species renewed around the bacteria. This is particularly important
richness of ammonia-oxidising archaea is greater than those of because water-purifying bacteria have no significant mobility
ammonia-oxidising bacteria. However, the relevance of and unless the water is rapidly changed around them, they will
ammonia-oxidising archaea in aquarium systems remains deplete their nutrients in the microenvironment around them
unknown. Thus, the nitrogen cycle is much more complex resulting in reductions in their growth and water purification.
than indicated in most aquarium textbooks. Even after The water flow patterns are thus important in the design of a
much intensive study, modern microbiologists still do not fully biological filter.
understand just how the nitrification process functions.

A properly designed filter should contain multiple elements, this example 1000 / 100 = 10 x9 = 90 minutes. This is of
such as sponge and plastic or porous porcelain, on which course assuming there is sufficient mixing of the aquarium
the bacteria can grow. All elements should not be replaced water. You can expect an even further decrease in flow rate
at the same time, as this will remove most of the active from 10 to 50 percent once filter material is added.
water purifying bacteria and nitrification may essentially
cease for a short period of time. If your filter contains
multiple elements such as sponges or cartridges, to remove Aeration and Circulation
accumulated solids, simply rinse them off in water and Aeration and circulation of the water is one of the most
return the filter element to the filter. When it is necessary to essential functions in aquarium systems. Water must be aerated
replace a worn element, replace only one of the multiple to maintain adequate dissolved oxygen concentrations for fish
elements at the same time. In this way you will not throw and for proper functioning of the biological filter. Fish utilise
out your most active population of water purifying bacteria. oxygen dissolved in the water and release carbon dioxide and
Studies have shown that aggressively-washed filters since the biofilter also utilises oxygen, a successful
elements require longer intervals to produce optimal maintenance system requires a method to aerate or oxygenate
nitrification, and their performance suggests that this is due the water. The amount of oxygen consumed by the fish is a
to substantial biofilm removal. Research has shown that function of fish size, feeding rate, activity level of the fish, and
gently-washed filters achieve their highest nitrification rates temperature. Consumption of oxygen by the biofilter bacteria is
at relatively short intervals, due to the effect of a low most closely related to the amount of ammonia entering the
biomass-loss rate. filter.
Another way in which bacterial activity of the biological filter Aeration, circulation, and filtration are usually performed at the
can be lost is with medications containing bactericides. Ideally, same time by a well-designed filtration unit. Aeration is usually
sick fish should be quarantined and treated in a separate applied in the fish culture tank and again prior to or within the
aquarium from your main tank. If it should become necessary biological filter, that portion of the recirculating system where
to treat the fishes in the main tank but not sterilise the entire organic waste products are broken down through bacterial
system, stop feeding the fishes prior to the treatment. This will decomposition. Trickle filters and revolving biofilters are
reduce ammonia production. Immediately, prior to adding designed to be self-aerating. Vigorous aeration of submerged
medication, remove the biological filter element (cartridge or filter beds is not recommended because beneficial bacteria can
sponge), and place the element in another aquarium or be dislodged from the substrate decreasing the filter's
container with aeration; add enough clean water or water from effectiveness. Air lift pumps are often used to move water
the aquarium to cover the filter elements. When the treatment through the tanks, accomplishing both aeration and pumping.
has been completed and residual bactericidal products have Super-intensive systems may use pure oxygen injection
been removed by activated charcoal or otherwise, the bacterial although this is seldom used in aquarium hobby. The level of
filter elements can be returned to the aquarium. Feeding can aeration should be sufficient to sustain dissolved oxygen levels
now be restarted, but slowly without overfeeding. above 5.0 mg/L throughout the system.
In an aquarium, a number of functions are performed by

Filter Turnover Rate aeration or circulation:
The calculation of the turnover rate most frequently used is
simply: Volume of system in litres / Rate of pumping litres per 1. It adds oxygen directly to the water (oxygenates).
minute = turnover time in minutes. Thus in an aquarium with a 2. It circulates or mixes the water top to bottom to
volume of 1000 litres and a pump rate producing 100 litres per ensure that the oxygen and temperature levels are
minute, the result is 1000 / 100 = 10 minutes. However, that uniform throughout the system.
does not mean that in 10 minutes all the water in the aquarium 3. It moves aerated water away from the immediate area
has passed through the filter (pump) attached to it. It takes around the filter while dragging in unaerated water
much longer to ensure that all the water has passed through the rather than retreating the same water.
filter. 4. Circulation encourages other harmful gases and
excess nitrogen and carbon dioxide to escape to the
The explanation is that in the first minute 100 litres (10% of the atmosphere.
total volume) of water passes through the filter. At the end of
that minute the system contains 100 litres that has been through
the filter and 900 litres which has not. Assuming there is good Diffused Air (Airstones)
mixing in the next minute, 100 litres passes through the filter The oxygen transfer efficiency from air diffusers is a function
but 10% of this will already have passed through the filter. of the bubble size from the diffusers and the way in which they
Thus at the end of two minutes 190 litres not 200 has been are installed (loose or in airlifts). The aeration effect is usually
treated. localised around the diffuser. An airlift improves mixing and
helps generate circulation. The finer the bubble the greater the
The formula to use to work out the time taken for all the water efficiency but fine air-diffusers block more rapidly. However,
in the aquarium to pass through the filter (pump) is: Volume of reducing bubble size from 6 mm to 3 mm can increase the
system in litres / Rate of pumping litres per minute x 9 = time mixing of the water and oxygen transfer efficient by almost 5
in minutes for all the water to pass through the filter. Thus in times, bubble size is therefore very important.

The size of the bubble is a function of the quality and Substratum in heavily fed, overstocked or neglected
chemistry of the water. In seawater, or water with a high ionic aquariums can rapidly accumulate organic wastes, especially
content, the bubble size can be smaller than 1 mm, as the water if the water is not changed on a regular schedule. These
becomes fresher, the size of the bubble will increase to around wastes will stimulate bacterial growth that uses up oxygen. As
3 mm in clean freshwater. If the level of fats and lipids is very the dissolved oxygen in the water is depleted the water
high, the lipids will tend to reduce water surface tension and becomes polluted and the fish can die. The best way to avoid
increase the size of the bubble. this problem is to ‘vacuum’ the gravel each time you do a
waterchange. This process removes organic wastes, which
Air diffusers are usually a solid stone type diffusers or a otherwise might clog the gravel bed.
flexible membrane type diffuser. High levels of carbonates and
iron present in the water can foul solid diffusers. If the water is The most common apparatus for vacuuming the gravel is a
very hard, with an alkalinity over 400 mg/L as calcium siphon with a large cylinder on one end attached to a long,
carbonate, then the carbonate will tend to come out of solution narrow tube. These devices are generally available from
and form a precipitate on the diffusers. The carbonate deposit aquarium suppliers. The large end is placed in the tank, the
will block solid type diffusers. Flexible membrane diffusers are small end in a bucket that is below the level of the tank.
usually resistant to this type of fouling because the surface of Move the large end up and down in the tank to start a water
the diffuser is flexible, and hard carbonates will tend to crack flow into the bucket. Then insert the large end of the siphon
off the surface. If solid diffusers such as the stone type become into the gravel and slowly move it up and down. If used
fouled by carbonates they can become very difficult to clean. correctly, it will remove the accumulated wastes from the
gravel without removing any gravel. Repeat this over the
Air diffusers connected to a compressed air line are usually entire bottom of the tank, until the bucket is full. Then pull the
placed into various culture tanks for live-food production, siphon end out of the tank to stop the water flow. If more
egg incubation, larval rearing and fry raising. The bubbles water is to be changed, this can be repeated. Replace the
they produce help in maintaining the still passive yolk-sac removed water with new, conditioned water that has been
larvae and the first-feeding larvae afloat, and in homogenising adjusted to the same chemical parameters as the tank.
the rearing medium (rotifers, microalgae). When an additional
quantity of oxygen is required (for example, when there is a However, should the gravel becomes contaminated, the
temporary failure of the water supply system or when there is a aquarium should be drained, cleaned and the gravel
temporary high density in the rearing tanks), one or more air thoroughly washed before re-establishing the aquarium.
diffusers can be placed in the rearing tanks, connected to a Incidentally, if no more contaminants enter the aquarium,
separate compressed oxygen line. The porous material of the eventually the bacteria most suited to the existing conditions
diffusers should be periodically cleaned, since small particles will convert all waste to gases and trace elements
(algae, food residues, faeces) in the rearing water can easily (denitrification) and the dissolved oxygen in the water will
clog the pores and reduce (or even block) the air/oxygen flow. begin to rise to the point where the water will be safe for fish
again.
General Maintenance Although I have detailed a number of routine jobs in the

Fundamental to the success of a thriving aquarium is a stable maintenance of an aquarium, the work is not quite as
environment made possible with a regular maintenance program. laborious as a reading of it may imply. The less an aquarium
This includes regular removal of particulate matter (faeces, is fussed with the better, and, as a rule, if it has been set up in
uneaten food, detritus, etc.). The removal of algae from tank walls, the correct manner in the first place it requires very little
removal of particulate matter from the filter, and regular water further attention. It does not mean that a great deal of time has
changes. to be spent every day in looking after the fish and plants. A
few minutes each day, to feed the fish, to remove uneaten
Waterchanges provide regular removal of wastes not normally food, to see that all the fish are in good health is ample. Once
removed by filtration or bacterial decomposition, and restores a a week the aquarist will have to spend half an hour, perhaps a
stable environment. The more frequently the water is refreshed, little longer, overhauling the plants, removing excess
the lower the stresses on the system and its inhabitants. Most sediment, water changing, cleaning the filter, and cleaning the
rainbowfishes enjoy waterchanges; they seem stimulated by front glass. It is important to note that such attention as is
them, so long as they do not involve so great a change in water necessary must be given regularly, once you neglect an
parameters that they induce stress. Weekly changes of between aquarium the whole thing becomes a nuisance rather than the
25–35% should be employed to avoid any major changes in attraction that it can be with a little care.
water quality and chemistry.
Finally, let me say, that in all the details of the care and keeping
Weekly changes of at least 50% will be required for rainbowfishes of rainbowfishes in captivity, there is no teacher as good as
maintained at high population densities. Waterchanges are one of experience. I can only suggest some general guidelines I have
the easiest things you can do for your fish, and will do more to acquired from my own experience over the years. Each hobbyist
support their health and longevity than the most high-tech will have to discover those conditions suited to his own
filtration and control systems can do without waterchanges. No circumstances by experience and practice. Those who treat an
systems exist, despite misleading claims to the contrary, that aquarium carelessly or indifferently will soon become tired of it,
can replace waterchanges. and cast it away accordingly.

Outdoor Ponds
In suitable climates, rainbowfishes can be maintained and will Floating leafed plants are usually waterlilies. Plant enough to
breed in outdoor ponds. Although a tropical to sub-tropical cover 50 to 75 percent of the surface area of the pond to keep
group, all rainbowfishes can handle temperatures down to 20° the growth of algae in check. Submerged plants are the
C, and even as low as 10°C for short periods without problems. oxygenators of the pond - a must if your pond is to be healthy
If you live in a cooler climate you could maintain your and support fish.
rainbowfishes in an outside pond during the summer, as they
will all benefit from even a short period outdoors. Generally, Free-floating plants, such as Azolla, Lemna, or Ricciocarpus
rainbowfishes kept in outdoor ponds develop better colouration species, though not necessary, add the finishing touch to the
and will often grow to a size not attained in aquariums. This is natural appearance of the pond. These plants move with the
because in a pond situation the rainbowfishes have access to breeze and produce an ever-changing pattern in the pond.
the full range of natural pond organisms for feeding. In general, However, floating plants can smother the air/water interface
rainbowfishes should have at least some live foods to be resulting in reduced oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange and
healthy and grow rapidly. aeration. Surprisingly a cover of floating plants does not reduce
evaporation, as people believe; it actually increases evaporation due
An ornamental pond or watergarden provides a wonderful to the transpiration/respiration cycle and is called evapotranspiration.
opportunity to enjoy both the natural beauty of rainbowfishes They also reduce the amount of light penetration into the water
and waterplants. The soothing, visual beauty of ponds is column due to the effects of shading as well as competing for
enhanced by waterplants, with an ever-changing view as the nutrients, resulting in lower phytoplankton productivity in the
rainbowfishes swim among the plants, and the play of light and natural food chain.
shadows are reflected in the water. Rainbowfishes are naturally
camouflaged and difficult to see from the surface, but the Bog or marginal plants are also suitable for the pond. These
inclusion of waterplants will assist in preventing predation by plants can generally tolerate as little as three hours of direct
birds and other animals. All fish tend to prey on each other, and sunlight. Some grow best in constantly moist to boggy soils,
the larger naturally eat the smaller. Nevertheless, some small while others actually grow in standing water. There are many
fry will survive and the overall number will increase if part of different species of bog plants with varying heights, textures,
the pond is thickly planted. Waterplants serve many roles in and colours to their foliage. Waterplants, just like other garden
ponds; they produce oxygen, which is used by the fish, and plants, will need periodic pruning, dividing, repotting, and
help remove waste nutrients. They provide cover for small fish, fertilising. Fertilisers used in the pond should be slow release
spawning habitat for adult fish, and home for small aquatic pellets that can be pushed into the base of the plants. Caution
animals, which can be food for the fish. On the negative side, should be used, as any fertiliser leaching out into the water will
plants while creating habitat/shelter for small fish also provide cause an algal bloom.
an ideal habitat for dragonfly larvae, and other aquatic
creatures, which can be highly predatory on fry. Ponds can be built out of several types of materials. Some of
the more common construction materials are earth, liners,
Plants available for use in ponds are many, but there are certain fibreglass, and concrete. Choice of construction materials
considerations to be taken into account. Such things as water should take into account the life expectancy of the material and
depth, amount of sunlight, and whether the plant chosen will installation requirements. The liner is generally the most
survive in the pond, need to be considered. Floating leafed and important and most expensive component of a watergarden.
submerged plants are necessary for a healthy pond and must be
included in your selection. Pond size and construction is also Some examples of material in order of life expectancy are:
very important. The smaller the pond, the greater the impact PVC (fish grade) – 7 to 15 years
seasonal and diurnal temperature fluctuations have and the less Butyl or Rubber (fish grade) – 30 years
stable the overall pond environment will be. Minimum size for Fibreglass – 50 years
a healthy balanced pond is considered to be about 5 m2 of Concrete – Lifetime, if done correctly.
surface area. Another important factor in the overall health of
the pond is the depth. Depth of the pond should range from 45 Ponds can be relatively expensive to build and maintain,
to 60 cm. Greater depths are not necessary and may cause although many hobbyists start with little expense by using an
maintenance problems. old wash tub, bath or wading pool. However, it doesn’t matter
whether your pond is an old truck tyre or a backyard
Locate your pond to avoid direct sunlight at midday during the masterpiece with waterfalls and hidden lights, good water
warmest months. Rainbowfishes can become stressed by high quality must be maintained. If not, the pond declines in beauty
temperatures unless shade is provided by waterplants. A minimum and the fish become stressed and susceptible to diseases. Once
of 5 to 6 hours of direct sunlight each day is recommended for the the basics of water quality are understood and practiced,
best growth and establishment of all waterplants. However, there maintenance will become second nature and require only a few
are endless options for planting a pond and its surrounding area. hours per week.

Bruce Hansen
“Ponds can be relatively expensive to build and maintain, although many hobbyists start with little expense by using an old wash tub, bath or wading
pool. However, it doesn’t matter whether your pond is an old truck tyre or a backyard masterpiece, good water quality must be maintained.”
The most common water quality problems are oxygen needs to be removed, manually pull one end loose and roll it up
depletions and the build-up of toxic nitrogenous wastes. on a stick, or just pull it up by the handful. Some rainbowfish
Oxygen depletions occur because the total amount of plant and species will eat filamentous algae, but don’t expect it to be
animal life has exceeded the carrying capacity of the pond or rapidly consumed. In time the waterplants will cover most of
because of an excessive rate of decomposition. Fish gasping at the pond’s surface denying light to the algae.
the surface is almost a sure sign of oxygen depletion. Oxygen
consumption depends on the respiration of aquatic organisms, Established waterplants will eventually out-compete the
including plants, and the aerobic decomposition of organic algae for the available CO2 and soluble nutrients.
material by bacteria; these rates also increase with temperature. Sometimes the pond will suddenly clear overnight as the
This balance needs to be clearly understood; a satisfactory algae succumb and sink to the bottom. Occasionally
oxygen level recorded during the day is no guarantee that the throughout the pond’s life, this algal bloom may reoccur for
levels will be maintained during the night. Moderate levels a short time. This may happen when the temperature of the
recorded on a warm, sunny afternoon will almost always water is increasing, or the nutrient levels are up. Algal
indicate that severe oxygen deficiencies will occur during the blooms of short duration are to be expected. This indicates
night. Also, lower than expected daytime pH values due to that there is a growing food base for single-celled
high levels of CO2 may indicate high levels of bacterial protozoans and other zooplankton. In many ponds the water
respiration which could lead to low night-time oxygen levels. first appears brownish. This happens when the bacterial
food levels are large enough to cause huge protozoan or
The other common water quality problem is the accumulation rotifer blooms without much phytoplankton being present.
of toxic wastes such as ammonia and nitrites. This problem Water quality in ponds changes continuously and is affected
occurs because of over-feeding, rapid decomposition, or by physical and biological characteristics. With this in mind
biofiltration failure. Waterplants are active biological filters, water quality should be monitored regularly.
and, if a balance is maintained between the number of plants,
the number of fish, and the amount of nutrients the pond It is important to maintain the pond properly during each
receives, no other filtration should be necessary. Ponds with season, paying attention to the specific requirements, since
abundant waterplants and a modest number of fish should the tasks differ widely from one season to the next. In long
become a balanced system on its own. The key is to maintain periods of hot, dry weather, you may need to top up the
water quality and relatively clear water so your fish can be seen water level in the pond. Use stored rainwater, if possible.
and enjoyed. Water from the house supply is likely to have higher
chlorine/chloramine content in summer, and topping up
with it may encourage alga blooms, and induce stress in the
The Pond Ecosystem fish. If tap water is all you have available, introduce it in
All factors occurring in the pond, whether physical, chemical or small quantities - no more than 5% of the total pond
biological, influence the pond ecosystem. The pond ecosystem is volume, and no more than once a week.
of course extremely complicated and intricate. As aquarists, we
need to manipulate the ecosystem so as to produce an optimal
environment for the rainbowfishes. Food is just one component of Feeding Fish
this complex system. Some ponds will support adequate plankton Rainbowfishes may have to be fed some artificial feeds
communities without any assistance. However, most ponds require because some ponds just won’t have enough natural foods to
some form of fertilising in order to promote plankton sustain ideal growth. Large amounts of artificial feeds
development. A better understanding of the pond ecosystem will however, should not be used to feed rainbowfishes in outdoor
assist in the management of the pond to promote the natural ponds as it can be detrimental for water quality and is an
blooming of favourable microalgal (phytoplankton) species. ineffective feeding method. Feed just a small amount more
Different microalgal species have widely varying abilities and than they immediately consume and later check to see if the
demands for nutrient uptake and light utilisation. Parameters that additional feed is eaten. Adjust the amount of feed offered
will influence the phytoplankton ecology will include fertilisation accordingly. The pond will need to be inspected periodically to
(nutrients), temperature and light. check natural food populations.
When ponds are first filled with water, there are few living Rainbowfishes should be removed from the ponds, or
organisms and few nutrients. The water rapidly gains nutrients, restocked at lower densities, at the time when the natural
particularly if soluble inorganic fertilisers are added. It also food in the pond can no longer support the number of fish. It
gains nutrients, but more slowly, as organic fertilisers are is not possible however; to give daily dietary requirements
decomposed by bacteria. Phytoplankton and other bacteria for feeding rainbowfishes in ponds as the dietary requirements
rapidly use the released nutrients. Within a few days, growing under these conditions will depend on stocking density, and
populations of phytoplankton may provide a green tinge or the availability of natural food organisms.
“algae bloom” to the water. What turns the pond green is
innumerable single celled algae. These are present in all water Feeding should be reduced at water temperatures above 32°
and will create a bloom in any water left undisturbed in full C. At high temperatures rainbowfish do not feed well and are
sunlight. The long filamentous algae that grow on the bottom easily stressed by poor water quality. Also, do not feed at
and sides of the pond are not responsible for the discolouration water temperatures below 10°C. Rainbowfishes will not feed
of the pond. However, if you feel the algae is unsightly and at lower temperatures because their metabolism decreases.

Bruce Hansen
“Bathtub ponds”
The natural food items that are available in ponds can be Cladocerans are desirable live food since they have high
divided into three broad categories, these being plant material protein value and are readily consumed by most rainbowfishes.
(phytoplankton), animal material (zooplankton) and detritus However, cladoceran populations usually decline rapidly when
(decomposing fragments of organic material derived from both subjected to predation in ponds. On the other hand, copepods,
plants and animals), as well as organisms that are not easily because they are swift swimmers are better able to maintain
classified into any of these groups (such as protozoans and their populations during the later stages of pond culture.
bacteria). Rainbowfishes will feed on all these organisms.
Rotifers are often the earliest visible zooplankton to appear in
There are a number of different species of aquatic animals that ponds. Rotifers feed on bacteria and phytoplankton, and then
will inhabit the pond. The most important live food found in a reproduce to form huge populations. That usually happens 2–3
pond is aquatic insect larvae and zooplankton. These animals weeks after the ponds are filled and when water temperature is 20–
are very high in protein which is necessary for the growth of 28°C. As rotifers eat their own food supply the population drops
rainbowfishes. Zooplankton consists mostly of rotifers, cladocerans drastically. Then copepod nauplii, adult copepods and cladocerans
or copepods. The ability of rotifers and cladocerans to reproduce make their appearance. Together, copepods and cladocerans
parthenogenetically (asexually) enables them to react quickly to prevent a re-bloom of the smallest rotifers. However, modest
favourable and unfavourable environmental conditions. Rotifers populations of larger rotifers may appear after several weeks,
(40–600 µm) have the shortest life span (5–12 days) and can particularly when the fish prey on the rotifers’ competitors and
reach their peak reproductive level in about 3–5 days. At 20– predators - cladocerans, copepods and aquatic insect larvae.
25°C, the egg-to-egg span is 1–3 days. Cladocerans (0.2–3.0 Rotifers hatch from “resting eggs” that survived on the pond
mm) and copepods (0.3–3.0 mm) have similar life spans of bottom during unfavourable conditions. Most of them hatch into
approximately 40–50 days, but with different peak reproductive females that reproduce asexually until pond conditions become
periods. Egg-to-egg generation times are 7–14 days for unfavourable. Then sexual reproduction occurs and resting eggs
copepods compared to 6–8 days for cladocerans at 20–25°C. To are again produced.
reach their peak reproductive capacity, cladocerans require 14–15
days while copepods require 24 days at 20–25°C. Copepods, which For larger juvenile rainbowfishes, the smallest rotifers may not
have only sexual reproduction, require longer periods to increase provide enough nutrients to make chasing and ingesting them
their population levels. worth the effort. Juvenile rainbowfishes are more predatory than

the adults and require a higher proportion of animal protein in their Rainbowfishes larvae can be hatched or transferred directly
diets. Most juvenile rainbowfishes will eat zooplankton. For the into outdoor ponds to feed on these naturally produced live
small rainbowfishes, such as the newly hatched larvae, small foods. However, there may be some advantages in having an
rotifers may be the only zooplankton small enough to eat. initial 10–15 day rearing phase indoors, before moving them
Although copepod nauplii can also be important first foods for into on-growing ponds. Larvae can be stocked at densities of
rainbowfish larval. Protozoans may also be eaten, but little is ~100 larvae/m2 of pond surface area.
known about their contribution to rainbowfish larvae diets.
The proper timing of fish stocking is also important for
Although little live phytoplankton is eaten directly by optimum growth of the fish. The pond must contain the
rainbowfishes, it is one of the most important components of appropriate type and size of food when the fish are stocked.
the pond food chain. Plant material can come from many Larger juveniles (>25 mm) stocked into ponds with very tiny
sources including microalgae, aquatic plants, reeds and rushes. zooplankton may grow slowly because the fish must expend so
With all of these fresh plant materials, especially ones much energy to catch an adequate amount of food. Likewise, if
containing low protein, the actual nutrient value to the zooplankton is mostly too large for larvae rainbowfishes to
rainbowfishes is relatively low. In many cases when they are eat they may starve. Most rainbowfish larvae (4–6 mm or less)
eating plant material they are only acquiring a few vitamins fall into this category. When ponds are filled and fertilised, the
and minerals. Microalgal species can vary significantly in their plant and animal populations that invades or hatches from
nutritional value, and this will change under different culture within the pond pass through a somewhat predictable change in
conditions. Nevertheless, microalgae can offer an excellent sizes and species. At first there are usually a few small species
nutritional food for larval rainbowfishes, either directly or in large concentrations. Later there will be many species in an
indirectly (through enrichment of zooplankton). Plant materials array of sizes, but each in moderate concentrations. The
become far more nutritious after they have been in the pond for average size of organisms also gets larger with time. The early
a couple of weeks after they begin to decompose. At this stage community is unstable and great changes can occur quickly;
they are colonised by tiny aquatic animals, bacteria and fungi later, the greater diversity of organisms makes the community
and begin to break down into detritus. more stable.
As plants decompose they become broken down into tiny Although some protozoans may be large enough for tiny
fragments. The fragments become colonised by bacteria and rainbowfish larvae to eat, it is the next stages in succession
fungi which feed off the decomposing material. These tiny that are of greatest importance for growth. To maximize
fragments and the microscopic plants, animals, bacteria and survival, stock any larvae just as populations of zooplankton
fungi associated with them are known as ‘detritus’. Detritus is a small enough for the larvae to eat are rapidly increasing.
major component of the diet of rainbowfishes at all stages of The larvae will then have the right size food for rapid
their life cycle. The tiny plant fragments themselves are not growth and can better escape from any carnivorous aquatic
very nutritious but the micro-organisms associated with them predators that may begin to populate the pond. Stocking
are a readily digestible, nutritious, protein rich food source. The even larger juveniles into a pond that has been established
naturally occurring detrital food available can be supplemented for some extended period of time can result in predation.
by adding small amounts of organic plant materials such as hay
and lucerne which will break down most rapidly and In an established pond, a variety of fish predators would
effectively to form healthy detrital communities. have colonised the pond and begun to reproduce. These
include insects such as back-swimmers, diving beetles and
whirligig beetles. Later, even larger insects such as water
Outdoor Growing Ponds scorpions, giant water beetles and the larval stages of
Outdoor ponds are also perfect for raising newly-hatched dragonflies will appear. Insects begin to colonise as soon as
rainbowfish larvae and/or juveniles. An abundance of zooplankton ponds are filled during the warmer months. However, it
is particularly important for larvae to develop into juveniles and for usually takes several weeks for their populations to reach
juveniles to develop into sub-adults. Rainbowfish larvae will feed levels threatening to small fish. Rainbowfishes are active
on zooplankton through to the transition to adults. The larvae are predators and are well adapted to catching the smaller free
not particular about the types of live foods they eat, but the swimming forms of aquatic insect larvae. Rainbowfishes
organisms must be small enough to fit into their mouths. will also seek out and eat aquatic worms, snails, ants and
flying insects of allochthonous origin that may have fallen
The successful rearing of rainbowfish larvae in an outdoor into the pond. These organisms form a significant component
pond does however, requires specific management of the pond of the diet of rainbowfishes.
to enhance phytoplankton and hence zooplankton development.
The aim of pond rearing therefore is to maintain high densities
of desirable zooplankton species until the fish are removed Pond Fertilisation
from the pond or weaned onto artificial feeds. These ponds are The purpose of fertilisation is to promote an algal “bloom”
usually fertilised with organic or inorganic nutrients to encourage without necessarily trying to promote a particular alga species.
the development of phytoplankton blooms which, in turn, There is no point in fertilising ponds that have very low pH
produce zooplankton blooms upon which the stocked larvae values (<5.0) or very low total alkalinity (<20 mg/L).
feed. Alkalinity stabilises pH and facilitates the uptake of inorganic
carbon by algae. Carbon can also be supplied to the algae when

carbon dioxide is released following the decomposition of do inorganic fertilisers. Inorganic fertilisers add nutrients to
organic fertilisers. Likewise ponds with very high clay turbidity the pond instantly. A phytoplankton-based food chain can
will not respond to fertilisation. However suspended clay develop very rapidly without the need for bacterial action.
particles can provide suitable sites for active bacterial However, the nutrients are often used up very rapidly by the
colonisation and these ponds often have very good natural phytoplankton, and the risk of a bloom and bust is greater
zooplankton populations. than it is with organic fertilisers.
The dynamic characteristics of zooplankton populations have Fertiliser nutrients are used quickly in the pond environment.
led commercial aquaculturists to use particular fertilisation Some nutrients are trapped in the bottom sediment or otherwise
techniques and species-specific zooplankton inoculations in lost from the water. Therefore, nutrients should be replenished
culture ponds. The intent of these management techniques is to often. Frequent applications of small amounts are more effective
maintain high densities of desirable zooplankton species in the than a single large application for maintaining a constant supply of
ponds. Some aquaculturists have had considerable success in food organisms.
managing zooplankton populations through phytoplankton
management. The most important diet component of these The succession patterns and species composition of
animals has been shown to be small algae (1–25 µm). Algae zooplankton in natural environments may not be the same as in
larger than 50 µm or algae with spines or in colonies are intensively fertilised culture ponds. In a study of fertilised
usually rejected. culture ponds without fish, it was found that copepod adults
and nauplii, and daphnia populations reached maximum mean
Fertilisers may be either inorganic or organic based. Inorganic densities in an average of 23.5 days. Rapid population declines
fertilisers are those that take the form of granular or liquid of copepod adults and nauplii occurred in 5.3 days,
fertilisers having high phosphorus content and, to a smaller respectively, while daphnia and bosmina populations decreased
degree, nitrogen (phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient in significantly within 7.3 days after reaching maximum densities.
freshwater). The premise behind using inorganic fertilisers is
that by applying needed nutrients, phytoplankton populations’ Aquaculturists have different recommendations concerning the
increase. These increased populations of phytoplankton will time between filling the ponds and fish stocking. Some
then increase the number of zooplankton in the pond, which recommend that culture ponds be filled 2–3 weeks prior to
then eat the phytoplankton. However, it has been shown that stocking to allow time for maturation of zooplankton
large phytoplankton populations alone do not necessarily populations. However, not all fish species require the same size
increase zooplankton populations; zooplankton will eat more of prey at the onset of feeding. For instance, some species have
fungi and bacteria associated with decaying organic substances very small mouths that require them to consume small prey,
than phytoplankton directly. In fact, these large populations of such as rotifers and early instars of cladocerans. Improved
phytoplankton often lead to reduced water quality. survival may be achieved by stocking these fish species into
culture ponds filled only 2–3 days before stocking.
Organic fertilisers may be animal manures, hay and lucerne
(ground or meal), or soybean meal. Organic fertilisers Cladocerans, which are coloured a deep red are often indicators
should have small particle sizes to allow rapid of low dissolved oxygen conditions, and quickly become clear
decomposition. They can be broadcast over the pond or when placed into well-oxygenated waters. This coloration is
placed in porous mesh bags for slow release into the water; based on the increased amount of haemoglobin that these
this will help prevent the organic matter from floating animals have to compensate for low oxygen levels in the
around the pond. Another method is to pre-soak the dry environment; however, this increased amount of haemoglobin
material for several hours, and then distribute the wet comes at a cost. The increased number of diapause eggs in
material over the bottom, allowing it to slowly decompose. cladocerans also indicates another indication of poor
As previously indicated, zooplankton will consume fungi environmental conditions. These diapause eggs are often quite
and bacteria associated with decaying organic material. large and dark and are produced when these animals are forced
However, be aware that the use of organic matter may cause to undergo sexual reproduction in preparation of unfavourable
pH fluctuations, dissolved oxygen and ammonia problems environmental conditions.
during the initial decomposition.
When cladocerans are food-limited, they mature at a smaller
Ponds should be fertilised as they are being filled. Using a size and produces smaller offspring. The main response of
combination of organic and inorganic fertiliser results in a Daphnia pulex to low food levels was a reduction in size
greater diversity of plankton than if either fertiliser type is specific food intake and egg size. Cladoceran populations also
used alone, and reduces the potential for a bloom and bust consist of smaller individuals in water bodies with large
(crash). Organic fertilisers are the basis of the food chain populations of vertebrate predators. Large-bodied species, e.g.,
that nourishes bacteria, protozoans, zooplankton, and Daphnia pulex, tend to be fewer in ponds with large predator
eventually the fish. As organic fertilisers decompose, their bases. In these situations, smaller species or smaller individuals
nutrients are used by phytoplankton, which will be within a given species have improved chances of escaping
consumed by the rainbowfish larvae and smaller juveniles. predation than larger individuals (based on prey visibility).
The phytoplankton will also be eaten by protozoans and/or However, smaller animals can also be selected when predators
zooplankton before they are eaten by the fish. Nutrients are other invertebrates, such as midge (Chironomid) larvae, or
from organic fertilisers are released over time, so they backswimmers.
produce less drastic changes in plankton populations than

Aquatic Plants
It is not the intention of this section to discuss the cultivation of Planted aquariums are often referred to as “natural” aquaria.
aquatic plants, their structure, or classification. These details are However, the “natural” aquarium is an unattainable ideal. It
readily available in any basic aquatic plant book. Nevertheless, implies an aquarium in which all the inhabitants are
since the natural environment of all rainbowfishes includes interdependent on each other, as they are in a natural stretch
waterplants; live, flourishing plants are an important part of of water, and it takes very little thought to understand that
maintaining a wholesome captive environment. this result could not be achieved in an aquarium. Strictly
speaking a natural aquarium would be one where we
Aquatic plants are recognised as an integral component of natural wouldn’t have to feed the fish, change water, learn water
aquatic ecosystems because they increase habitat diversity and chemistry, provide lighting or any of the other things we
directly modify aquatic habitats. They are important habitats for have to do to maintain an aquarium successfully. No matter
the swarms of tiny animals that inhabit waterbodies. The cyclical how much we may wish it, regrettably, there is no such thing
uptake and release of carbon dioxide and oxygen during as a natural aquarium. Keeping rainbowfishes in an aquarium
photosynthesis and respiration produce cyclic fluctuations in the cannot, even under the best conditions, be anything equal to
concentrations of these gases and hence cyclic fluctuations in their life in the wild. At best, an aquarium is an artificially
dissolved oxygen concentration and pH. Aquatic macrophytes controlled environment that is suitable for maintaining fishes,
further alter in-stream habitat by reducing water velocities, plants, and other aquatic life forms for extended periods.
stabilising river substrates and influencing water temperatures. In
Australia’s inland river systems, where relatively few waterplants In a loose sense, however, a “balanced” aquarium is attainable,
now grow, there are relatively few aquatic animals. Rainbowfishes by not overcrowding the fish, by stocking with plenty of plants,
that do live in these river channels cluster around submerged snags and in a way we are imitating Nature, even if we have to help
and tree roots. her by feeding the fish, trimming the plants, and removing
from time to time much of the sediment that collects on the
In their natural environment rainbowfishes use aquatic plants for bottom. A state of balance would occur if everything (food,
shelter and refuge, as a food source either directly or indirectly, in lighting, fertiliser, etc.) that we supply the aquarium is taken up
the form of epiphyton (periphyton) and associated invertebrates, by the fishes, aquatic plants, algae and other life forms to the
and as spawning and nursery sites. Rainbowfishes larvae need same degree as they are being supplied.
aquatic macrophytes as shelter and protection from predation or to
avoid cannibalism. In general the macrophyte habitat not only Many hobbyists are disturbed by the presence of algae and do
provides protection from predators, but also rich foraging their best to try and remove it. Perhaps this should be taken as
microhabitats for larvae rainbowfishes, allowing higher growth evidence that a ‘state of balance’ is occurring. Maybe not the
rates and fecundity, and lower mortality. Rainbowfishes that particular state of balance that you desire, but it is a biological
inhabit aquatic plant habitats feed mainly on autochthonous balance all the same. However, the truth is that no matter how
items, represented by diatoms, chlorophytes, microcrustaceans, biologically balanced your aquarium is, over time water quality
and aquatic insect larvae. will deteriorate and must be changed on a regular timetable.
In an aquarium, living plants serve most of the same functions that

they do in nature. Plants provide shelter, shade, and for some Australian & New Guinea Aquatic Plants
rainbowfishes - food, especially the duckweeds. Plants in an Many waterplants are unique to Australia, although some are also
aquarium also contribute to the oxygen content of the water and found elsewhere in the world, with the Australian populations
assists in maintaining water quality. In addition to this, plants representing local varieties rather than distinct species. However,
provide huge surface area for colonisation by other micro flora and the aquatic flora of Australia is not dissimilar to that found in most
fauna. In tanks where plants are growing well, rainbowfishes other tropical or subtropical regions of the world. Although some
behave more normally and display better colouration. Finally, endemic species are found, most species are cosmopolitan. This
aquatic plants add to the beauty, interest, and naturalness of the relatively low degree of endemism and diversity in aquatic flora is
aquarium. probably because of the cosmopolitan nature of many aquatic
plant species. A mixture of distance dispersal, barriers and local
Aquatic plants are not difficult to keep healthy and speciation, can explain the development of Australian aquatic
attractive, as long as their basic requirements are met. As is flora. Climate is obviously the most significant barrier. However,
the case with terrestrial plants, these include adequate light very few comprehensive aquatic flora surveys have been conducted
and fertilisation, a suitable growing medium, proper water within Australian freshwaters.
conditions and temperature. The importance of proper
lighting cannot be over-estimated, but too much light is The aquatic flora of New Guinea has not been studied to any
almost as bad as too little light. Keep the aquarium well significant degree neither. Many of the river mainstreams are
away from a window or natural light and use artificial light. turbid, which precludes the establishment of submerged
In this way you can control the light independently of the aquatic macrophytes. The number of species is probably less
vagaries of natural weather; and should not be affected by a than 200. However, species-level treatments exist for only a
rampant growth of algae. small portion of the flora.

Graeme Finsen
Natural habitat (Queensland)
Alan Travers
Natural habitat (Western Australia)

Bruce Hansen
Ondinea purpurea (Natural habitat)
Bruce Hansen
Gregory River Waterplants (Queensland)

Cryptocoryne is a genus of perennial aquatic plants found
growing in a variety of tropical riverine or swamp habitats,
adapted to fluctuating water levels during seasonal flooding
and drought. Leaves are attached at the crown by sheathed
petioles as long as or longer than the leaf. Leaves ovate to
lanceolate, tapering at the tips and rounded at the bases. Leaf
surfaces smooth, margins entire, commonly wavy. Submersed
leaves 4–10 cm long, 1–4 cm wide. Upper surfaces to green to
brown often marbled in darker brown or patterned with
prominent venation. Lower surfaces nearly green to brown and
tinted with a glistening violet. Inflorescence enclosed within a
spathe, a fleshy ornate bract. Immature spathes are sometimes
present on submersed plants and appear as tightly rolled tubes.
Mature spathes will unfold only when emersed from the water.
Several features of mature spathes, specifically the colour of
the collar and the twist of the terminal limb, are used in species
identification.
There are no Cryptocoryne species found growing naturally

in Australia. In New Guinea however, there are at least
three species that have been reported. Cryptocoryne
versteegii have been found in the Lorentz and Kikori River C. ciliate & C. versteegii (Kikori River)
systems. Cryptocoryne ciliata are reported from the
Merauke and Kikori River systems, and Cryptocoryne The typical habitats of Cryptocoryne are mostly streams and
dewitii has been collected from the Kiunga region in the Fly rivers with slow-flowing water in the lowland forests. They
River. Unidentified specimens of Cryptocoryne have also also live in seasonally inundated forest pools or on river
been reported from the Wapoga River. banks submerged only at high water.
Photos: Bruce Hansen
Cryptocoryne ciliate growing in natural habitat (Kikori River)

The vegetation of New Guinea is more closely allied to the Coongie Lakes supports floating plants of Ludwigia peploides,
flora of western Asia than to that of the Australian continent. Azolla filiculoides or Lemna disperma, while Goyder Lagoon
For this reason it has been termed “Malesian”, part Asian and supports a system dominated by Polygonum spp.; these plants
part Melanesian. may be entirely dependent on groundwater. The same holds for
the Marsilea species in the river pools of the Pilbara.
Authors inevitably differ in their concept of which species
should be included in a taxonomic treatment of aquatic plants. Most of the above wetlands are fringed by submerged and
Each has their own definition for the term “aquatic”. Virtually emergent herblands in shallower waters. In northern Australia,
all authors recognise those plants with a submersed or floating species include Triglochin procera, Caldesia oligococca,
growth habit as aquatic. Most also apply the term to the Limnophila brownii, Ludwigia adscendens, Ceratophyllum
common emergent species. The definition is harder to apply demersum, Monochoria cyanea, Vallisneria nana, Utricularia,
consistently for (a) plants growing in marginal zones of Myriophyllum, Eriocaulon and Chara species. Species
wetlands, e.g., floodplains, swamps, streambanks, etc., and (b) associated with such communities on the east coast of Australia
plants displaying a wide-ranging ecological amplitude which include Ludwigia peploides, Najas marina, Vallisneria
enables them to grow in either wet or dry situations. Whether a australis, Triglochin procera, Myriophyllum propinquum,
plant is to be designated as aquatic or not is thus based upon Potamogeton crispus, P. ochreatus, Nitella and Utricularia
the plants’ growth habit and the types of habitats in which it is species.
found. How much weight is assigned to either of these criteria
is a subjective decision which largely accounts for differences In south-western Australia, communities including Halosarcia
in the taxa treated by various aquatic plant manuals. halocnemoides, Sarcocornia quinquefolia, Wilsonia humilis,
Triglochin procera, Lepilaena preissii, Najas marina, Ruppia
Algal and aquatic moss commonly comprise Charophyta maritima, Potamogeton pectinatus, P. ochreatus, Villarsia
(stoneworts) and Chlorophyta (green algae) which forms albiflora, Persicaria decipiens, Chara baueri and Nitella
macroscopic mats either attached to plants or in open water. species occur in coastal sand dune swamps and on the fringes
Floating vascular/leaved plants have part or all of the leaves at of lakes. Equivalent emergent and submerged herblands exists in
the waters surface. Examples include Azolla, Lemna, Spirodela coastal and highland Tasmania, in the extreme southeast of South
and Wolffia and the genus Utricularia. Members from the Australia, and on the tablelands of south-eastern Australia.
family Potamogetonaceae (pondweeds) are also common
floating plants and can be found in a variety of habitats. Rooted The genus Aponogeton is a group of freshwater aquatic
vascular plants are those rooted in the sediments with either a plants occurring in Australia and New Guinea. Aponogeton
major proportion of material above water (reeds, rushes and are popular aquarium plants and for many years they were
sedges) or totally under water. Typical genera include Baumea, collected from the wild. However, conservation measures
Bolboschoenus, Carex, Cyperus, Gahnia, Schoenus, Juncus, introduced by Australian Governments now restrict this
Triglochin, Blyxa, Myriophyllum and Vallisneria. practice. Members of the Aponogeton genus listed as
threatened species include A. bullosus, A. prolifer, A. cuneatus,
Floating and floating-leaved plants occur in permanent waters A. queenslandicus and A. elongatus subsp. elongatus.
in most coastal rivers and wetlands across Australia. Typical
northern assemblages include Nelumbo nucifera, Nymphaea Many specimens of Aponogeton from northern Australia were
gigantea, Nymphoides indica, Ottelia ovalifolia, Azolla, originally assigned to A. elongatus, but are now assigned to A.
Ludwigia, Marsilea and Pseudoraphis species. These may be euryspermus, A. vanbruggenii or A. tofus. These species
found in the river channels and pools in the tropical coastal initially produce submerged leaves in flowing or clear water
plain. On the floodplains of the Northern Territory and the but later in the year plants often develop floating leaves.
Kimberly, such assemblages may be fringed by Melaleuca Species in this group can be separated by their seed shape and
swamp forests. size; A. euryspermus has large broad seeds that can become
very thick when mature, A. tofus has narrower almost
In coastal floodplain systems, species include Azolla cylindrical seeds, while A. vanbruggenii has even narrower
filiculoides, Nymphaea gigantea, Potamogeton tricarinatus, seeds with a distinct knob at one end. All have seeds with an
Ottelia ovalifolia, Nymphoides indica and Lemna species. In outer testa that is easily removed (thick in A. euryspermus and
wetland landscapes, species include Potamogeton tricarinatus, A. tofus – thin in A. vanbruggenii). All species are confined to
Azolla pinnata, A. filiculoides, Ottelia ovalifolia, Lemna the tropics with A. euryspermus more westerly in its
trisulca and L. disperma. In south-western Australia, Najas distribution, A. vanbruggenii more easterly and A. tofus
marina, Myriophyllum propinquum, Lemna disperma, Azolla growing between the two but overlapping with A.
filiculoides, Spirodela oligorrhiza, Potamogeton tricarinatus, vanbruggenii. A. tofus is closely related to A. euryspermus (as
P. pectinatus, Nitella congesta, Chara baueri, and Ottelia it had been previously identified); however, it is distinct and
ovalifolia dominate. quite divergent at the molecular level from that and other
species.
Floating and floating-leaved communities are associated with
the inland Murray–Darling river system and include Azolla The genus Limnophila commonly known as Ambulia, has
filiculoides, A. pinnata, Potamogeton tricarinatus, Spirodela given the aquarium hobby some beautiful and well-known
oligorrhiza and Lemna disperma. While the water level aquarium plants. Limnophila is a genus of aquatic or semi-
maintaining such communities usually remains between one aquatic plants that are found in Australia and New Guinea.
and two metres in depth, it may dry out completely for periods.

Dave Wilson
Limnophila aromatica
Dave Wilson
Limnophila australis
In Australia five Limnophila species are currently recognised: when several years old and have fewer flowers per plant. V.
L. aromatica, L. australis, L. brownii, L. chinensis and L. annua produces many flowers per shoot (>12) when the plant
fragrans. Reports of L. indica found growing naturally in is still small and young. Reliable identification however, is
Australia are L. brownii. only possible by examining floral structures. The two species
also have distinct leaf characteristics.
The genus Myriophyllum contains species of hardy and
adaptable plants for both temperate or tropical aquariums and V. caulescens and V. triptera are two closely related species
watergardens. They are amongst the best submerged aquatic from northern Australia that grow as stem plants, with leaves
plants for a pond where rainbowfishes are kept. With their arranged alternately along the stems, rather than as compact,
finely divided foliage in dense swirling masses, they provide basal rosettes. Both are more closely related to other
the perfect place for rainbowfishes to deposit their spawn and Vallisneria species than to species in any other genus. The only
for the fry to start their early life. Species more suited to exclusive character they share within Vallisneria is the cauline
somewhat shallower waters includes M. papillosum, M. leaf arrangement, a character also shared by the florally distinct
simulans and M. verrucosum. Other water milfoils remain Maidenia (Vallisneria) rubra (stamen 1, 3-locular) and
mostly submerged at all times. Nechamandra (female flowers sessile with a long delicate
hypanthium).
Potamogeton is a genus that is strictly aquatic, and is rooted in
the substrate with either floating (P. tricarinatus) or submerged Marsilea species are semi-aquatic fern allies with distinctive
leaves. They produce flowers just above water level and a fronds shaped like clover leaves, which may be emergent or
number have floating foliage for some part of the year. This is a floating during inundation. At least seven species are known in
small but cosmopolitan family, found almost anywhere Australia. They are mainly distinguished from each other by
permanent, still or flowing, fresh or slightly brackish waterbodies their reproductive structures, which are called sporocarps and
are found. Similarly, in Australia they can be found anywhere are located towards the base of the fronds. One species,
there is suitable habitat, including the arid inland. Marsilea latzii, is moderately salt tolerant and is rare. Many of
the species readily grow in highly temporary water bodies such
Rotala species are typically found in damp soil adjacent to as very small clay depressions; however, Marsilea mutica may
water and occasionally in shallow water. It is assumed that they favour longer term and more frequently inundated wetlands.
germinate in response to inundation and reach maturity after Standing water is probably required for the spores of all species
water has receded. Six species have been recorded in to germinate, and many or all species thrive in shallow water
Australia: R. diandra, R. mexicana, R. occultiflora, R. rosea, R. for extended periods of many months.
rotundifolia (naturalised) and R. tripartita.
Isoëtes muelleri is a fern-like plant that is semi-aquatic or
The taxonomy of Vallisneria in the past has been confusing amphibious but has more of the appearance of a grass. It may
and inconclusive with numerous species being described and not require free water to complete its life cycle. Hygrophila
these names (often incorrectly) have been widely used in the species occur in tropical regions in Australia and New Guinea.
aquarium hobby. The genus Vallisneria was reviewed in 1997 They are common on floodplains, swamps and waterholes with
(Jacobs & Frank) with the addition of new species and some apparently three species in Australia. Hygrophila angustifolia
clarification of existing names. Recent phylogenetic analyses is the most common.
(Les et al. 2008) of Vallisneria material collected throughout
Australia, Asia and North America has revealed considerably Pond plants can include the Australian water lilies which
higher diversity in Vallisneria (11–13 species) than previously include at least 9 species, all of which are much more cold-
described with the addition of two new species and the transfer sensitive than the exotic tropical hybrids available through
of Maidenia rubra to Vallisneria. water garden nurseries. Many of these Australian species have
been lumped together under N. gigantea. The true N. gigantea
These studies have identified Australia as the centre of has round petals, and varies from blue to white to pink, fading
diversity for this genus. It is speculated that Vallisneria species with age. N. violacea is sharper-petalled, blue to mauve or
were once considerably more abundant than is the case today. sometimes white to pink. White species include N. elleniae,
The depauperate riverine flora within the regulated inland and N. pubescens which is usually tinged pink. N. immutabilis
rivers of south-eastern Australia suggests that their preferred may be blue or white, always with a blue tinge. The sacred
habitat has suffered greatly from altered flow and water lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) is one of our largest aquatic plants.
quality.
In cooler climates other plants can be used in place of water
Confusion over names and identifications has been mainly lilies, including the related Brasenia schreberi with its unusual
resolved by detailed examination of specimens collected elliptical leaves and purple flowers. Nymphoides species are
throughout Australia. V. nana was formally separated from V. occasionally referred to as water lilies due to a general
americana. V. nana has over the years been described as V. resemblance to Nymphaea species. Many Nymphoides species
spiralis and both V. nana and V. annua have been previously have very waterlily-like leaves, but the flowers are much
described as V. gracilis. Both V. nana and V. annua have basal smaller and often heavily fringed. N. indica is white-flowered
leaves and tufted shoots. V. nana is usually perennial and from with a yellow centre. N. crenata has serrated leaf edges in most
perennial habitats, whereas V. annua is mostly an annual from forms. Ottelia ovalifolia is also very decorative but not easy to
ephemeral habitats. Female shoots of V. nana only flower maintain.

Dave Wilson
Aponogeton tofus
Gunther Schmida
Utricularia gibba
Dave Wilson
Microcarpaea minima
Other shallow waterplants can be suitable, particularly Alisma Pogostemon stellatus
Neil Armstrong
plantago-aquatica with rather heart-shaped leaves held high,
although the shivering masses of tiny white flowers are also
very decorative. Mimulus gracilis produces carpets of bluish,
yellow-centred flowers for months on end in a good season.
Mimulus occurs worldwide, but most of the ~160 species are
part of two large radiations centered in western North America
and Australia. The Australian genera Peplidium (14 species),
Glossostigma (seven or eight species), Microcarpaea (two
species) and Elacholoma (two species) are considered to be
members of Mimuleae. However, the systematic placement of
the genus and the relationships among species within it remain
unresolved.
There are many aquatic and wetland plants found in Australia

and New Guinea that are suitable for the rainbowfish aquarium
or watergarden. They are not restricted in variety—its just that
they are poorly known!
Most aquatic plant species lack the mobility necessary to

travel directly from one catchment to another, to colonise
new areas and to disperse to neighbouring water bodies in
different catchments. Despite this apparent isolation of
freshwater habitats, many of these aquatic species have
widespread distributions consistent with the frequent
dispersal by migratory waterbirds. Many aquatic plants can
survive intervening drought periods as dormant stages, or
recolonise temporary dry wetlands via hydrological
connections, especially via floodwaters entering from rivers.
Dave Wilson
Vallisneria annua
Alan Travers
Myriophyllum in natural habitat

Brackish Water Aquarium
Rainbowfishes have often been reported in the aquarium Most of the Australian fish fauna is contentiously hypothesised
literature as being suitable for brackish water aquariums. to be derived from marine descendants, and are sometimes
However, all rainbowfishes are permanent inhabitants of labelled as “secondary” freshwater fish. The rainbowfish
freshwaters. There are, in fact, few recorded observations of family are one of the groups considered to have been derived
rainbowfishes in saline waters and can generally be considered from relatively recent marine ancestors, and therefore could be
as a species most intolerant to salinity. Where rainbowfishes expected to retain at least moderate salinity tolerance.
have been collected in “brackish” water conditions it is However, there is limited scientific information of salt
probably due to stratification of the freshwater flow (lens) tolerance available for rainbowfishes.
above a saltwater wedge caused by substantial freshwater
runoff. Surface water sampling does not provide any information One study (Kefford, et al.) on the sub-lethal effects of salinity
on the flow stratification nor on the fresh/brackish interface on both male and female fish of M. s. splendida was
characteristics. undertaken in 2006. Preliminary results found that better
growth rates occurred at low salinities than in higher salinity. It
Rainbowfishes are therefore not a suitable candidate for a was also found that egg numbers and hatching rates were
brackish aquarium. However, brackish conditions are the reduced at the higher salinity levels. Poor hatching rates of
preferred environment for a number of Pseudomugil (blue-eye) eggs and survival rates of fry has also been reported from
species. P. cyanodorsalis, P. inconspicuus, P. majusculus, and moderate increases in salinity. It is important to note the
P. signifer are regularly found in brackish mangrove estuaries. sensitivity of earlier life stages because the occurrence of adult
They are found in estuarine and coastal freshwater habitats fish at a given salinity at a particular site on a given sampling
across northern Australia and southern New Guinea. Although day may not necessarily indicate a viable population. The most
P. cyanodorsalis are mostly found in brackish mangrove areas, sensitive stages appear to be pre-hardened eggs, post-hardened
I successfully bred and raised them in freshwater over a period eggs and fry (particularly when the yolk sac is exhausted).
of three years. Many hobbyists, however, report that they will Another study found deaths occurred at salinities between 4.4
live longer, breed more freely, and produce more offspring if and 13.2 mS/cm. There is also evidence that the salinity
maintained in brackish water. tolerances of younger fish is less than the acute tolerances of
older fish.
The various species of fish found in oceans, lakes, rivers
and streams have evolved over millions of years and have Salinity tolerance refers to the ability of an animal to withstand
adapted to their preferred environments over long periods of exposure to salinity for an indefinitely long period without
time. Fish that can tolerate only very narrow ranges of dying. Tolerance to salinity is in part due to the physiological
salinity are known as stenohaline species. These fish die in mechanisms and morphological adaptations that act to balance
waters having a salinity that differs from that in their natural concentrations of salts in the cells and tissue of an organism
environments. Fish that can tolerate a wide range of salinity against the external environment. In this way, salinity tolerance
at some phase in their life-cycle are called euryhaline can vary between species, populations and to some extent can
species. These fish can live or survive in wide ranges of vary between individuals of the same population. Salinity
salinity, varying from fresh to brackish to marine waters. A tolerance may also be due to environmental factors that affect
period of gradual adjustment or acclimation, though, may be the duration of exposure and rate of increase in salinity
needed for euryhaline fish to tolerate large changes in concentrations.
salinity. Ultimately, fish adapted to or inhabited marine,
fresh or brackish water because each environment offered Vast stretches of mangrove estuaries are common around
some competitive advantage to the different species. Australia and New Guinea where fresh and salt-water mix
producing a unique brackish environment containing its own
Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis have been collected from around distinctive fauna. These estuaries are tidal, but during the wet
Broome and Wyndham in northwestern Australia and from the season, freshwater flowing in from the flooding rivers dilute the
vicinity of Darwin, Northern Territory. They have also been saltwater to fresh, water thus varies from saline through brackish to
collected from coastal areas around the Gulf of Carpentaria in fresh. The estuarine sections include deep-water over bottom sand
Queensland. I have no doubt that this species will eventually be and mud, encompassing densely vegetated mangrove zones.
found in southern New Guinea. Pseudomugil inconspicuus has Subtidal and intertidal wetlands are found adjacent to riverine
been found at the mouth of the Fly River, southwestern Papua channels and are generally shallow, probably less than 0.5 m., with
New Guinea and Bintuni Bay, Irian Jaya. They can also be subsequent aquatic beds consisting of algal and vascular species.
found in scattered localities around northern Australia.
Pseudomugil majusculus have been collected from brackish The thought of setting up a brackish water aquarium may seem
water on the northern coast of New Guinea, near Cape Ward more trouble than what its worth. However, a brackish water
Hunt. Pseudomugil signifer are widely distributed along the aquarium suitably set-up with treated mangrove roots, rocks,
eastern coast of Australia and are usually abundant in and sandy substrate can make a very attractive display. It is
brackish mangrove estuaries. very simple to maintain a brackish water aquarium. However,
like any aquarium, if you do not understand the animals, their

needs and what it takes to keep them successfully, your brackish Water temperature should be maintained between 20–24°
water aquarium can rapidly turn into a nightmare. The secret of Celsius. A pH of 7.8–8.4 will be acceptable. Like any other
success is to provide good quality water and to keep only a limited aquarium, levels of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate should be kept
number of compatible animals in the aquarium. to a minimum. Most brackish water fishes appreciate
moderately hard, alkaline water conditions. Sea salts contain
Brackish water conditions can be obtained by mixing freshwater carbonates and bicarbonates which tend to buffer the water
with seawater. Seawater is more than just Sodium chloride, and for well, so hardness and pH shouldn't be too much of a problem.
this reason adding ordinary salt is not an adequate substitute. A good way to buffer the water is to use calcareous media in
Seawater contains a variety of salts, and the best way to make the filter. This can consist of crushed coral, shellgrit, or similar
brackish water is to use sea salt (marine mix) sold for saltwater material in the filter or as part of the substrate.
aquaria.
The most natural substrate for a brackish aquarium is fine sand,
Typically seawater has a density of around 1.025, which means one but this is not ideal for use with an undergravel filter. If you
litre of seawater weighs 1.025 kilogram (approx). For the record, wish to utilise an undergravel filter, you could use a sheet of
seawater has about 35 grams of sea salt dissolved in one litre of fine mesh plastic flyscreen to stop the sand from being pulled
water. If you want one-tenth seawater, or about 1.002 to 1.003, you below the undergravel plate. Coarse-grained calcareous beach
would make full strength (1.025) seawater and then dilute it with sand is also useful (the type used in marine aquariums). This
freshwater in the ratio one part salt to nine parts fresh. One half will produce a buffering substrate to a moderate extent.
seawater, about 1.012, would be made by mixing one part salt
water to one part fresh. Partial water changes should be made every 14 days and when
changing the water do not forget to add salt supplemented
The salinity of the water required will depend on the fishes being water. Remember that this is for doing a water change, not for
kept. Blue-eyes are from the fresher end of the range and will enjoy replacing evaporated water. Do not use brackish water to
a salinity of less than 1.005. Fishes that live mostly in seawater replenish water lost to evaporation. Use freshwater only as
prefer a salinity of over 1.010. One litre of seawater to every nine dissolved salts do not evaporate with the water. If brackish
litres of freshwater makes an acceptable mixture for most brackish water is used to top up the tank, the salt concentration will
fish. Always make the saltwater up separately, following the increase, and before long you will have a saltwater aquarium.
instructions on the package. Saltwater is highly corrosive and most
metals will corrode quickly when continuously splashed by
saltwater. It is therefore important to make sure that no metal
objects are used inside the aquarium and metal lighthoods and
stands should be avoided.
Typical P. cyanodorsalis and P. inconspicuus habitat

Rainbowfishes
Breeding & Raising
Photo: Leo O'Reilly

Breeding Rainbowfishes
With declining habitat conditions in many parts of Australia and Spawning frequency in the wild is unknown, but it is likely that the
New Guinea, saving the existing aquarium gene pool and the number of spawnings per year would be much less than that
integrity of each individual species should mean more to observed in captivity. In their natural environment rainbowfishes
rainbowfish keepers than their just being a passing aquarium are generally aseasonal breeders, spawning opportunistically at
adornment. Therefore, the breeding of rainbowfishes should be intervals over a period of about four to five months of the year.
a central role for the serious rainbowfish keeper. Most however, show a peak in reproductive development during
the early-wet season (November to May) in floodplain rivers, but
Unfortunately, the initial numbers of each individual species can also occur in streams during the dry season (August to Novem-
collected from New Guinea has been very small resulting in ber). Rainbowfishes usually move out of their dry season habitats
a limited genetic base from which to establish larger aquarium to take advantage of the extensive flooding, which often coincides
populations. This can be clearly seen in several of the New with an increase in food resources.
Guinea species where the quality and colouration has
diminished greatly in captive stocks. Aquarists must give Flooding also increases the area and diversity of aquatic habitats
careful consideration to the choice of brood stock if genetic available. The young are spawned when food is plentiful and when
‘pollution’ of the aquarium stock is to be prevented. Ideally, aquatic plant communities are most dense, affording them
a number of individuals should be sourced from the wild protection from predation. Although, spawning will vary from
population every so often. region to region and in some cases from headwaters to lowland
reaches when flow rates are reduced and the occurrence of a water
To maximise genetic diversity captive populations need to flow resulting from sudden rain is significantly reduced. However,
be perpetually managed so an adequate number of separate rainbowfishes will normally breed when environmental conditions
brood stocks are maintained with frequent transfers between ensure maximum fertilisation and larval survival. They generally
them. For the most part, aquarium breeding has effectively spawn over a large area in slow-flowing waters and the backwaters
resulted in domesticated strains of rainbowfishes that may be of floodplain areas. The presence of extensive spawning enables
well adapted to life in captivity, but are far removed from them to ‘spread the risk’ from predators. This strategy increases the
their life in the wild. chances of some eggs surviving.
Very little is known about the biology, ecology and natural Rainbowfish larvae are subject to enormous mortality, with
life history of rainbowfishes in the wild. Most information is estimates as high as 99.99% mortality during the early larval
mainly based on aquarium observations. Rainbowfishes are stage. This mortality occurs in various ways. Displacement
highly social and form schools for some or most of their lives. from favourable nursery areas can occur during the larval
Strong sexual dimorphism is present in the species with males stage and has been shown to cause mortality. Likewise the
typically being larger and brighter in colouration. The condition or health of larval and juvenile fish is an important
behaviour between the sexes also appears to vary with factor regulating mortality during the first year of life.
females and juveniles forming small social groups that stay Indeed, it has long been proposed that levels of recruitment
together while solitary males cruise in search of mating and subsequent survival are determined during the ‘critical
opportunities. Males can also be highly territorial and will period’ which occurs between hatching and first-feeding,
engage in spectacular fin-flashing displays during contests with survival related to the period between when fish require
with rivals over the acquisition and defence of spawning sites exogenous nourishment and when such nourishment becomes
(submerged logs, rocks, vegetation) close to the water’s edge. available.
Females that are ready to spawn often move between territories,
inspecting males along the way. It has been suggested that in lowland Australian rivers,
spawning of many native fish is a predictable event that
Males play an active role in courting females and will often occurs regardless of variations in environmental conditions
swim over to display to passing females. If successful in his such as hydrology (Humphries & Lake 2000). This suggests
efforts, the female will follow the male to his territory and that recruitment failures originate from poor larval survival
scatter her eggs amongst the spawning site. In the wild they rather than a lack of spawning activity. Larval growth
tend to spawn amongst stems and roots of marginal aquatic generally has a positive relationship with temperature, due to
vegetation, especially where the substrate slopes up to the the direct metabolic advantage of warmer water and also
bank. After spawning, the female will leave, while the male because increasing temperatures are often associated with
remains displaying to passing females and thus defending his increased primary and secondary production.
territory and the fertilised eggs. The eggs are attached by
adhesive chorionic filaments or tendrils to a range of The precise regulatory role of environmental factors on the
submerged physical structures, including gravel substrates, reproductive cycles of rainbowfishes is not known. Spawning is
woody debris, root masses, aquatic vegetation and regulated by external environmental factors that trigger internal
submerged marginal (riparian) vegetation, which hide them biological functions. The internal biological functions that regulate
from predators. spawning are similar for most fishes. External environmental
factors that control spawning, however, vary considerably.

Hans Booij
Rainbowfish eggs
Environmental factors that have been shown to play a In addition to the regular aquarium, breeding usually requires
significant role in the reproduction cycle of rainbowfishes one or more separate aquariums for conditioning the breeders,
are: photoperiod; water temperature; water quality; flooding spawning, and rearing the juveniles. Before attempting to breed
and water flow; rainfall and availability of food. These factors do your rainbowfishes, you should feed them with the best food
not function independently of each other, but are interrelated. you have available for at least two preceding weeks. Most
Actual spawning occurs in response to short-term stimuli such as species will breed successfully when fed commercially
colouration or pheromones of a mate. Pheromones are chemical manufactured fish food (43% protein; 12% lipid), but feeding
messengers like hormones but instead of carrying information with live and high-protein frozen foods will maximise egg
within an individual they carry information between individuals of numbers. Feed at least every day making sure you don’t
the same species. overfeed.
Fortunately, rainbowfishes in captivity are very adaptive and To increase your success, and prevent uncontrolled spawning,
will breed under a variety of conditions, and are in the main, try separating the males from the females during this two-week
influenced by photoperiod and temperature. Subtle changes in period. Separation of the sexes elicits a synchronisation of
water chemistry will also have some influence on the spawning that result in a larger number of eggs.
spawning of rainbowfishes. Therefore, maintaining them in an
appropriate captive environment will generally ensure Java moss or any similar ‘aquatic moss’ is a suitable live plant
successful breeding. for spawning rainbowfishes and grows well under the low light
conditions of most breeding set-ups. Even so, spawning mops
Successful breeding will depend on a number of things such as are my preferred spawning medium. By simulating a spawning
nutrition, temperature, the number of fish in the aquarium, the substrate (plants, etc.), they serve as egg collectors and provide
age of the fish, and sex ratio. To breed rainbowfish successfully a place for egg attachment. Spawning mops can consist of
you need to provide them with suitable conditions and they will bundles of fibrous material arranged in a variety of forms and
do the rest. Water temperature can be maintained at around 28° made from a variety of different materials. However, one of the
C (± 1°C). A photoperiod of 14 hours light: 10 hours of easiest methods is to use acrylic thread (about 8 ply), boiled to
darkness usually gives the best result. Other water quality remove excess dye, cut to the desire length and tied together in
components are not a major factor providing they fall within the middle. For a more natural appearance, you could use green
that shown in the accompanying water quality table. coloured thread to simulate aquatic vegetation.

Spawning Mops (photo: Leo O’Reilly) Group spawning with multiple males and females is the
preferred method of choice for breeding rainbowfishes because
it produces less stress on all the participants. Breeding males
can be overly aggressive at times. Therefore, it is best to have
three (or more) males, as with two males, one will dominate
the other, and in effect prevent him from breeding, while a
single male may cause undue force on the females. Three on
the other hand will keep inter-male aggression within bounds
and spares the females physical abuse.
In the wild, a female has the choice of either spawning or

fleeing. In captivity, the flight of the female is reduced or
confined to the size of the breeding aquarium. Non-receptive
females will move away and swim to the surface or hide
amongst the aquatic plants or spawning mops, remaining
Typically, spawning mops are suspended in the water column motionless to avoid detection. Therefore, the size of the
or laid along the bottom or sides of the breeding aquarium. The breeding aquarium is vitally important and should be
mops can be attached to a block of styrene foam and floated in appropriate for the species being bred.
the water. You can provide several mops to offer the males a
choice of spawning sites and females a choice of hiding places. In a large aquarium, it is possible for males to have their own
Egg-filled mops are removed from the spawning aquarium and spawning space. This should allow the females to choose their
placed in another aquarium for incubation and larval rearing. own mate and in doing so; a variety of genes will be passed on
Eggs are best left attached to the spawning medium to minimise to the next generation. In addition, this method should provide
handling stress. you with more eggs. Females spawn a limited number of eggs
at a time, and on average, 60–80% of females set up for group
Before being used for different rainbowfish species, mops spawning will produce eggs.
should always be boiled or sterilised to destroy any eggs or
pests, which may still be attached to the mops. This procedure Pair breeding is also an acceptable method and is especially
also effectively precludes inadvertent hybridisation resulting well suited for selecting individual fish for genetic reasons.
from accidental carryover of eggs from the breeding aquarium Breeding aquaria should not be less than 50 litres in size, and
of one species to another, and demonstrates a significant are probably best left completely bare with a small internal
advantage that artificial spawning medium has over live plants. sponge or box filter. Choose your breeders and place them in
the breeding aquarium. Spawning activity should commence
Rainbowfishes are sexual dimorphic and can be sexed by their within 24 to 48 hours. Spawning behaviour typically begins
colour and finnage. Males are generally larger, more colourful half an hour after the lights are turned on in the aquarium, with
and have extended finnage, while females are pale by a peak of activity around 1–2 hours later. Activity then
comparison, and have smaller or more rounded appearance in gradually declines until all spawning activity has finished,
the fins. Generally, the larger males can usually be identified usually by mid afternoon.
from the elongation of posterior rays in the second dorsal and
anal fins. In addition, males generally are larger and have a During pre-spawning activity, males can become quite
deeper body than females. aggressive and actively pursue the females. Actual spawning is
preceded by vigorous coercing by the male. The male swims
These physical differences make it relatively easy to identify around the female with all his fins expanded, making repeated
mature males. However, female characteristics such as sideways motions or “nods” in the direction of the female,
plumpness of the abdomen are subjective and can be while at the same time intensifying his colouration. During this
misleading. If you are unable to sex your fish, then have procedure the colours in both sexes become more intense, but
someone with more experience do it for you. to a lesser extent in the female. Males frequently “flash” an
instantaneous brightly coloured band that runs from the upper
Male rainbowfishes can also be highly territorial and will lip to the first dorsal fin, which they flash on and off like a neon
engage in spectacular fin-flashing displays during contests with sign. Depending on species, the colours range from white to
rivals over the acquisition and defence of spawning sites. Males yellow, orange, rustic red and light blue.
display to each other by extending their dorsal and anal fins,
while at the same time intensifying their colouration. The When receptive, the female will enter the spawning site first,
extension of the fins is an illusionary aspiration by the males to closely followed by the male. In the final phase of spawning,
increase their overall body size as they complete with each the male presses against the side of the female and,
other for the attention of a female. This is often accompanied by accompanied by much trembling action from both fish, eggs
a side-slapping action while swimming together side by side are expelled directly among the plants or spawning medium.
throughout the aquarium. Extended fin and colour intensity is The eggs are spherical and opaque with many filaments
also undertaken by the male when displaying to a female, only originating from one small area of the shell. On coming into
this time it is an attempt to increase their overall attractiveness contact with a surface such as plants or spawning medium, the
to the females. filaments adhere and contract so that the eggs become
suspended by a fine thread.

Arsène Schneider
Rainbowfish eggs (L—R)
Melanotaenia maccullochi
Glossolepis dorityi
Pseudomugil connieae
Pseudomugil reticulatus
The eggs are negatively buoyant in freshwater and become The eggs hatch into well-developed larvae after an
clear to light amber a few seconds after spawning. Eggs incubation period of around 5–7 days, depending on
average in size between 0.5–1.5 ± 0.5 mm in diameter. Water temperature (151–152 hours @ 25°C ± 1°C). At hatching,
hardening (The swelling process of flaccid newly shed eggs the larvae measure around 3–4 mm, and are well developed.
when they first contact and absorb water) of fertilised eggs They are strong swimmers with well-developed pectoral
varies according to the water hardness. When hardness is low, fins and a continuous median fin fold, beginning dorsally
increase in egg diameter is greater. and continuing around the tail. The larvae swim at the
surface of the water, generally within the upper 1-cm water
Usually one to three eggs is deposited at a time, during layer. The mouth is well developed and functional, and they
which time 50–100 eggs can be produced. In captivity, begin feeding within hours of hatching.
however, with limited space and artificial substrate, females
may spawn all their eggs at the same time. The number of They can be fed small amounts of greenwater, infusoria or
eggs shed by a single female is directly related to the size of finely powered fry foods such as Sera Micron® or TetraMin®
the female with large females spawning from 40–250 eggs, Baby Food, four or five times a day. From the end of the
with a fertilisation success rate generally around 70–80%. second week (12–14 days) brine shrimp nauplii and/or
microworm can also be given to the developing young to
The total number of eggs released will increase with the supplement their diet.
maturity and size of the fish. Large females (>50 mm TL)
produce more than 100 eggs per day at the peak of their In their natural environment, such as tropical waters, which
spawning. Smaller females (30–35 mm TL), which were have prevailing high temperatures, rainbowfishes generally
only just sexually mature shed fewer eggs, 20–30 per day grow faster, mature younger, and have a shorter life span
and do not spawn each day. Females usually only spawn than rainbowfishes in temperate waters. In captivity
once each day; however, males will often spawn with more however, rainbowfishes characteristically display a wide
than one female in one day. Spawning may be repeated range of sizes, growth rates and life spans, depending on
every 3–5 days depending on nutrition, temperature, the age conditions such as food, space, numbers, competition and
of the fish, and sex ratio. water temperature.
Survival of eggs is often reduced by the predatory activity of The growth rate of the rainbowfish larvae is initially slow,
the parent fish during and after spawning. Despite what you with little variation until around 12–14 days. After that time
may hear or read most rainbowfish will eat their eggs, growth rates increased. Initial slower growth might be
maybe not all of them, but they will certainly eat what they related to either absorption of the yolk sac or diet. As the
can find. I have never seen a rainbowfish that doesn’t eat larvae increased in age, the variation in length between
their eggs. The breeding male will attempt to keep all the individuals also increased. Suitable water temperature and
other fish away from his spawning site and eggs, but by and adequate food generally results in higher growth rates.
large it doesn’t work too well.
Food is an important factor affecting growth, especially in
To insure maximum egg survival, check the spawning the early larval stages. The preferred size of prey for larval
medium regularly. If you have a continuing problem with fishes increases as mouth size and feeding competency
egg eating, you might like to use a stiff bottle brush as a increase. Providing natural green-water with resident
spawning medium. Commercial breeders use these to spawn zooplankton (which contains various invertebrates including
tropical fishes that regularly eat their eggs. The stiff bristles rotifers, paramecium and nematodes) as food for the newly
function as a medium in which the adhesive eggs can be laid, hatched fish has several advantages. The larvae are easily
while at the same time, discourages the breeders from eating able to switch to different sized prey, a feature not present
the spawned eggs. Feeding live foods can also reduce any in monocultures of organisms such as rotifers or
egg-eating behaviour. A notorious egg-eater often encountered brineshrimp. Green water also enables the zooplankton to
when breeding rainbowfish is a little freshwater flatworm called feed on resident algae and microbes, thus retaining their
planaria. If you get them in a breeding aquarium, they can nutritional value for greater periods of time.
consume a whole spawning of eggs within hours.

An interesting subject matter is hermaphroditism in Once hatched and after the period of yolk absorption, the
rainbowfishes. Gerald Allen (1982) noted that Chilatherina larvae move to the surface to feed. Carefully removed them
fasciata are sometimes hermaphroditic; that is both male and to a previously set-up aquarium making sure that the water
female reproductive organs are present in the same conditions are as close to the hatching water as possible.
individual. Nick Romanowski (1994) reported his observations Alternatively, you could move the egg-laden mop to a
of apparent hermaphroditism in Melanotaenia fluviatilis. This previously established raising tank and allow the eggs to
could well indicate that hermaphroditism may be more hatch naturally. This way you would not have to collect the
widely deployed in rainbowfishes than previously thought. newly-hatched larvae, which can sometimes be a bit
tedious.
Breeding Blue Eyes Although the blue-eye species are only small their newly
Breeding blue-eyes in captivity is essentially the same as for hatched larvae are rather large and can be fed finely
rainbowfishes. Blue-eyes are a relatively short lived species powdered dry or liquid fry foods, microworms, newly
in the wild and females may only spawn once, usually at hatched brineshrimp or similar fine foods upon hatching.
around one year of age, rarely living to spawn a second They should also be fed several times a day if possible.
season. Males often live around two years. In captivity, life Their growth rate will depend on the water and food quality
expectancy can increase to four years or more if appropriate provided with maturity being reached within one year.
aquarium management procedures are employed.
The secret in maintaining long-term captive populations of Artificial Incubation of Eggs

all the blue-eye species is to constantly breed them. There is Whether you have an unintentional spawning in your
a reduction in the frequency and intensity of spawning aquarium or a well-planned breeding program, to raise
activity in fish over one year of age. If you fail to notice the rainbowfishes successfully you must be able to provide the
change they become too old and then you just lose them. Try right conditions. Developing embryos and newly hatched
to obtain young specimens and breed them early and larvae (fry) are the most sensitive and delicate of the
regularly and you will always have some around to enjoy. developmental stages in the life of a rainbowfish. Therefore,
Because each female only lays a few eggs each day, it can great care must be taken to provide them with a proper
take a while before you have significant numbers. If incubating and hatching environment.
possible, start with 6-12 juveniles rather than adults pairs.
High mortality rates can often occur, especially during the
In nature, blue-eyes are essentially seasonal breeding fishes, early stages. Mortality can be the result of several factors
commencing spawning activity as temperature and day including inbreeding, inferior water conditions, improper
length increases. In captivity, they will breed throughout the incubation conditions and poor nutrition. However, hatching
year if given suitable conditions. The easiest way to breed rates and survival can be increased using artificial incubation.
blue-eyes is to set up a pair in a small 50 litre tank Collecting eggs from the breeding aquarium is the best way
containing an over-abundant growth of Java Moss and some to ensue the largest number of offspring from your selected
floating Water Sprite (Ceratopteris thalictroides). With a bit breeders. Also, removal of the eggs may increase egg
of patience and small feedings of live foods to condition the production by shortening the time for another spawning to
female, they should do what comes naturally. occur.
Daily observation of the tank should eventually find some For those species that spawn a large number of eggs each
fry hiding in the Water Sprite. You can either remove the day, best results will be achieved by providing them with
parents or take a chance that the fry will survive. If you spawning mops and then moving the egg-laden mops to a
wish to raise larger numbers, it would be best to set up a previously established nursery aquarium for incubation and
small group of eight or more in a larger aquarium and larval rearing. Alternatively, for those species that only
provide them with artificial spawning mops. You then check spawn a small number of eggs each day the simplest method
the mops twice a day if possible. If you find eggs attached would be to just hand pick the eggs from the spawning
to the mops you can either exchange the egg-laden mop for a mops. Fertile, water-hardened eggs are reasonably hard-
new one or remove the eggs by hand. The fertile, water- shelled and can easily be collected from the spawning mop
hardened eggs of blue-eyes are reasonably hard and rather with clean fingertips. You will find that they can be rolled
large for a small fish. between your fingers without damage. Any eggs that burst
while being collected will most likely be infertile.
Incubation times vary both among species and with
temperature. At 25°C, hatching usually takes between seven Spawn-laden mops should be softly squeezed or allowed to
and twenty-one days. During this time, you should be able to drip dry. Individual eggs will stand out like tiny glass beads
observe the development of the eggs. In addition to periodic against the darker-coloured strands of the spawning mop.
movement within the egg, developing embryos display Place the eggs into clean plastic hatching containers for
prominent eye-spots, and it is usually refer to eggs that are incubation and provide gently aeration. Once they hatch the
close to hatching as being “eyed-up”. Discard any eggs that larvae move to the surface to feed. The larvae should then
become white and fluffy as they will be infertile. be carefully transferred into a previously set-up nursery
aquarium as soon as possible.

Photos: Neil Armstrong
Males frequently “flash” an instantaneous brightly coloured band that runs from the upper lip to the first dorsal fin, which they flash on and off
like a neon sign. Depending on the species, the colours can range from white to yellow, orange, rustic red and light blue. d
Alternatively, the hatching container can be floated in the sac, and from this, it derives sufficient nourishment to tide it
aquarium in which the larval fish will be reared. The larvae over the first few hours or days of its free-living existence.
will swim at the water surface of the container after hatching This means that there is a certain period of time where it is
and can be gently poured out of the hatching container into not necessary for a larval fish to obtain their nutrition from
the surrounding water in the aquarium. This way you won’t external sources.
have to collect the newly-hatched larvae, which can sometimes
be a bit tedious, and it eliminates the need for any physical Rainbowfish larvae can survive for as long as 8–10 days
handling of the larvae. without external food sources providing that the yolk sac
contained enough nutrients. However, if an egg does not
The amount and incidence of light received during incubation hold adequate nutrients, larvae hatching from that egg would
can affect both fish development and larval survival. have a shorter period of unfed larval life than larvae hatching
Therefore, all types of egg incubating containers should be from an egg with a good supply of nutrients.
stored in such a manner to protect developing embryos from
direct light. At hatching, rainbowfish larvae measure around 3 to 4 mm,
and are reasonably well developed. They are competent
A wide variety of devices and methods can be used for swimmers with well-developed pectoral fins and a
incubating rainbowfish eggs. Depending on your needs, you continuous median fin fold, beginning dorsally and
can utilise a system of several small containers attached to a continuing around the tail. The larvae swim at the surface of
common recirculating system or a few small individual the water, generally within the upper 1-cm water layer. The
hatching aquariums. mouth is well developed and functional, and they usually
begin feeding within hours of hatching. Therefore, you will
The simplest method is to just place them in a small shallow have to commence feeding them as soon as possible.
tray or container filled with pre-conditioned water. A gently
movement of the hatching water with an airstone should be
provided to insure adequate water circulation to all the eggs. Incubation & Hatching Problems
This will prevent the accumulation of waste products, and A small percentage of eggs will fail to develop, usually
allow gas exchange between the egg and the surrounding because they were not fertilised in the first place. Dead
water. Because of their size and permeability, fish embryos (opaque) eggs rapidly develop a fluffy appearance due to
and larvae are susceptible to many types of organic or fungal infection and should be removed regularly. Chemical
inorganic materials dissolved or suspended in the water. treatment during incubation is commonly done for the
Therefore, it is essential to provide good water quality for control of fungal infection.
the embryos and larvae.
The common water fungus, Saprolegnia starts to grow on
The spawning of rainbowfishes, embryo development, dead eggs and if not controlled will spread to live eggs,
survival, and growth of larvae all occur within a narrow killing them. If the growth becomes too much to control by
range of water temperatures. Temperature is one of the hand, chemical treatment with a methylene blue treatment
major factors in determining the embryonic period for can be administered at any time after the eggs are water-
rainbowfishes. The development and hatching is delayed at hardened, until one or two days before hatching is
low temperatures, and accelerated at high temperatures. anticipated. Eyed-eggs are generally not affected by fungal
Incubating temperatures are also known to modify the infections. Add sufficient methylene-blue to produce a
behaviour of larvae and determine certain morphological concentration of 3 ppm. One treatment is usually all that is
characteristics. There is an optimum temperature range necessary, and should continue for at least 3 days.
required for each developmental life stage.
Removing dead eggs with an eyedropper is probably more
Water temperatures should be maintained with minimal effective than chemical treatment at controlling fungus, but
fluctuations ± 1°C. In general, optimum temperatures for it can be very time-consuming. Very high fungal infections
hatching and rearing all rainbowfish species are within the within the first 2 or 3 days after spawning typically indicate
temperature range of 24–28°C. Avoid temperatures above or a high percentage of infertile eggs. This may be due to
below this range. Poor embryo survival, low hatch success, unfavourable conditions within the spawning tank or adult
reduced growth rates, larval deformities, and increase in infertility. A sudden upsurge in losses later usually signals
larvae diseases may result from temperature fluctuations or improper water conditions in the hatching container, or egg
temperatures outside the optimum range for the species. If collection damage. Eggs can also be very sensitive to
needed, the hatching container can be floated in a heated changes in pH, dissolved oxygen, and temperature.
aquarium to maintain the correct temperature.
It is suspected that vertical transmission (transmission from
Depending on species, the hatching time for rainbowfishes parent to offspring) of disease can occur through rainbowfishes
and blue-eyes is around 6 to 21 days within the temperature eggs. Vertical transmission of pathogens allow the continuous
range of 24–28°C. Freshly fertilised eggs, which show no and simultaneous spread of a disease from one generation to
external signs of cleavage, are called ‘green’. When eye another. Although they are not affecting the adult fish, these
pigmentation and further development are visible through organisms can have devastating effects if transferred to the
the chorion, eggs are ‘eyed-up’. At hatching, when the larvae. The transfer from one generation to the other can
rainbowfish larva leaves the egg it is provided with a yolk

happen in two ways: on the egg and in the egg. For most Notopala waterhousei
Dave Wilson
pathogens however, the route of infection is on the eggs and
then to the larvae when they hatch. Disinfection of the eggs
with iodine can be carried out for the various fish species but
it is most commonly used in aquaculture. For rainbowfish
species, preliminary tests should be conducted to determine
when and at what concentration disinfection can be carried
out safely.
A problem often encountered when raising rainbowfish

larvae is a little freshwater cnidarian called hydra. They are
usually tan or brown in colour and are not readily seen
against a background of natural coloured gravel or on plants.
Within the confines of a small nursery aquarium, these little
monsters can be deadly, and can ingest a batch of newly
hatched rainbowfish larvae in less than a week.
Another pest that you may encounter is a free-living

flatworm known as Planaria. They are a very small black or Mystery Snails (Pomacea bridgesii) can be a useful addition
brown flatworm that look very similar to leeches and often to the nursery aquarium as they help clean the tank of
appear in freshwater aquariums. They are generally around 3 detritus and eat any surplus food, which has a very positive
to 5 mm long, but some grow as large as 10 mm. In a normal effect on water quality. As an added bonus, Mystery Snails
aquarium situation they usually don’t cause any problems will often breed in the tank in which the juvenile fish are
and probably even go unnoticed. However, if you get them being raised.
in a breeding or hatching aquarium, they can destroy a whole
spawning of eggs within hours. They can usually be seen A native Australian snail (Notopala sp.) can also be used.
crawling around on the front of the aquarium at night time Notopala River Snails are endemic members of the family
after the lights have been turned off. Viviparidae and are found predominantly in the northern
tropical region of Australia. However, their distribution
includes the large drainage basins of the central and northern
Nursery Aquarium regions, and in much of south-eastern Australia. They are
The ideal nursery tank should be bare with only a sponge absent from Tasmania, southern Victoria and south-western
filter. In this way the tank is easily kept clean and helps Australia. They are mainly found in riverine habits inhabiting
prevent any disease or water quality problems. During this permanent and ephemeral waterholes, where they can be
time, rinse the sponge regularly under lukewarm running found along the banks, attached to logs and rocks or crawling
water to keep the surface area clean and free of blockage. A in the mud. They appear to be able to resist drought, possibly
small trickle of air bubbles is sufficient because more air will by burrowing themselves in drying mud and sealing the
agitate the water too much and the juvenile fish will have to operculum shut in order to reduce the risk of dehydration.
fight the current. As they grow you can increase the airflow However, it is unlikely that they would be able to survive
rate. prolonged drying periods.
To achieve the best growth and survival, an initial stocking These large snails resemble Mystery Snails; however, they do
density of not greater than one juvenile fish per litre of water not lay eggs. They release fully developed small snails, hence
is recommended, and water temperature should range the name “viviparous” (live-bearing snail). Like other species
between 24–28° Celsius. Juvenile fish can remain in the in the family Viviparidae, the females brood their young to a
nursery tank until they are large enough to be transferred crawl-away stage, rather than having drifting or swimming
into a regular aquarium. However, this period should not larvae. The young remain with the female until they are large
exceed 90 days due to the increased growth, and the enough to survive independently. Very little is known of the
potential for the occurrence of adverse conditions of water growth rates or longevity of the species.
quality. Generally, 95% survival should be expected at the
end of the nursery period. The body of the animal is similar to other snails but it
possesses a prominent snout and short eye stalks on the
General maintenance consists of changing a little of their outside of the tentacles. The radula is shaped like a rake and is
water every second day with a small siphon tube, removing used to scrape soft organic matter from surfaces. As a filter
any uneaten food and faeces, and adding pre-treated feeder the river snail feeds on bacteria suspended in the water
replacement water. Any mortalities or deformed fish should and also grazes on the bacterial ‘biofilms’ that occur on hard
be removed regularly. Clean and disinfect all hatchery surfaces in free flowing waters. They can function both as
equipment with a chlorine solution, or other suitable grazers, consuming algae growing on any submerged surface,
disinfectant before using them for another batch of fish. and detritivores, utilising fine particulate organic matter and
the bacteria and other microorganisms therein. They also filter
feed on suspended matter.

Hybridisation
Hybridisation is the interbreeding of individuals from two In the distant past Australia experienced very wet and humid
populations, or groups of populations, which are distinguishable on conditions. Much of the inland was inundated by large
the basis of one or more heritable characters. When two freshwater lakes. The climate then developed more extreme
populations of distinct but closely related rainbowfishes come into and frequent periods of aridity. Much of the coastal regions
contact, members of those populations may spawn with each other inhabited by rainbowfishes probably experienced alternating
and successfully reproduce. cycles of wet and dry conditions. The outcome for river
drainages was periods of drying and isolation followed by
The process of hybridisation can create problems for extensive flooding and connectivity.
taxonomists, but it can also be a sign of the continuous
nature of the process of speciation — the evolutionary These climate changes and related environmental changes
formation of new species. If hybrids are formed between two have probably shaped the distribution of rainbowfishes.
populations that are barely differentiated, they may remain During the extreme wet conditions it is plausible that
undetected, since their features may fall within the range of rainbowfishes were able to disperse across these river
variability of one or both of the populations. One would drainage boundaries. In contrast, the drier conditions may
expect, if those populations were to remain in contact, that have prevented dispersal particularly where the effects of
they would blend together and lose their distinctness. On the acidification were the strongest. These periodic connections
other hand, two populations may each have diverged so far and disconnections among catchments are predicted to have
from their common ancestor that their individuals no longer facilitated expansion and subsequent isolation of rainbowfish
recognise each other as potential mates. In that case, populations in new habitats.
biologists are agreed that the two populations should be
considered separate species. They will not fuse back into a There are numerous reports in the aquarium hobby that
single species. rainbowfishes which share the same habitat in the wild are
quite capable of producing fertile hybrids in aquaria, but
It is between those two extremes of complete blending and because of behavioural or colour differences they generally
total distinctness that hybridisation can provide glimpses of won’t hybridise in nature. Kin recognition in many fishes
the complex process of differentiation — of evolution in has been demonstrated by laboratory experimentation. For
action. Speciation normally occurs in geographic isolation, example, Arnold (2000) examined shoaling behaviour in
but the past distribution of rainbowfishes is complicated. rainbowfish (Melanotaenia eachamensis) and found that
Populations once isolated may come into contact, and when females preferentially spend time associating with relatives
they do, the amount, duration, and results of hybridisation when in an all female shoal, but avoided male relatives in a
will vary from instance to instance. mixed shoal. The former result is consistent with the
expectation of kin-biased behaviour, whereas the latter is
It has long been thought that streams straddling the Great suggestive of an innate tendency towards inbreeding
Dividing Range, which extends down the east coast of avoidance.
Australia, have captured drainages on the opposite side.
Captures of western flowing streams by those flowing east However, hybridisation among rainbowfishes in their natural
and vice versa have been variously debated over the last fifty environment has traditionally been viewed as an unusual
years or more. For example, it has been suggested that the event. Allen & Cross (1982) previously recorded only two
Barron and the Burdekin Rivers in northern Queensland hybrids between Chilatherina campsi and Melanotaenia
captured previously western flowing streams. The Clarence affinis in their study of rainbowfish taxonomy covering all
River area of north-eastern New South Wales has also species known at that time. However, hybrids are not easy to
characteristics which suggest that drainage rearrangements detect. They are much easier to identify and are generally
may have occurred, although the precise nature and timing recorded more often if the hybridising species are
of these events is still uncertain. The Fitzroy/Dawson system distinctively coloured. Recent genetic studies have shown
is believed to have drained a coastal area spanning latitudes that hybridisation between rainbowfishes in their natural
20°S to 23°S. Presently, much of the coastal area near the environment occurs more commonly than originally
mouth of the Fitzroy River is drained by short coastal believed.
streams, although the Fitzroy River drains a large inland
area. Zhu et al. (1994) and McGuigan et al. (2000) tentatively
identified hybrids using mtDNA data for two Melanotaenia
Climate has also had a significant affect on the landscape in australis populations in the Northern Territory (Blackmore
Australia, particularly freshwater environments. Rainfall in and South Alligator Rivers). Further evidence for
Australia is seasonal and also very variable, with drought in hybridisation was found in Lake Tinaroo between
some years and floods in others. Ephemeral floodwaters Melanotaenia eachamensis and Melanotaenia splendida
allow dispersal of species and populations, both within and (Zhu et al., 1998), and other populations were found
between river systems. Floodwaters from Queensland can containing a mix of mtDNA genotypes and morphologies
end up in South Australia, covering a distance of 3000 (Pusey et al., 1997; Zhu et al., 1998; McGuigan, 2001).
kilometres.

Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia sp. “”Dawson River””
There is also some evidence that natural hybridisation has indicative of hybrids. Despite the research that has been
occurred between Melanotaenia splendida tatei / undertaken to date, the specific status and distribution of
Melanotaenia fluviatilis; Melanotaenia duboulayi / Melanotaenia eachamensis and Melanotaenia splendida still
Melanotaenia splendida splendida; Melanotaenia nigrans / remains unclear.
Melanotaenia australis; Melanotaenia australis /
Melanotaenia exquisita; and Melanotaenia exquisita / Four rainbowfish populations were sampled from the Fitzroy
Melanotaenia splendida inornata. However, it remains River in Queensland. Two populations from the upper
unclear whether these hybridisations represent sympatry, reaches of the Comet and Dawson river tributaries, and two
ongoing hybridisation, or historical introgression. populations from the lower portion of the Fitzroy River
drainage from the upper Conner River and a lowland
Based on mtDNA, nDNA and allozyme data it would appear tributary of the Fitzroy River were sampled. Based on
that hybridisation and introgression has been common and has allozymes and mtDNA, the lower two populations were
involved nearly all Australian rainbowfishes. Studies have consistent with Melanotaenia splendida. The populations
shown that at least ten rainbowfish species in Australia have from the upper reaches were both consistent with
been involved in some degree of introgressive hybridisation. Melanotaenia fluviatilis, with some Melanotaenia splendida
In some cases this was between sympatric species, but in alleles based on allozyme data, although they did have
others it occurred at the boundaries between more closely Melanotaenia duboulayi mtDNA. However this mtDNA
related species (P. J. Unmack 2005, pers. comm.). type is common in Melanotaenia fluviatilis populations in
the northern Murray-Darling catchment, the most likely
The “Eachamensis” complex is north Queensland is really source of these populations.
confusing, and even the “experts” can’t seem to agree. One
study reported that while Melanotaenia eachamensis and Each of these populations represents extremes in terms of
Melanotaenia splendida were shown to be genetically, separation by river distance within this drainage. At some
meristically and morphologically distinct, many specimens point(s) within this system both species likely came into
in the study exhibited an intermediate set of characters contact. No information currently exists relative to where
suggesting that hybridisation between these species may be this contact is likely to be! (P. J. Unmack pers. comm.).
common place if intermediate body morphologies are

Considering all the reported hybridisation events known so Fish of one species are, under most circumstances, incapable
far between rainbowfishes in the wild, hybridisation might of interbreeding with individuals of other species. Indeed, the
also have played an important role in the success of the “biological species concept” centres on this inability to
spread of rainbowfishes across Australia and New Guinea. successfully hybridise, and is what most biologists mean by
“distinctly different”. However, the debate over how species
There are several possible evolutionary consequences of should be defined will continue.
hybridisation. Hybridisation may occur due to human
impact, such as between wild and translocated species. Most rainbowfishes show distinct geographic variation both in
Hybridisation due to human disturbances can compromise colouration and characteristics. This is inevitable among
the genetic integrity of existing species to the point of populations of any species with extensive distributions. It is
causing extinctions. In extreme cases, parental taxa may be largely the result of populations responding to different
lost in the process and/or new taxa formed. A third pressures of natural selection in different habitats. If
possibility is that a stable hybrid species will form, with populations of a single species become geographically isolated,
limited introgression. Introgressive hybridisation among those different selection pressures may, given enough time,
taxa is known to quickly increase levels of variation, cause the populations to differentiate sufficiently to prevent
allowing more rapid responses to environmental changes. interbreeding if contact is re-established.
Although, for the most part, the different species of In nature, degrees of differentiation and of abilities to
rainbowfishes can be distinguished from one another, there hybridise fall along a continuum, so one finds what is
is the possibility that many species may only be examples of expected in an evolving fish fauna - some populations
population variation within a single species. There is much intermediate between subspecies and species, populations
argument and discussion amongst biologists as to what a that have differentiated to the point where they will not
species actually is. The classic definition of a “species” is hybridise but have not yet regained full contact, and
related organisms that share common characteristics and are populations so distinct that they can be recognised as full
capable of interbreeding. For a long time, biologists have species whether or not they occur together.
almost universally used the biological species concept. This
definition of “species” is based on species being reproductively Because of this great variation in colours and body forms in
isolated from each other. Reproductive isolation is the failure many species of rainbowfishes, especially in Australia, all
of populations to interbreed or to form viable or fertile rainbowfishes should be bred within their own localised
hybrids. group. Regardless of their various colour patterns, they are
capable and willing to breed together if permitted to do so.
Some years ago a controlled breeding trial demonstrated The serious hobbyist intent on maintaining pure lines must
that Melanotaenia fluviatilis and Melanotaenia duboulayi keep every variety in separate aquariums. Unless this is
could interbreed and produce viable offspring. Therefore, done, members of the different varieties will interbreed and
should these fish be considered different species or just complicate future breeding programs and identification.
different subspecies? Subspecies are simply populations Also, females of many rainbowfish species are very similar
within a species that are sufficiently distinct that and can easily be confused for one another.
taxonomists have found it convenient to formally name
them, but not distinct enough to prevent hybridisation where I kept rainbowfishes for more than 30 years and always kept
two populations come into contact. populations, even if they went by the same species name,
separated for breeding. History has shown that this is the
Under the biological species concept, distinctive geographical prudent thing to do. In the 1970s and 80s, many populations
forms of the same sort of fish are usually grouped together as of rainbowfishes found their way into the aquarium hobby.
one species. This is because the geographic forms interbreed As time went on and the various populations were more
(or probably would, if they had the chance). Thus, they carefully studied, we learned that several of these populations
should be considered the same species. The phylogenetic were, in reality, separate species.
species concept says that diagnosable geographic forms of
the same sort of fish should be treated as distinct species. Most experienced rainbowfish keepers will not bring new
This is because these forms have evolved separately, and fish into their breeding program unless the breeder/collector
have unique evolutionary histories. has retained the location details. These hobbyists, for
example, would not obtain a species with the name given
Obviously, the phylogenetic species concept is less restrictive only as Melanotaenia trifasciata, because the buyer does not
than the biological species concept. There would be many know what he/she is getting. We may learn in the future that
more species of fish under the phylogenetic species concept the different populations have some significant genetic or
than under the biological species concept. morphological differences that justify their recognition as a
new species. Breeding such fish would have diminished the
These complications are a natural result of applying a long-term viability and integrity of the species. Therefore, it
hierarchical taxonomic system to the results of a continuous is important to include a location name, such as Wonga
evolutionary process. It is possible that neither definition Creek, Goyder River, etc. If the location name is lost, the fish
can be applied consistently in nature. should be distributed as an “aquarium strain”.

Before being used for different
Gunther Schmida
rainbowfish species, spawning mops
should always be boiled to destroy
any eggs, which may still be attached
to the mops. This procedure
effectively precludes inadvertent
hybridisation resulting from
accidental carryover of eggs from the
breeding set-up of one species to
another, and demonstrates a
significant advantage of using
artificial spawning medium rather
than living plants.
Most rainbowfish hybrids that

hobbyists will come in contact
with will just be unintended
crossings. Although there are a
number of “commercial” hybrids
available, they are usually sold
and distributed under trade names
such as “Red Boesemani” etc. Melanotaenia sp. “Moolayember Ck, Comet River”
However, there are some hybrids
being sold as true species. “M. marcii”, “M. hammeri” and “M. greetii” are such examples of commercial hybrids. These
three hybrids were originally bred by a commercial aquarium dealer and breeder in the Netherlands. These hybrids,
particularly “marcii”, often sold as the Marci Rainbowfish, have been widely distributed in Europe and North America.
Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia sp. “Dawson River”

Inbreeding
“Inbreeding is deleterious because it increases overall When fish are removed from the natural environment and
genetic homozygosity, and thus the expression of recessive placed in the aquarium environment different selective
deleterious mutations in offspring.” (Arnold, 2000) forces act upon fish in the aquarium environment compared
with the natural environment and reduces their genetic
Although not generally well know, Australian rainbowfishes variability through both selective processes and random
have been maintained in home aquaria at least since the genetic drift. Inbreeding depression and reduced levels of
beginning of the last century. On the other hand, New Guinea genetic diversity are expected to be more prevalent in small
rainbowfishes have only been available since the mid 1950’s. populations where breeding between close relatives is more
They were being maintained by only a handful of enthusiasts likely and the effects of genetic drift more pronounced.
and were virtually unknown to the international hobby. During Both inbreeding depression and the impacts of reduced
the 1960’s and 70’s a small trickle continued to arrive in genetic diversity have a sound basis in theory and have been
Australia from New Guinea. The importation of New Guinea well documented by animal and plant breeders over many
rainbowfishes into Australia during this period did not have decades. There are many studies that describe the deleterious
any significant restrictions and a number of different species effects of inbreeding in fish, generally in captive conditions or
were brought into the country by private collectors, which were in association with artificial selection.
subsequently distributed in the hobby. However, the publication
in 1982 of Rainbowfishes of Australia and Papua New Guinea by The limited gene pool caused by continued inbreeding means
Gerald Allen and Norbert Cross, greatly increased the popularity that deleterious recessive genes inherited from both parents
of keeping rainbowfishes and the desire for the newly become homozygous. The condition can manifest as reduced
discovered New Guinea species, turned that trickle into a flood. fertility, growth and disease resistance, lower hatching rates
and survival, behavioural changes and high occurrence of
Unfortunately, the initial number of wild-caught fishes that abnormalities to name but a few. Selective breeding can
came in to the hobby was very small. This resulted in a very produce similar effects.
small genetic base from which to establish larger aquarium
populations. The problem with having such a small genetic Selective breeding is a breeding technique in which the breeder
base is that most of the aquarium populations are closely chooses the next generation’s broodstock, based on some
related. Since the initial population was small, they are likely to predetermined criteria. The process by which crosses are
have a higher prevalence of recessive genetic disorders, as the accomplished between the parental stocks representing different
parents are likely to share many genes. In addition, a small strains of the same species is referred to as crossbreeding, and can
population base may not be truly representative of the original also be called intraspecific hybridisation. Crossbreeding can
wild population. produce strains of superior performance by introducing greater
genetic variability.
Another problem with rainbowfishes kept in captivity is that
instead of natural selection, selection is done by the In wild populations, outbreeding may also result in a reduction
aquarist; because only a relatively small number of fish can of fitness, because populations can become adapted to living in
be kept, the aquarist tends to select for those which grow particular areas with a particular climate, diseases, and so forth.
best and look best under aquarium conditions. In the long If individuals from other populations interbreed with the
term, the fish being kept may be genetically a long way adapted population, new alleles are introduced. These alleles
from the original wild fish. For the most part, aquarium may not be as well adapted to the local conditions and may
breeding has effectively resulted in domesticated strains of reduce the fitness of the population. For example, two
rainbowfishes that may be well adapted to life in captivity, populations of fish may have evolved a particular colour
but may look very different than the species in the wild. pattern that is advantageous in the environments in which they
live. If the two populations were to interbreed, they may
This can be clearly seen in a number of New Guinea species produce an intermediate form of the pattern that is not
where the quality and colouration has diminished greatly, as advantageous in either of their environments, reducing the
well as increases in breeding failure. This also applies to fitness of the overall population (Attiwill & Wilson 2003).
Australian species collected from remote locations where Natural selection (evolution) causes changes in wild
the initial numbers of wild-caught specimens was low. populations over many generations. This often results in many
sub-species originating from the founder population.
Almost every day I see photos of rainbowfishes posted on Domestication enhances and speeds up the process via artificial
Internet forums asking for identification. Most replies given selection dictated by rapid change.
are in the negative, suggesting that they are hybrids. This
may well be true; however, what is happening for the most For the most part, aquarists maintain small populations of
part is that continuous inbreeding or selective breeding has rainbowfish species. When a new species is obtained, the
effectively resulted in domesticated strains of rainbowfishes number of fish acquired is usually low. In many cases the
that no longer resemble their congeners from their natural fish that are acquired come from one or two spawnings, or
state. more often, offspring that have been produced by a single

spawning. In these situations, it is more likely that related Unintentional domestication of rainbowfishes may be
individuals will breed, simply due to the lack of alternative unavoidable, but it is possible that it can be minimised by the
mates. Breeding closely related rainbowfishes in captivity introduction of new broodstock. It is possible for rainbowfishes
increases the likelihood of the population suffering from derived from the same source to have different genes when
inbreeding problems. In aquarium populations the effect of separated for any length of time. It’s very important to properly
inbreeding may be severe and should be a concern to select the breeding stock (related or not) and also to properly
breeders. While inbreeding can be used to improve a cull the fry for obvious defects.
population when it is planned and directed, unplanned and
uncontrolled inbreeding can ruin a population through a These days most rainbowfishes are either obtained from
process known as ‘homozygosity’ (inbreeding depression), commercial sources or bred by individual hobbyists using a
i.e., less variation in genes. Greater homozygosity may be limited number of broodstock fish. In both cases the genetic
desirable in some cases, such as line-breeding, where an background and the degree of inbreeding of the fish is
outstanding individual is mated with a descendant to generally unknown. Aquarists must give careful consideration
increase that individual’s characteristics (e.g., better colour, to the choice of brood stock if genetic ‘pollution’ of the
size, etc.) to the gene pool. aquarium stock is to be prevented. To avoid genetic problems
it is best to start with as many fish as possible (minimum of
Tave (1986) reported that inbreeding populations can still five pairs) or get your fish from at least two different
produce good offspring even though inbreeding depression sources, or at different times. If you get all the fish from the
occurs. The depression has been found from various genotype same source or at the same time, there is a good chance that
and population means, but outstanding individuals are still the fish will be related, especially if they have been bred in
produced. These outstanding specimens could be kept for captivity.
selective breeding purposes because these individuals contain
more desirable alleles and are free of degenerative alleles. Diversifying your sources for the fish and expanding their
genetic base will help enhance their genetic variability, and
Inbreeding depression is probably the most serious may reduce problems resulting from inbreeding depression.
consequence of small population size. Expression of a trait is In this strategy, individuals from another population
determined at the gene level by information contributed by (hopefully with greater genetic variability) are introduced to
each parent, and a predictable percentage of offspring will your population in an attempt to recover genetic diversity
display these traits. If one parent’s gene is recessive, then the and reduce inbreeding. Breed every fish in the group, using
trait it codes for will be expressed by a predictably small random selection to determine pairing. Separate the fry
number of the offspring. Others will possess the gene, but from each pairing and select 4–6 fry from each spawn for
won't express it. The population is said to be heterozygous. breeding the next generation. With problem species it is
However, in any strategy involving inbreeding it is necessary advisable to raise the fry from each spawn separately until
to take effective steps to insure against excessive fixation of they sex out, then select a male and a female from each for
deleterious alleles. breeding. In small populations it takes as little a one individual
per generation to maintain genetic diversity. Ideally, a number
The problem with breeding related individuals is that over time of individuals should be sourced from the wild population
you remove the heterozygosity from the population and create every so often.
a population homozygous at all genes (i.e., both genes code for
the same trait expression). This can increase the occurrence of It is apparent that numerous New Guinea rainbowfish species
traits which are detrimental to a species’ fecundity, disease may be in danger of being lost both in the wild and in captivity.
resistance, fertility, and growth. Inbreeding depression There are only very small populations of some species now
resulting from increased homozygosity is well documented in kept in captivity. A number of the early New Guinea species
fish. The majority of inbreeding experiments on fish have been have all but disappeared from the hobby (I think some have
done in aquaculture and laboratory-type environments. disappeared). Therefore, saving the existing aquarium species
and the integrity of each individual species becomes vital as
While the actual inbreeding depression varies widely there may in the future be no wild fish to restore captive stocks
between fish species and inbreeding levels, significant or genetic variability.
levels of inbreeding depression have been found in many
aquacultured brood stocks after only one generation of To maximise genetic diversity captive populations need to be
brother-sister mating. Therefore, the high level of abnormal perpetually managed so an adequate number of separate brood
fish especially spinal malformation appearing in hatchery stocks are maintained with occasional intercrosses between
fish is a major problem in many aquaculture farms. them to reduce the probability of fixing deleterious genes. Zoos
Malformation often is associated with growth depression, engaged in captive breeding programs are aware of this need to
leading to high mortality rates at early fry stage. outcross their own stock to animals from other collections.
Captive populations are at risk from inbreeding since relatively
Inbreeding, along with selection and cross-breeding has few mates are available to the animals, hence zoos must borrow
been traditionally used to create new varieties and colour animals from each other in order to maintain the genetic diversity
forms in many aquarium fish species. With rainbowfishes, of offspring. A practical solution for this problem is for
however, I would hope that most enthusiasts are trying to rainbowfish enthusiasts to collaboratively maintain a much larger
breed a species as close as possible to its wild form. gene pool collectively, than they would as individuals.

A successful breeding program, in essence, depends on the This would be especially important in situations where females
successful manipulation of inbreeding. A well designed long cannot avoid breeding with close relatives as may be the case
term breeding program should be directed at preserving the in captivity. The group spawning of rainbowfish species can
basic genetic diversity of the population, and must be based on also decrease the harmful effect of inbreeding due to the
detailed information about the species characteristics and the intensive mixing of gametes and high number of progenies.
origin and genetic history of the population. The main strategy
for reducing inbreeding is to maintain a large population of In another study (Gleeson et al., 2000) two species of rainbowfishes
broodstock fish, and ensure that a large proportion of them get from three locations in Australia were experimentally infected with the
a chance to breed and contribute to the next generation. At least parasite Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. One of the species (M.
a few fry from all of these broodstock should be retained and eachamensis) was much more susceptible to the parasite than
grown up for use as the next generation of broodstock, before the other species (M. splendida). M. splendida served as a
the previous generation gets too old and is discarded. control for a follow-up hybridisation experiment which
involved crossing M. eachamensis from the original population
This sometimes requires a lot of small tanks or raising tubs, and with another population of the same species located some
good record keeping to record breeding results, both successes and distance away. The population hybrids had significantly higher
failures. Good record keeping is essential in solving problems with resistance than the single-population fish. It was tentatively
inbreeding and is paramount in improving survival rates. Records suggested that there may be a link between the heterozygosity of
of fry growth and development should be made regularly. This populations of rainbowfish and their initial ability to resist
activity is often carried out by the serious hobbyists. infection by Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. Therefore inbreeding
rainbowfishes in captivity may reduce their natural disease
In wild populations, inbreeding is avoided because individuals resistance.
prevent themselves from mating with relatives. Evidence for
this “behavioural avoidance of inbreeding” has been found in a A broad genetic basis has been suggested as a key element for
wide variety of animals, including fish. A number of different parasite resistance, with heterozygous individuals assumed to
species have demonstrated the ability to recognise and detect and present a wider range of pathogen-derived antigens
discriminate in favour of familiar conspecifics in laboratory due to a larger number of different major histocompatability
trials. Further research has found that this preference for certain complex (MHC) molecules. MHC plays an important role in
individuals may persist for relatively long periods, even after a the immune system, autoimmunity, and reproductive success.
2-month period of separation. The duration of time over which Other studies have reported similar results and have found the
it persists is likely to vary between species. most homozygous populations display greater infection and
mortality compared to heterozygotes. Further, inbred populations
The ability to recognise related kin is based on visual and/or showed lower survival and higher infection compared to outbred
chemical cues. In other words, individuals are less likely to populations, leaving the authors to conclude that low genetic
interact sexually with others with whom they were intimately variation in general, or for the important MHC genes, and
familiar during development, namely siblings and parents. populations with a history of inbreeding are more likely to suffer
Females were found to avoid breeding with siblings and detrimental effects from parasitic infection.
parents more actively than males. This may be why we have
the occasional breeding failures with some species of
rainbowfishes we maintain in our aquariums. Maybe it might Visible symptoms of inbreeding:
just be that the females are reluctant to breed with their Deformed fins.
siblings. This could also explain male aggression toward Absence of abdominal fins.
uncooperative (possibly related) females. Thinning and deformation of hard rays of fins.
Deformed gill cover operculum.
One study (Arnold, 2000) found females rainbowfishes were Skeletal deformities.
able to differentiate between levels of relatedness at a relatively
fine scale. Full-siblings could be distinguished from half-
siblings, and half-siblings from non-relatives. In terms of DNA technologies have revolutionised the study of phylogeny
shoaling preferences, the sex of shoal-mates was also (study of the pattern of ancestry and descent among species,
important. Females always preferred to associate with those populations, genes or alleles) and species-level questions that
individuals of the same sex with which they were most closely have application in wildlife management. Recently, these
related. In contrast, when given the choice of associating with techniques were used to distinguish between endemic and
males of different levels of relatedness, females always spent introduced populations of the freshwater turtle (Emydura
significantly longer with non-relatives than with full- or half- macquarii) in coastal NSW. A similar story emerged in the
brothers. Thus, females appeared to avoid associating with case of the rainbowfish (Melanotaenia eachamensis), once
potential mates that were close relatives. thought to be a rare species endemic to Lake Eacham, but
where DNA sequence variation revealed a more complex
However, other researchers have noted that females can still relationship between it and the more regionally distributed
reduce the probability of inbreeding by seeking multiple mates, Melanotaenia splendida (Zhu et al. 1998).
regardless of the ability to recognize kin, because by so doing
they increase their chance of producing at least some outbred
young.

Deformities
Deformities in rainbowfishes are occasionally found in wild growth reduction, bodily deformities, and behavioural
population. However, such abnormalities are quite common changes in Amatitlania nigrofasciata, Brachydanio rerio,
among rainbowfishes kept in captivity. The cause of the Poecilia reticulata, Carassius auratus and a number of other
deformities is often unknown, but often results from a wide species due to inbreeding depression. In some species such as
range of causes, including genetic variance (hereditary factors), Poecilia reticulata, which have been exposed to sustained
inbreeding depression, significant environmental changes, namely selective breeding for more than fifty years, a great many
temperature, pH, disease, nutritional deficiencies, injury and deleterious alleles have been eliminated. The rainbowfish
environmental contamination. Inbreeding can also elicit such breeder may like to establish ‘pure lines’ also, but in practice
abnormalities in fish species but in the absence of sound evidence this is much more difficult to achieve.
no single specific reason for deformities can be established.
However, it is probably that most deformities are caused by The inbreeding depression observed in the convict cichlid
inbreeding within a small gene pool. (Amatitlania nigrofasciata) is comparable to the results seen
from inbreeding rainbowfishes. Amatitlania nigrofasciata
Available evidence suggests that deformities in aquarium bred appears to be unable to survive extensive laboratory inbreeding
rainbowfishes usually develop very early during the larval/ without deleterious genetic effects (Winemiller & Taylor,
juvenile stages. The most common deformities observed in 1982). No major deleterious inbreeding effects were noted until
rainbowfishes include spinal malformations (lordosis, scoliosis, the F4 and F5 generations. Of the surviving (5 months) fry
coiled vertebral column), deformed operculum and fin from nine F4 broods, 26.4% were moderately deformed and
malformations. Spinal malformations increased steadily with 58.1% were severely deformed. Moderately deformed fish
growth. I believe that most deformities in rainbowfishes we see exhibited abnormal fins (often shortened with an absence of
today are the results of inbreeding. Genetic deformities become dorsal spines), a pronounced vertical slope of the forehead,
more likely with inbreeding over a span of several generations. shortened, flared opercula (exposing the gills at all times) and a
permanently depressed hyoid apparatus. The position of the
Deformities as a result of inbreeding have been observed in spinous dorsal fin frequently deviated laterally from the dorsal
many hatchery reared fishes in aquaculture (Tave, 1986). midline of deformed fish. Severely deformed fish were
The same trend has been observed in limited studies of characterised by the same abnormalities, but in a more
aquarium fishes. There are cases of reproductive failure, pronounced form.
Severely deformed fish frequently exhibited moderate lordosis Once the physical connection between the gut and swim bladder
and abnormal swimming behaviour, wherein the head lumen has degenerated, swim bladder inflation cannot occur. This
remained lowered and the lateral undulations of the body is one of several critical stages of larval development that may
appeared grossly exaggerated. Of the surviving F5 fry (five cause high mortality or swim bladder problems. Swim bladder
broods), 17.6% were moderately deformed and 65.9% showed inflation failure is common in intensively reared fish species. Non-
severe deformities. All deformed fish appeared to develop inflation of the swim bladder commonly appears to affect about
normally until the end of their most rapid growth phase (2–3 5% of rainbowfish larvae. The swim bladder of rainbowfishes
months). The variety of morphological and behavioural usually inflates within the first 12 hours of hatching.
abnormalities observed in F4 and F5 inbred generations
indicate that a number of genetic factors may act singularly or Although the exact causes of swim bladder non-inflation
together. remain uncertain, factors such as genetics, nutritional status or
water conditions, probably play an important role. The use of
The Zebra Danio, Brachydanio rerio inbred for four generations, surface skimmers to prevent build-up of surface oils on the
exhibited vertebral abnormalities, a lack of swim bladders, water has been found significant to optimise swim bladder
protruding jaws, opercular deformities, oedema and behavioural inflation. In several fish species spinal malformation was found
irregularities (Piron, 1978). Larval deformity occurred in a study to be associated with the absence of a functional swim-bladder.
(Badger, 2004) of Melanotaenia splendida as well i.e., in the Swim bladder problems can also be caused by bacterial infection.
larvae hatched from eggs obtained from fish fed a 20% lipid
content diet. It is surmised that the high lipid content in the diet
was the likely cause of larval deformity as it was not seen in Predisposing factors that can cause deformities:
the larvae from the 12% or 9% lipid diet trials.  Disturbance of fertilised eggs during the first 12 hours of
embryonic development.
In one study, deformed operculum was the most common
deformity (37.6%) observed in Cyprinus carpio. The deformities
 Elevated levels of dissolved gases (CO2 etc.) during
were first observed at two months of age and the degree of embryonic, larval and juvenile development.
deformity was variable but in most cases operculum was  Accelerated water flows in the larval/juvenile tanks.
usually shortened with involuted edges. In some fish it was  Alterations in water quality.
minimally shortened, while others had an operculum that was  Fluctuations in water pH.
so malformed that the posterior gill lamellae were exposed.
The deformity usually occurred only on one side; however,  Elevated levels of light intensity during larval development.
some of the fish had a bilateral deformed operculum. Fish with  Vitamin deficiency: There are numerous reports of deformities
this kind of deformity swam normally, but growth was very in aquarium fishes due to ascorbic acid and calcium
slow. In some studies it was reported that operculum deformity deficiency. High levels of vitamin A have been observed to
was found to be non-inheritable and was associated with cause spinal effects in some species.
ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) deficiency in the diet.  Amino acid deficiency: Amino acids may be absent in foods
due to improper formulation, extended storage or excess heat
It is also reported that some deformities in rainbowfish larvae, in processing.
particularly spinal deformities, are greatly affected by dietary
ascorbic acid levels during early rearing. Feeding trials (Ako et.
 Hereditary: Mostly as a result of inbreeding - most prominent
in aquarium fish.
al., 1999) using Pseudomugil furcatus found an unusual
number of the fish had crooked spines at the end of the grow-  Heavy metals (arsenic, copper, lead, mercury), have been
out trials. The next batch of fry was fed brine shrimp enriched recorded as causes of vertebral defects.
with a product containing ascorbic acid and the crooked spines  Spinal deformities associated with organophosphate,
largely disappeared. This points out the importance of early organochlorine and carbamate pesticides.
nutrition in fish rearing. Low doses (25–50 ppm) of ascorbic  Antibiotic therapy: Spinal deformities and decreased growth
acid are reported to have a positive effect on growth and to rates have been frequently observed in fish fed with
reduce skeletal deformities. Duckweed can provide vital bio- therapeutic doses of Oxytetracycline.
pigments that are required for the development of improved
colouration for captive bred rainbowfishes, and can also be a  Infectious disease (particularly of bacterial origin).
rich source of ascorbic acid (2.78–4.90 mg/100 grams dry
weight). Management and Prevention
 If the proportion of deformed larvae exceeds 25–30%, reject
Non-inflation of the swim bladder (belly-sliders) is another the whole batch.
common problem often encounter in larval/juvenile stages of  Careful selection, nutrition and conditioning of brood-stock.
rainbowfishes. Swim bladder inflation is a fundamental
 Proper collection and incubation of fertilised eggs.
developmental step during the early larval stage of most fish
larvae. Initial inflation occurs when air, gulped by larvae from  Meticulous control and recording of water parameters and
the surface, passes through the gut and is transferred via a larval management.
pneumatic duct to the swim bladder lumen. Because the  Avoid inbreeding by using two independent lines from the
pneumatic duct exists for only a brief period of time in larval same fish species.
development before it regresses, inflation must occur during
this narrow window of opportunity.

Rainbowfishes
Foods & Feeding
Photo: Gary Lange

Feeding Rainbowfishes
Rainbowfishes are frequently described as meiophagous In the mainchannel waterbodies they eat mainly aquatic insects,
omnivores or opportunistic feeders, meaning that they will eat with small amounts of terrestrial insects, plant material and
almost anything that is available. However, just because they algae. In perennial streams, algae and terrestrial plant material
will consume something does not necessarily mean that they are less important, while aquatic insects and, to a lesser extent,
will grow well on it. Rainbowfishes are found in a diverse oligochaetes and microcrustaceans, are consumed. The diet in
range of habitats, therefore it is not surprising that this diversity the lowland sandy creekbeds had much larger algal and
is reflected in their feeding habits. The size and variety of their terrestrial insect components. Specimens examined from the
diet can differ widely from one species to another and from one floodplains feed mainly on aquatic arachnids and aquatic
habitat to another. In fact, quantitative data on the diets of most insects, and a small amount of algae. In the pools and riffles
species of rainbowfishes are limited. that enter the floodplain in the wet season they feed mainly on
non-aquatic insect forms such as winged diptera and ants. A
In their natural habitat rainbowfishes consume nearly 100% variety of aquatic insects are eaten; the main identifiable
live foods. They can be seen around sub-surface aquatic species being chironomid larvae and pupae, and coleopterans.
vegetation feeding on a variety of terrestrial insects, small The main terrestrial insects were formicids (ants), while the
aquatic crustaceans, insect larvae, worms, phytoplankton, main microcrustaceans were cladocerans, ostracods and
zooplankton, aquatic plant material, detritus (inanimate conchostracans. The algal component consists mainly of green
suspended matter principally of organic origin), and where filamentous species.
the opportunity occurs, smaller fish will also be consumed.
One study (Rayner, 2006) on the diet of Pseudomugil signifer
Aquatic insects and their larvae are the most important food and Melanotaenia splendida in the Mulgrave River in north
resource for most rainbowfish species, with microcrustaceans, Queensland found these species specialised on a combination of
algae and food from terrestrial origin (mainly terrestrial insects) aerial and surface insects (28–92%), particularly emerging
also providing important food sources. A review of published chironomid nymphs, and terrestrial invertebrates (up to 43%),
dietary information for rainbowfishes shows that aquatic principally green ants (Oecophylla smaragdina), which had
insects contribute almost 35% of the total mean diet. Other presumably fallen on to the water surface from overhanging
important food items were microcrustaceans (14.4%), algae vegetation.
(8.5%), pollen, seeds and terrestrial insects (8%).
In another study (Balcombe et al., 2005) it was found that terrestrial
Food sources of allochthonous origin (e.g., terrestrial fauna was a major food group consumed by Melanotaenia
insects) form a significant component of the diet of splendida tatei. Their diet consisted of terrestrial insects (67.4%),
rainbowfishes. Rainbowfish consume such items once they other terrestrial invertebrates (10.2%), algae (16.8%), and aquatic
have entered the aquatic environment. Terrestrially derived insects (5.6%). In addition to the consumption of some aquatic
food form an important alternative food source during times insects and algae, this species fed chiefly upon terrestrial
of low aquatic food availability. For example, aquatic food arthropods, many of which were flying insects (e.g., ants, wasps
items may not be available all year round due to natural and dipterans). Other items included aquatic dipterans, coleopteran
seasonal declines in these resources and in such instances larvae and zooplankton. The aquatic dipterans were mostly
rainbowfishes may switch to other food sources. In large chironomid larvae, while the zooplankton prey consisted chiefly of
floodplain rivers, terrestrial food items increase in conchostracans and cladocerans. Terrestrial foods included isopods,
importance as water floods on to the floodplains. Planktonic scolopendridid centipedes, or a variety of alighting insects such as
invertebrates (mostly zooplankton) are importance in their dipterans, hymenopterans and coleopterans. Up to 100% terrestrial
early life history stages. The availability of appropriate insects can be consumed during the dry season.
zooplankton is an important determinant of mortality levels
endured by larval rainbowfish populations and thus is an Other studies have shown that rainbowfishes have a preference
important determinant of recruitment into the adult for foods such as cladocerans, ostracods, copepods, rotifers and
population. other invertebrates. The stomach contents of specimens
collected from the Noosa River in Queensland consisted of
Studies in the Alligator Rivers of the Northern Territory copepods, cladocerans and shrimp (Caridina sp.) and a
(Bishop et al., 1981), bearing in mind that this is probably by variety of aquatic insects (especially chironomid larvae). A
far the most thoroughly surveyed aquatic environment in small percentage of algal material and other plant tissues
Australia, with years of accumulated research available, found plus a few terrestrial insects were also found. However,
rainbowfishes were omnivorous, feeding opportunistically across terrestrial sources of food were relatively unimportant in
substrates and in surface waters, with possibly less emphasis on their diet in this study. The natural diet of Rhadinocentrus
mid-water areas. Traces of hydrophytes, oligochaetes, gastropods, ornatus was reported to consist mainly of terrestrial insects.
arachnids, crustaceans, fish (larvae or juvenile), terrestrial plants, They feed on a variety of terrestrial and aquatic insects,
detritus and inorganic material were found in the stomach of insect larvae, and small aquatic crustaceans. Algae and
rainbowfishes. Their diet was found to vary in relation to the pollen (mostly pollen) also appear to be a major alternative
habitat they occupy. food.

The natural diet of Pseudomugil tenellus includes algae, Invertebrates known as “scrapers”, such as some mayflies and
microcrustaceans and aquatic insects. The identifiable algae were snails feed directly on the fungi and algae. As the organic
green filamentous and blue-green algae and dinoflagellates. The material is broken down, the resultant finer material then serves
microcrustaceans were mainly cladocerans, ostracods and as a food source for other invertebrates, which filter (filter-
copepods. Chironomid larvae were the main aquatic insects feeders) material from the water, or collect deposited material
eaten. Other food items found in the stomachs were terrestrial on the stream bed (detritus feeders). These animals, in turn are
insects and miscellaneous organic matter. One study found that preyed upon by other invertebrates and animals such as
the diet in the late-dry season was mainly based on detritus rainbowfishes. Rainbowfishes are then a food source for water
(with associated unidentified organic material) and small birds and other fish-eating animals. Without the initial inputs of
quantities of chironomid larvae and pupae, and algae; no organic material or invertebrates, the entire food chain of the
microcrustaceans were eaten. In the early-wet season micro- stream system is compromised. Hence, the importance of
crustaceans appeared in the diet and detritus decreased in riparian vegetation to stream health cannot be underestimated.
importance; aquatic insects also appeared in the diet during this
season. In the mid-wet season Pseudomugil tenellus ate mainly Available evidence suggests that feeding rates for rainbowfish
microcrustaceans (particularly cladocerans) with smaller species are higher in spring and summer than in winter,
amounts of terrestrial and aquatic insects. By the late-wet— possibly because of higher metabolic demands during the
early-dry season algae were the main component of the diet. warmer months. This time also represents an important
period for larval development and growth of juveniles. The
Melanotaenia fluviatilis consume high numbers of cladocerans season of greatest feeding activity in tropical rivers is the
throughout the year and copepods were consumed in high wet season. Feeding activity increases most dramatically
numbers in all seasons except winter. Cladoceran eggs were between the late-dry season and the early-wet season. By
recorded in high numbers in spring and summer, and were the mid-wet season feeding activity has peaked, and then
likely to have been detached from adult cladocerans in the decreases slightly by the late-wet to early-dry season. An
digestive tract of the fish, rather than having been consumed examination of variations in body condition indicated that
as individual food items. The highest numbers of ostracods most species obtained their best condition from the mid-wet
and dipteran larvae were consumed during spring, while to the mid-dry season, with a peak in the late-wet—early-
algae were only consumed in summer and autumn. Fish dry season. During the dry season, when the water volume
eggs were recorded in the stomach contents of some fish of their habitat is greatly reduced, the only food they get is
during spring and summer. whatever happens to fall into the water.
Other diet categories were either recorded in low numbers or Adult fish can survive for weeks or even months on very little
abundance counts did not apply (such as detritus and plant food, but without a plentiful food supply they will not flourish.
material). In another study large numbers of copepods were If food is in short supply, growth will be reduced or non-
consumed in spring and summer. Algae were recorded in high existent and fish may lose weight and become more susceptible
numbers in summer only. Dipteran larvae were recorded in to disease. During spawning egg numbers will be fewer.
stomach contents in spring and autumn, whilst ostracods were Juveniles and larvae in contrast are much more dependent upon
recorded in summer and winter. Zooplankton was recorded in a regular food supply and may starve within days or even
the stomach of fish from summer and autumn. Unidentified hours.
material (organic and inorganic detritus) constituted a major
proportion of the diet in both studies. Scientific data from stomach content analyses in wild
populations can be helpful in selecting the right type of diet for
Nevertheless, dietary analysis can reveal contradictory information your rainbowfishes. Few people, however, will be able to
on the food resources available to rainbowfishes, particularly duplicate the natural combination of the many foods consumed
across the seasons - it really depends on the season and the type of by rainbowfishes in their natural environment. Therefore, it is
habitat! necessary to provide favourable aquarium conditions and
careful feeding with specially formulated diets in an attempt to
Nutrients in freshwater rivers are mostly derived from sources satisfy all their nutritional requirements.
outside the stream itself, mainly in the form of organic material
derived from the riparian vegetation. Some primary production
occurs from algae and in-stream vegetation, although this is Feeding & Reproduction
comparatively small, with upland streams too shaded or too cold, Rainbowfishes require a highly nutritious diet in order to
and lowland streams too turbid for effective photosynthesis. maintain spawning condition and produce large numbers of
eggs. Research studies have shown that during periods of
Leaves falling into the stream are eaten directly by invertebrates low food availability, a decrease and then cessation of
known as “shredders”, such as stonefly and caddisfly larvae, reproduction occurs. During these times rainbowfish must
which shred or chew the softer parts of the plant material. allocate resources to meet basic metabolic functions rather
Material not consumed by the shredders is colonised by than reproduction. Research has also found that diet
microorganisms such as aquatic fungi and bacteria and strongly affects not only fecundity but also the biochemical
broken down to progressively smaller sizes. Freshwater make-up of eggs and sperm as well as the growth rate and
algae also colonise the leaves and twigs. survival of larvae.

The breeding seasons of rainbowfishes must coincide with A very dramatic increase in reproductive success could be seen
the conditions that offer the greatest amount of protection (Table 1) when comparing fish fed a 43% protein, 6% lipid
for the eggs, and food and shelter for the newly hatched diet modelled on the commercially available flake food
larvae. The duration and timing of reproductive activity are (Nutrafin®) and fish fed a 43% protein, 12% lipid diet
thus two critical components of the rainbowfishes life- supplemented with the essential fatty acids arachidonic acid,
history strategy. Rainbowfishes are often aseasonal spawners, docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid. Egg number
breeding continuously at intervals throughout the year. This doubled increasing from 121 ± 11 eggs to 245 ± 21 eggs. The
strategy increases the chances of at least some eggs surviving number of spawns significantly increased while average
during the year. Rainbowfish eggs are attached by adhesive spawning interval decreased. There was no significant
threads or tendrils to aquatic plants and other objects in the difference in survival to eyed embryo and hatching rate,
water, which hide them from predators. however, fish fed the formulated diet achieved a 100% survival
to eyed embryo and hatching rate which is quite notable. The
One study (Badger, 2004) covered a variety of topics on the unfed larval life increased significantly as well, increasing by
nutrition of Melanotaenia splendida ranging from identifying over two days from 8.9 ± 1.5 to 11.1 ± 1.2 days. The increase in
what reproductive factors are affected by nutrition to how diet egg number, unfed larval life and decrease in spawning interval
composition affected these factors. This study determined that achieved by replacing the control diet with the formulated diet
egg number as opposed to egg diameter was affected by showed that a very marked increase in reproductive success had
nutritional status, and that it is best to feed M. splendida been demonstrated between these two diets for Melanotaenia
daily to satiation in order to maximise reproduction. The splendida.
best diet found in this study for maximising reproduction
was one with a 43% protein and 12% lipid content, which Table 1.
was supplemented with essential fatty acids. The energy
content in the diet effected egg number the most, while the
protein content, lipid content, and fatty acid supplementation Nutrafin Formulated Diet
maximised unfed larval life.
Egg Number 121 ± 11 245 ± 21
Feeding trials found that rainbowfishes fed every day
produced significantly more eggs then fish fed every second Total Spawns 19.3 ± 0.3 26.4 ± 0.8
day. Average total number of eggs produced by fish fed
every 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th day showed a clear trend of
decline with increased feeding interval. It declined from 152 Av. Spawning Interval (Days) 2.1 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.1
eggs in those fish fed every day, to 99 eggs in fish fed every
2nd day, 26 eggs for fish fed every 3rd day, 21 eggs for fish Survival to Eyed Embryo % 99.8 ± 1.2 100 ± 0.0
fed every 4th day and 19 eggs for fish fed every 5th day.
The number of spawns was also affected by feeding, with Hatching Rate % 98.6 ± 0.8 100 ± 0.1
the highest number of spawns occurring in fish fed daily.
Hatching rate also declined from fish fed daily, to fish fed
once every five days. All fish in the trials were fed to
Unfed Larval Life (Days) 8.9 ± 1.5 11.1 ± 1.2
satiation on feeding days, with excess food siphoned out.
Energy, protein and lipid contents in a diet are important.
Egg quality also declined during periods of lower food Whatever is consumed in feed is needed by the fish for a
availability. Eggs that had been laid after the onset of reduced variety of metabolic functions, and must first be allocated to
feeding frequency or feeding ration had correspondingly lower essential needs such as respiration, digestion and excretion.
fertilisation and hatching rates. Any excess that is available after meeting these requirements
can then be allocated to other processes such as growth and
Lowered survival to eyed embryo may have been due to at reproduction. It is therefore necessary to ensure that diets for
least one of two factors: rainbowfishes contain enough of these nutrients not only to
meet essential metabolic functions but also to sustain egg and
a. the males were affected and in so doing produced less sperm development.
sperm that was not as viable or with a lower motility rate
and/or Both protein and lipid are very important constituents of fish
eggs. They are the primary components of vitellogenin, the
b. the viability of the eggs was affected, either the structure lipoprotein that is the main energy source in the yolk of eggs.
could have been effected making fertilisation difficult or They are also an energy source, therefore it is important to
impossible, or there were inadequate nutrients to support ensure that fish feeds contain enough of each so that female
any embryonic development. rainbowfish will have enough lipoproteins to allocate to egg
production. Many studies have previously linked increased
These two effects may have acted alone or in concert. The protein level with increased reproductive ability. It has also
eggs that were fertilised also had a decrease in hatching been shown that while lipid is important to fish reproduction,
success. too much lipid in a diet can be detrimental to egg quality. Too
little lipid or poor quality, however, can lead to a decrease in
ovary size and lower egg survival to hatching.

Furthermore, too much lipid in a diet can cause deformities The fatty acids in saltwater fish eggs differ from those found in
in eggs and reduced hatching success. Larval deformity freshwater fish eggs. Although eggs from both saltwater and
occurred in the study of Melanotaenia splendida as well, i. freshwater fish are rich in DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and
e., in the larvae hatched from eggs obtained from fish fed a EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), AA (arachidonic acid) is more
20% lipid content diet. It is surmised that the high lipid abundant in eggs of freshwater fish species. Because all three
content in the diet was the likely cause of larval deformity of these fatty acids are found in relatively high amounts in
as it was not seen in the larvae from the 12% or 9% lipid freshwater fish eggs, supplementing dry feed given to
diet trials. When fed a high lipid diet, rainbowfishes may rainbowfish with these fatty acids should ensure proper egg
develop lipidosis (fatty degeneration of the internal organs) formation and larval development.
and eventually die. A diet containing 43% protein and 12%
lipid was deemed to be the more ideal diet. However, in Melanotaenia splendida fed a diet containing all three fatty
outdoor ponds, natural foods contribute to the total amount acids produced eggs with a 100% survival to eyed embryo
of protein and energy available to fish, so results might and hatching rate. They also had the highest number of
differ from aquarium studies. eggs, highest number of spawns, and the shortest average
spawning interval when compared to results from the other
The total dietary protein requirement may be defined as the trials in the study (Badger, 2004).
minimum amount of protein that produces best fish performance
(e.g., growth, feed conversion) under a given set of conditions. In
addition to total protein, the balance between protein and Feeding in Captivity
energy in a diet is critical. When more protein is added to a Although environmental factors may limit food availability,
diet than is needed for growth and other bodily functions, wild rainbowfishes generally have the opportunity in their
the excess will be metabolised for energy or used to make natural environment to acquire adequate levels of all their
energy-storage products (e.g., body fat). Excess energy in nutritional requirements. The same cannot be said for
the diet can also reduce feed consumption and growth. captive rainbowfishes. Maintaining good health and growth
in your rainbowfishes depends directly on the quality and
The major food nutrients (i.e. carbohydrates, proteins and quantity of the nutrients received through their daily diet.
lipids) are required by animals not only as essential
materials for the construction of living tissues, but also as Rainbowfishes that receive an inadequate diet grow poorly
sources of stored chemical energy to fuel these processes. or not at all, and often exhibit deformities in the instance of
The ability of a food to supply energy is therefore of great vitamin/mineral deficiencies. Without the right amount of
importance in determining its nutritional value to animals. nutrients, rainbowfishes lose colour, stop breeding, and
The nutrient composition of numerous feedstuffs can be become susceptible to disease and, in certain circumstances,
found in the literature and on the Internet. One book that might even die. An undernourished animal cannot maintain
deals almost entirely with nutrient composition of feedstuffs its health and be productive, regardless of the quality of its
is the “Standard Methods for the Nutrition and Feeding of environment. Obviously, no single food will meet their
Farmed Fish and Shrimp”, which is available free on the needs at all life stages, and the best way to ensure that they
Internet. are getting a well-balanced diet is to feed them as wide a
variety of food as possible.
Essential Fatty Acids Many old-time aquarists relied upon catching and culturing
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that are needed for live foods to feed their rainbowfishes. This was mainly due
growth and maintenance, however, the body is unable to to the fact that there was not the variety of commercially
synthesize them. In fish, fatty acids are the main component manufactured fish foods available then as there are today.
of egg membranes, maintaining structure and function. Aquarists who were fortunate enough to discover pristine
Fatty acids have an effect on the condition of female fish as ponds inhabited by live foods generally keep them a close
well as a significant impact on spawning performance. Fatty secret, and set out to collect them at dead of night, in order to
acids are also essential to the development of larvae, and keep them to themselves. The live foods that became most
many aspects of development may be affected by the popular were those that could be easily collected or cultivated.
amount and type of fatty acids in a larval diet.
Up until the 1950’s, keeping and breeding rainbowfishes in
For herbivorous and omnivorous freshwater fish, many of the captivity generally required the routine collection of live
essential fatty acids are gained from freshwater algae. In most food from streams and ponds or whatever the aquarist was
freshwater plants, many of the long chain n-3 and n-6 essential able to find. Some of the items that were used included
fatty acids are not found in abundant levels especially bloodworms, small garden worms, gentles (maggots), pre-
docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA). Arachidonic acid soaked wheat, barley or millet grains, and now and then,
(20:4n-6, AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3, EPA) are coffee biscuit, vermicelli crushed small, occasionally varied
found in low levels in some freshwater invertebrates such as with a little fresh food or gentles, and the various varieties
insect larvae, but are not in abundance, with the result that of animalculae (Aquarium and Terrarium Society of Queensland,
these fatty acids are still limiting. 1928).

Rainbowfish keepers determined to keep rainbowfishes in
foremost breeding condition and to raise and maintain the
finest specimens should be aware that nutritional deficiencies
may exist in commercially prepared foods. An ideal aquarium
diet for rainbowfishes could include foods such as mosquito
larvae, live and frozen daphnia (cladocerans), bloodworms
and other aquatic invertebrates; chopped fish or shrimp,
duckweed and blanched zucchini, spinach (Spinacia oleracea)
or silverbeet (Beta vulgaris ssp. cicla).
In a well-established planted aquarium, rainbowfishes will

always fine some green food among the aquatic plants, but a
feed of duckweed, zucchini or spinach, at least once or twice
a week is to be recommended. If duckweed is taken from
natural waters it should be thoroughly cleansed before giving
it to the fish. Failure to take this precaution may result in
undesirable parasites being introduced into the aquarium.
Duckweed has higher concentrations of the essential amino

The feeding of aquarium fishes was revolutionised with the acids, lysine and methionine, than most plant proteins and
invention of dried flake food by Dr. Ulrich Baensch, founder more closely resembles animal protein in that respect. Newly
of Tetra Werke. Today, approximately 80% of aquarium harvested duckweed contains up to 43% protein by dry weight
hobbyists feed their fish exclusively with prepared foods, with little to no indigestible material. Cultured duckweed also
usually in flake or pellet formulations. has high concentrations of trace minerals and pigments,
particularly beta-carotene and xanthophyll that make duckweed
Flake food is the most common form and is consumed by a an especially valuable supplement for rainbowfishes. The fairly
wide variety of aquarium fish. Any discussion that involves high concentrations of these pigments deepen the overall body
fish food deserves a brief explanation on these two types of colouration of rainbowfishes. Duckweed can also be a rich
commercially prepared foods. While flakes have been the source of ascorbic acid (2.78–4.90 mg/100 grams dry weight).
most popular type of food for the past 50+ years, experienced The smaller species like Wolffia and Lemna are better for
hobbyists have learnt that pellets are the superior choice for rainbowfishes and most will eat it avidly.
feeding aquarium fishes. Pellets are preferred over flakes due
to the fact that each pellet has uniform nutritional value for Freeze dried foods are another type of food that can be fed to
the fish. Not only can you feed much less on a volume basis, rainbowfishes. The process of freeze-drying is to remove
but pellets will also remain stable in the aquarium for an only the water content, leaving the nutrients content intact. If
extended period of time. By their very design, flake foods are you feed freeze dried foods all the time then it would be best
paper-thin and absorb water very quickly. Some studies to pre-soak them in water before feeding to your fishes.
suggest that once flakes are added to the aquarium, the
majority of water-soluble vitamins (such as vitamin C) are Frozen foods can be a more natural source of nutrients than
leached out of a flake food within 60–90 seconds. dry manufactured foods. When feeding frozen foods, always
thaw them to room temperature before feeding your fishes.
Most brands are designed to meet the nutritional requirements Many frozen foods available from commercial suppliers often
of multiple species. In this way, the manufacturer can satisfy contain liquefied nutrients or processing water that may
a larger consumer base. A problem with this approach is that pollute the aquarium water when thawed. The best way to
this “all purpose” feed may not be completely suitable for defrost frozen foods quickly is to place the frozen food into a
rainbowfishes. Since there are very few published reports on strainer and run it under a cold water tap. This will also wash
rainbowfish nutritional requirements, or an evaluation of away the dissolved nutrients or any processing liquid that will
formulated diets on growth and fecundity, it is not known remain uneaten if fed to your fishes. Although freezing does
whether the protein, lipid and carbohydrate levels in these not significantly alter the nutritional content, nutrients do
diets provide the complete nutritional requirements of leach out rapidly into the water.
rainbowfishes.
I formulated my own food mix which was a gelatine-based
Rainbowfishes can be maintained on a diet consisting totally blend consisting of about 90% equal portions of fresh/frozen
of commercial feeds such as flake and pellet formulations. whitebait, shrimp, and mussel plus about 10% of beef liver
Such feeds however, need to be not only nutritious and and spinach. Small additions of other items such as dried
palatable, but also capable of floating or sinking slowly. mosquito larvae or similar dried foods, spirulina, fish roe, and
Rainbowfishes are primarily surface feeders so feeds that sink a host of other gourmet delights can be added to the mix.
too quickly may become wasted in the gravel substrate and Food sources of marine origin are often utilised in fish foods
can cause water quality problems. Avoid feeding pellet feeds because they are an excellent source of essential amino acids,
developed for the aquaculture industry, as they can cause fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. Variations of this formula
health problems in rainbowfishes over the longer term. could be tailored to suit nutritional needs of specific fish and
according to available ingredients.

Vitamin supplementation is not necessary. Water-soluble Never feed mouldy, discoloured or clumped feed. Moulds on
vitamins such as B-complex vitamins and vitamin C are most feed may produce aflatoxins, which can kill fish. Only buy
vulnerable to nutrient leaching and must be replaced each large containers of food if you have a large number of fish.
day. Fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E and K dissolve in Frozen foods can probably be kept for 6 to 8 months. They
fat before they are absorbed in the blood stream to carry out should not however, be thawed and then refrozen.
their functions. Excesses of these vitamins are stored in the
liver. Because they are stored, they are not needed every day Whatever choices you make regarding feeding your fishes,
in the diet and may cause problems if given in large doses. remember that variety is not only the “spice of life”, but is the
However, over supplementation with the aim to overcoming best way to provide them with the essential nutrients to give
vitamin degradation and leaching should be avoided to limit energy and build tissue. With proper feeding and aquarium
the risk of hypervitaminosis. Although, overdose of most management, most rainbowfishes will have the opportunity to
vitamins is unlikely to occur as excess vitamins are removed live a much longer life in captivity than they would in the
from the body via the kidneys. Brewers yeast, cereals, fish wild. A reasonably knowledge of the function of foods and
liver and various fish meats and oils contain most of the feeding will therefore help in the choice of the most suitable
essential vitamins when fresh, and are key ingredients in most food available for your rainbowfishes or in formulating your
formulated foods. own mixture.
The quality of ingredients in the food will have an effect on Sometimes rainbowfishes can be encouraged to experiment
the adequate delivery of key nutrients to the fish especially in with unfamiliar food items by withholding other preferred
relation to all the water-soluble components of the diet. Care food items. This works well, for example, when feeding
must be taken to overcome the leaching properties of certain blanched zucchini (a good source of B and C vitamins) for the
foodstuffs in the aquarium. Once the nutrients are released first time. Simply withholding their regular food and offering
from the diet into the water they are lost to the fish. Any the less familiar zucchini usually results in rapid acceptance
vitamins or nutrients that are leached into the water are not (1–3 days). Similar strategies can be used to feed rainbowfishes
known to be taken up through the skin or gills by freshwater homemade gelatine-based foods. Gelatine-based foods can
fish species which, in a hypo-osmotic environment, do not serve as an excellent carrier for oral medications, but the fish
drink. should be use to eating a plain (non-medicated) homemade
diet before there is a need to use it as a means of delivering
The formulation of a nutritionally balanced diet for your medication. As with many sick animals, the appetite is often
rainbowfishes requires efforts in research and evaluation. significantly depressed in sick fish, and that is not the time to
Inadequate nutrition obviously impairs fish growth and try and introduce an unfamiliar food item.
reproduction, and can result in deterioration of health until
recognisable diseases ensue. The borderlines between reduced Feeding live foods may not be necessary, but if you have
growth and diminished health, on the one hand, and overt access to them then this is by far the best food that you can
disease, on the other, are very difficult to define. There is no feed to your rainbowfishes. However, the time required
doubt that as our knowledge increases, the nature of the collecting live food from local ponds and streams and the risks
departures from normality will be more easily explained and of introducing pests, parasites and disease to a healthy tank are
corrected. However, the problem of recognising a deterioration enough to make even the most avid aquarist question the
of performance in its initial stages and taking corrective action desirability of such practice. What to watch out for are
will remain an essential part of the skill of the aquarium dragonfly larvae, hydra, leeches, planaria, snails, water beetle
hobbyist. larvae, water tigers, and other carnivorous insect larvae. They
may not bother larger rainbowfishes, but small fry have no
The first consideration for the formulation of a successful diet defence against most of these pests. You can overcome all
is the quality of the feed ingredients. Diets produced with these problems by maintaining live cultures of cladocerans
poor quality raw materials and under adverse processing (daphnia, moina etc.), copepods, mosquito larvae, drosophila,
conditions have inferior nutritive value and adverse effects on whiteworm, etc., at home.
fish health. The composition of the ingredient obviously
plays a determinant role in the quality. However, biological Rainbowfishes are well adapted to capturing live zooplankton
aspects, such as digestibility and utilisation of nutrients are and will show an active response to this type of food,
most important and often overlooked. indicating that zooplankton is a very attractive food for
rainbowfishes. Upon adding zooplankton to the tank, it is
The use of a good quality food will provide the fish with all the quite often the case that rainbowfishes will exhibit an
nutrients that they need to remain healthy and to grow. immediate response that somewhat resembles a feeding
However, you should note that even good quality food will frenzy. Live zooplankton is preferred over inert food by
deteriorate if improperly stored or kept too long. Unfortunately, rainbowfishes, suggesting a moving prey item may stimulate
few fish food containers are stamped with an expiration date. or influence feeding preference. In the presence of both live
Storage time for most commercial fish foods will vary zooplankton and a pellet diet, rainbowfishes spend significantly
depending upon environmental conditions; however, as a rule more time feeding on zooplankton than on inert pellets. The
of thumb, 90 days is normally the maximum safe storage time natural diet of newly hatched rainbowfishes is dominated by
for fish feed. Fish foods should be stored in a cool and dry zooplankton. Zooplankton is a rich source of protein and varies
place (refrigerator), and used within 30 days of opening, from 30–70% depending on life stage and nutrient availability
particularly in hot, humid climates. of their phytoplankton diet.

Feeding Skills rations on a daily basis then infrequent feeding. From this
Although it is often postulated that feeding aquarium fish study it may be deduced that it is not as important in this
little and often throughout the day will result in more species to feed to 100% satiation every feeding as it is to
efficient feed utilisation, research has not yet been feed every day. Although a 100% ration on a daily basis
conducted to validate this hypothesis. Published literature would still provide the best reproductive performance.
on frequency of feeding aquarium fish is limited when These findings are important as it is necessary to know how
compared with that available for aquacultured fish species. often and how much to feed the fish in captivity.
This has led to uncertainty in the feeding routines used by
many rainbowfish keepers. Both over and under feeding can Knowing how much to feed rainbowfishes without overfeeding
be detrimental to the health of rainbowfishes. them is a problem for most aquarists. Rainbowfishes always
Rainbowfishes have different dietary requirements based on seem to be hungry; you can feed them, and five minutes
size, age and water temperature, therefore the amount of later they will look at you as if they are starving. This is
food fed to the fish should vary accordingly. This generally because the fish have learnt to associate you with food and
means more frequent feeding for fish of smaller size such as get excited whenever they see you. It is necessary to
larvae and juveniles. understand about conditions in the wild to appreciate why
rainbowfishes have this behaviour. Food is a limiting
Many problems can be encountered when feeding resource in nature and it is rarely available in excess
rainbowfishes in an aquarium. First, delivery of feed to fish quantities. The individuals that survive are those best able to
in a water medium requires particular physical properties of acquire this limited resource. Rainbowfishes are opportunistic
feed together with special feeding techniques. It is not and feed whenever they can find food. It is neither necessary
possible in the literal sense to feed rainbowfishes on an “ad nor advantageous in the wild to control their appetite.
libitum” basis. The nearest alternative is to feed to “near
satiety” with a pre-determined number of feedings per day; Water temperature also directly influences the desire of
however, this can be very difficult and subjective. rainbowfishes to feed. Being poikilothermic animals, the
metabolic rate, growth, energy expenditure, and feed intake
Rainbowfishes will, however, easily adapt to a feeding are highly influenced by water temperature. In tropical
schedule. In their natural environment, rainbowfishes will waters, which have prevailing high temperatures,
adjust their food consumption to satisfy their requirements. If rainbowfish generally grow faster, mature younger, and
the amount of food available decreases they will increase their have a shorter life span than rainbowfishes in temperate
food intake during feeding. In captivity, however, waters. It is, therefore, important to understand how water
rainbowfishes have to rely entirely on the aquarist on the temperature affects these parameters. When temperatures
amount, as well as when and how often, they feed. This means drop below 20°C, rainbowfishes will consume less food so
that a dominant fish may be able to consume more feed than reduce the feeding rate accordingly. During cold weather
other less-dominant or smaller fish, which are held in the same conditions, it is best to feed late in the afternoon when the
aquarium. Being attentive to changes in appetite of fish is, water temperatures have had a chance to elevate during the
nevertheless, a very important skill that aquarists must acquire. day.
Feeding frequency and timing is another factor that has been Most rainbowfishes require a feeding ratio of about 5–10% of
suggested as affecting feed intake and utilisation by their body weight daily and ideally, should be fed this amount
rainbowfishes. On a weekly basis, studies have suggested that in four or five smaller feeding’s during the day. However,
feeding the equivalent of six days a week resulted in growth knowing the weight of your fish is not practical, so feed
performance similar to feeding seven days a week. Feeding sparingly, and supply enough to give three to five minutes of
five days a week resulted, however, in significantly less continuous feeding per meal. The actual amount of food
growth. There is no dependable evidence that daily feeding required depends on the type of food, aquarium conditions,
frequency and timing affect feed utilisation. The most and individual fish.
important factor is to insure frequent and spaced meals to
insure that the fish can consume enough feed to meet their Juvenile rainbowfishes consume a higher percent of their
growth potential. body weight per day than do adult fish. Newly hatched larvae
need to feed continuously. Research has shown that juvenile
It is obvious that food availability and abundance have rainbowfishes will grow faster if fed three or four times a
important effects on reproduction. However, it is not always day. Feeding several times a day can also reduce problems
the case that more food is better. Therefore determining of feeding dominance among juveniles of different sizes.
exactly how much food and how often to feed the fish in Multiple feeding’s also spread the waste load on the
order to maximise reproductive capacity is important for biofilter.
optimising reproductive output. Feeding too little will result
in decreased reproduction, while feeding excessively may Feeding is also the best opportunity for you to observe the
compromise fish health and increase the probability of overall vitality of your fish. Poor feeding response is a
having poor water quality problems. signal that something has gone wrong in the aquarium.
Check all aspects of the system particularly water quality,
Rainbowfish feeding research (Badger, 2004) found that and look for signs of disease or stress.
Melanotaenia splendida coped much better with lowered

Feeding and Nutrition Some research on the nutritional requirements of freshwater
At present there is little information available concerning the ornamental species in a commercial production environment
quantitative dietary nutrient requirements of rainbowfishes has been conducted, mainly in Singapore. Protein requirements
under aquarium conditions, or regarding the nutrient varied from around 30% dietary protein for growing
requirements of the first-feeding larvae and broodstock of omnivorous goldfish (Carassius auratus) to 50% for the
rainbowfishes. carnivorous discus (Symphysodon aequifasciata). Whereas,
mineral (phosphorus, iron, magnesium, zinc) requirements
Data from aquaculture research is commonly extrapolated have received some attention in feeding Poecilia reticulata,
and applied to aquarium species, which often proves to be few researches have concentrated on vitamin requirements of
unsatisfactory because of the differences in fish species and ornamental species.
variation in diet formulations which is aimed at maximum
growth in a short time period. This might be of value for the Maintenance energy levels of ornamental fish varied from
commercial farming of ornamental species, but would be 0.068 kJ per day for Paracheirodon innesi to 0.51 kJ per day
unsuitable for rainbowfishes kept in home aquaria. In for Trichogaster microlepis, kept at a water temperature of
addition, the majority of research has focused on feeding fish 26°C. However, large commercial producers of aquarium
to satiation, measuring the food intake, and linking this to fish in Singapore emphasise the importance of regular
growth performance and utilisation. supplementation of formulated feeds with live feed, as the
inclusion of live feed improves growth.
Under aquarium conditions, rainbowfishes characteristically
display a considerable range of growth rates. Despite this, and A study to determine the effect of increasing levels of
on the basis of ‘laboratory based’ nutritional feeding trials dietary protein on the common swordtail (Xiphophorus
conducted to date, some generalised conclusions may be drawn helleri) was carried out by Chong et al., 2004. Five semi-
regarding the recommended nutrient levels. Nevertheless, there purified diets having similar caloric values, containing 20%,
are still many unanswered questions when it comes to the 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% dietary protein were used. Results
nutritional requirements of rainbowfish species. showed that while the 20% and 30% protein produced the
lowest specific growth rate values, there was no significant
The formulation of adequate diets for organisms in an aquatic difference between 40% and 60% dietary treatments. The
environment gives a greater challenge to those involved in their 20% dietary treatment also displayed lowest protein content
care, compared to terrestrial species. In general the in both ovaries and muscle of female fish. Fry production
maintenance energy requirement of fish is less than 10% of the was highest from females fed with 50% and 60% protein,
maintenance energy required by birds or mammals. The low followed by the 30% and 40% protein while the diet
maintenance energy requirement is partly due to the containing 20% protein produced lowest number of fry.
poikilothermic nature of fish. Fish also exert less energy on
posture and have an energetic advantage over mammals in their A significant correlation was also obtained between number of
nitrogenous waste management as they excrete mainly fry produced and the weight of female fish, indicating that size
ammonia instead of urea or uric acid, thus losing less energy in is a major factor influencing production. Relative fecundity
protein catabolism and excretion of nitrogenous waste. was lowest for the 20% protein diet followed by the 30–40%
and 40–60% protein diets. There were no significant
The provision of energy and other nutrients to poikilothermic differences in both weight and length of fry produced among
animals can take many forms and is generally chosen by the dietary treatments. Based on these results, they suggested
reference to their natural ecology. However, it is pertinent to that a minimum of 30% protein be included in the diet of
note that feeding diets high in protein to herbivorous and female swordtail broodstock.
omnivorous fish may result in increased tank pollution as
excess protein is for the most part excreted as waste. In another study of Xiphophorus helleri (Kruger et al.,
2001), three protein levels (30%, 38% and 45%) at three
Feeding strategies and anatomical differences between fish different dietary lipid concentrations (6%, 8% and 12%)
species make formulation of one diet for a community of were used to formulate nine different diets that were fed for
species quite difficult. Fish are unique in that only a small 60 days to 6–8 weeks old juvenile Xiphophorus helleri.
proportion of species use plant material as their primary food From that study it was suggested that a diet of at least 45%
source. Those species consume nearly their body weight in protein and 6% lipid concentration is needed for the best
vegetation daily. specific growth rate and feed conversion ratio.
Most fish eat a diet rich in protein and fat and digestion of plant Larval goldfish were found to grow best on prepared diets
materials by these species is poor. Therefore, most commercial containing about 50% protein (Sales & Janssens 2003).
fish diets contain protein levels above 30%, and diets for very Juvenile goldfish grew best on prepared diets containing about
young fish may contain nearly 60% protein. Commercial diets 40% protein. As they grow to adulthood, their nutritional
are partially cooked during production, which increases the requirements change. Adult goldfish require only 29% protein,
digestibility of plant products. Lipids are also an important and they will continue to grow when receiving only 1% body
energy source for fish, and a source of essential fatty acids. The weight of a diet containing 36% protein.
most desirable fats are unsaturated.

Feeding Larvae Rainbowfish larvae can survive for as long as 8–10 days
The aquarium breeding and propagation of rainbowfishes without external food sources providing that the yolk sac
requires not only specific aquarium conditions, but in most contained enough nutrients. However, if an egg does not hold
cases also the cultivation and use of live food organisms for adequate nutrients, larvae hatching from that egg would have a
feeding newly hatched larvae. The larvae require culture shorter period of unfed larval life than a larvae hatching from
techniques which are normally different than juveniles or adults, an egg with a good supply of nutrients. Both protein and lipid
especially with respect to feeding. The main reason for this is are very important constituents of fish eggs. They are the
that the developing larvae are usually very small, extremely primary components of vitellogenin, the lipoprotein that is the
fragile, and generally not physiologically fully developed. For main energy source in the yolk of eggs.
example, larval rainbowfishes have a small mouth size and are
limited in the size of prey they can consume. Moreover, their Live feeds are a convenient food source for the larvae of all
ability to forage for prey is limited due to their small size and rainbowfish species. In their natural environment rainbowfish
limited fin development. These are limiting factors in proper larvae feed primarily on zooplankton. Zooplankton is importance
feed selection and use during the early first-feeding period. to the early life history stages of rainbowfishes. However, these
High mortality rates can often occur, especially during the early organisms are not normally available in captivity. Zooplankton
feeding stages. It is perhaps not surprising therefore that larval is a broad categorisation spanning a range of organism sizes
nutrition can be a major obstacle in the successful raising of that includes both small protozoans and large metazoans. It
rainbowfishes in captivity. However, mortality can be the result includes holoplanktonic organisms whose complete life cycle
of several factors including inbreeding, inferior water conditions lies within the plankton, and meroplanktonic organisms that
and improper hatching conditions. spend part of their life cycle in the plankton before graduating
to either the nekton or a sessile, benthic existence. An
Rainbowfish larvae in the wild feed on a wide range of live abundance of zooplankton is particularly important for larvae
foods, but under aquarium conditions they are usually fed on a to develop into juveniles and for juveniles to develop into sub-
limited number of foods (two or three) which frequently are not adults.
part of their natural food and hence their nutritional composition
may not always be the most suitable for maximum growth, Most rainbowfish larvae are not particular about the types of
development and survival of the larvae. Moreover, larvae zooplankton they will eat, but the animals must be small
undergo several morphological and physiological changes enough for the larvae to ingest. Rainbowfish larvae are usually
which in nature are simultaneous with changes in behaviour and small in size (4–6 mm, total length), have poorly developed
even habitat and type of food consumed. All these changes will eyes, do not swim all that well but are mostly present in the
affect the nutrient availability and feed utilisation by the larvae water column, and require easily digested food. Having such
in order to match their growing requirements. In theory, most of tiny mouths, the size of the food is crucial to their surviving the
these problems can be simplified by the proper development of most difficult period in their lives. Zooplankton swim slowly
diets which are able to cover nutritional requirements at and stay suspended in the water column, thus being available
different times of larval development. In order to achieve those for capture and consumption by larval rainbowfishes. Larger
diets we need, among many other important things, is to have a juveniles fed very tiny zooplankton may grow slowly because
complete knowledge of the nutrient requirements for of the energy expended in catching the small prey, but usually
rainbowfish species. they will not starve if enough zooplankton is available.
However, feeding tiny larvae with zooplankton that are mostly
As the larvae grow, the amount of food they need increases and too large for them to eat usually results in starvation.
they prefer to eat larger-sized prey. It has been generally
accepted that the optimal prey size for fish larvae is determined Natural foods may also include phytoplankton and detritus. As
by their mouth size. Commercial food fish larvae feeds have plants decompose they become broken down into tiny
been developed primarily based on mouth size data. This has fragments. The fragments become colonised by bacteria and
resulted in successful improvement of larval survival and fungi which feed off the decomposing material. These tiny
growth in many aquacultured fish species. Adjustment of the fragments and the microscopic plants, animals, bacteria and
amount of feed depending on larval developmental stage has fungi associated with them are known as ‘detritus’. Detritus is a
also resulted in better growth and survival. major component of a rainbowfishes diet at all stages of its life
cycle. The tiny plant fragments themselves are not very
The mouth size of first-feeding larvae restricts the size of the nutritious but the microorganisms associated with them are a
food particles which can be ingested. However, there are few, if readily digestible, nutritious, protein rich food source.
any, published information on the mouth size of rainbowfish Phytoplankton is a particularly important food source for larval
larvae. In general, mouth size is correlated with body size, rainbowfishes. Filamentous and unicellular algae, especially
which in turn is influenced by egg diameter and the period of epiphytic diatoms and desmids, also provide an important food
endogenous feeding (i.e., yolk sac consumption period). source (> 10% of diet) for rainbowfish larvae.
Rainbowfishes are lecithotropic; they live off the yolk sac
provided within the egg for a certain period of time after In general, if you want your rainbowfishes to achieve
hatching (the yolk will be absorbed slower in cooler water and maximum growth and have low mortality rates then you will
faster in warmer water). This means that there is a certain period need to provide them with at least some live foods. This often
of time where it is not necessary for a larval fish to obtain their means that you will have to culture or collect live foods. They
nutrition from external sources. should also be fed several times a day. This is not always
possibly as we all have other things in our life to do each day.

However, there are several kinds of live foods that can be fed practical. In response, there has been increasing interest in
to rainbowfish larvae that will remain alive in the aquarium developing alternative feeds for fish larvae, including
until consumed. Live foods such as infusoria, zooplankton alternative zooplankton species and formulated diets.
(rotifers, cladocerans, copepods, etc.), microalgae (greenwater),
or other micro-organisms all fall into this category. The major difficulty for the aquarist is providing organisms
Microalgal species can vary significantly in their nutritional appropriate to the size of the larvae at the first feeding stage
value, and this may change under different culture and then supplying the large numbers necessary to maintain
conditions. Nevertheless, a carefully selected mixture of them. The preferred size of prey for larval fish increases as
microalgae can offer an excellent nutritional package for mouth size and feeding competency increase and different
larval rainbowfishes, either directly or indirectly (through types of live foods have to be cultured for the different
enrichment of zooplankton). As the larvae develop they can stages in the larval rainbowfishes development. For
be fed other live foods such as brine shrimp nauplii and example, different species of microalgae (phytoplankton)
microworms that will remain alive in the aquarium from two range from 2 to 100 µm; rotifers from 50 to 200 µm,
to four hours, providing food until you can feed them again. copepods from 100 to 300 µm and brine shrimp nauplii 400
Brine shrimp nauplii are used primarily because of their ease to 800 µm.
of culture.
Apart from these main groups, a few other live feeds are
The numerous attempts to replace live food by artificial used on a more limited scale including microworm
diets has had limited success so far, i.e., the highest growth (Panagrellus redivivus), vinegar eels (Turbatrix aceti), and
rate in larval rainbowfishes is still obtained with live food. cladoceran crustaceans. This group includes many species
The reason why live food is better for growth has not yet (Daphnia, Moina etc.). They can reach up to 4–6 mm but
been clearly defined. Perhaps proteins present in typically are much smaller than this; the smallest species is
phytoplankton and zooplankton but not synthesised by the around 250 µm. Larger juveniles and even adults of some
physiological system of the larvae are important. In such species often selectively prey on these crustaceans.
cases, live food organisms provide digestive enzymes that
breakdown the food ingested by larvae. However, other
evidence has led to contradictory views regarding the role Feeding Program
of the live food contribution in the digestion process of fish The essential requirement for successfully raising
larvae. rainbowfishes is the implementation of a suitable feeding
regimen for the larvae. Using the following feeding program,
Live food organisms contain a ‘package’ of enzymes, gut the survival of rainbowfish larvae can be as high as 80–95%.
neuropeptides and nutritional ‘growth’ factors that enhance Begin feeding with small amounts of infusoria. The term
digestion. These substances are frequently omitted in infusoria is a collective name for many micro-organisms and
formulated diets. Moreover, particulate diets for fish larvae can include paramecium, unicellular algae, ciliates, bacteria,
contain proteins and other ingredients that can be difficult to protozoans, desmids, rotifers, and a host of other small
digest (especially since formulated diets contain 60–90% organisms.
dry matter while zooplankton has only 10%). Inclusion of
digestive enzymes, especially proteases, in the diets for fish Rainbowfish larvae will also benefit from the addition of
larvae has been reported to significantly improve nutrient small amounts of greenwater (phytoplankton). It is well
utilisation and performance of larvae, but still not as much known that phytoplankton (microalgae) contain an array of
as larvae fed on live food. essential nutrients that help the growth of rainbowfish
larvae. Providing natural greenwater with infusoria as food
Additional support for this hypothesis is found in the for the newly hatched rainbowfishes has several advantages.
different growth results when fish larvae are fed with either The larvae are easily able to switch to different sized prey, a
decapsulated cysts or nauplii of Artemia. On an individual feature not present in monocultures of organisms such as
weight basis, the decapsulated cysts and nauplii of Artemia rotifers or brineshrimp. Greenwater also enables the
have similar biochemical composition in all the major “infusoria” to feed on resident algae and microbes, thus
nutrients. Thus, with regard to the amount of nutrients, there retaining their nutritional value for greater periods of time.
is no difference in feeding Artemia cysts or nauplii to fish Feed 5–10 ml (per 20–50 fry) of infusoria suspension three
larvae. However, in some species higher growth rates have or four times per day. You can tell if they are feeding well as
been achieved with nauplii. Also of importance are several the larvae should have nice “swollen stomachs” after
essential biochemical compounds such as poly-unsaturated feeding.
fatty acids. Primary producers of these fatty acids are
phytoplankton and zooplankton. Starting on day 7 to 14, depending on size, you can begin
introducing small amounts of newly hatched brine shrimp
From the practical viewpoint of the aquarist, a good diet nauplii and/or microworm. The feeding of rainbowfish
should be readily available, simple to produce as well as larvae on the brine shrimp nauplii will be very inefficient at
versatile in application. The consistent availability of first; so add just enough such that the fry will encounter a
sufficient quantities of food organisms is of the utmost small “cloud” of nauplii for a few minutes in the water
importance in successfully breeding and raising column. Do this each time you feed brine shrimp nauplii to
rainbowfishes. In this respect, the collection and feeding of older fish. Observe fish closely after feeding.
wild plankton has proven unreliable and not always

Once you can see that the fish have been successfully taking due to release of growth-inhibiting substances. For maximal
the brine shrimp (their bellies will be orange), add more growth keep the number of fish per aquarium low and avoid
with each feeding. Never add so much brine shrimp that overcrowding.
more than 10–20% of it dies in the tank. Brine shrimp will
accelerate growth so it is important to commence feeding as Uneven larvae growth can also lead to cannibalism. Uneven
soon as possible. The smallest larvae will continue to eat the larvae growth rates means that some will quickly reach the
infusoria while the larger ones will start feeding on the brine size where they are capable of ingesting other, smaller
shrimp nauplii or microworm. larvae. Rapidly growing larvae have a high food intake
requirement. If that need for food is not satisfied by
Gradually increase the proportion of brine shrimp nauplii or supplemental feeding they might start looking for extra food
microworm and phase out the infusoria - this should be sources such as their smaller siblings in the tank. It is
around day 14 to 21. Continue feeding the juveniles with believed that larger larvae are also more aggressive and
brine shrimp nauplii and microworm three times a day. Do successful at feeding when supplementary food is added.
not overfeed, a good rule of thumb when feeding brine This then gives the larger larvae a further growth advantage.
shrimp nauplii is that they should be mostly eaten after The main way to control cannibalism is with regular size
about 20 minutes, at which point the babies will have nice grading. This is the single most effective method for
red stomachs. When weaning fish to a new food, introduce reducing cannibalism. Also, if the fish are fed regularly and
10% of the new food daily while reducing the same sufficiently, it reduces the number of fish that are hungry
percentage of the initial food until 100% of the new food is and may decrease the cannibalism on their siblings.
accepted. Commence feeding adult foods as soon as the
juveniles are big enough to eat it and feed them often (at General maintenance includes daily siphoning of the
least twice daily). aquarium to remove any uneaten food and faeces, and 25–
50 percent waterchange at least one a week. The continued
In addition to microworm or brine shrimp nauplii feed them growth and development of the fish will vary from one
once each day with a sprinkle of powdered spirulina. hobbyist to another and is largely conditional upon captive
Spirulina is an algae-derived food rich in protein, environmental conditions such as temperature, water
carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins and minerals, and quality, and feeding regime. Sexual differences begin to
essential fatty acids. Spirulina powder is available from appear between 9 and 12 weeks after hatching with sexual
most health food stores. The powdered microalgae Chlorella mature at 6 to 12 months.
and Dunaliella that are sold in most health food stores can
also be used as aquarium food supplements.
Formulated (Dry) Diets
The growth rate of the rainbowfish larvae is generally slow, If you are unable to culture or feed live foods to your larval
with little variation until around 14 days. After that time rainbowfishes, you can still get reasonable results rearing
growth rates increased. However, considerable variations in them entirely on a fine powder-based diet manufactured by
the growth rate of juvenile stages of rainbowfishes have a number of commercial suppliers. Advantages include ‘off-
frequently been observed. Lack of food during early the-shelf’ availability, which is especially important in
development leads to appreciable variation in growth remote locations and for hobbyists with limited resources.
(length), if compared to larvae offered food ad libitum. However, artificial diets are ingested at a lower rate than
Adequate food and suitable temperature generally results in live foods, and are negatively buoyant in water.
higher growth rates. Beside effects on growth, a decline in
mortality between fish receiving small amounts of food and Generally, rainbowfish larvae fed only dry formulated diets
well-fed fish has also been observed. often show lower survival and poorer growth compared to
those fed live foods and can often lead to higher incidence
It should be noted that the hatching of eggs might vary, of deformities. Non-living feeds do not yet have an
resulting in the presence of larvae at different stages of advantage over live food organisms. During recent years
development. As the larvae increased in age, the variation in intensive research has been conducted by a number of
length between individuals also increased. Thus, different research groups around the world to develop micro diets
factors can increase the duration until sexual maturity is that can partially or fully replace the use of live food.
reached. If you have a batch that differs greatly in size, you Substantial advances have been developed and commercial
will often find that the smaller ones are females. To raise an micro-diet formulations are becoming more and more
entire spawning, you may have to sort the growing fish by successful as a partial replacement for live foods.
size, as the larger ones will eat their smaller siblings or
repress their growth rate. Two types of micro-particulate particles have been used for
manufacturing formulated diets for feeding fish larvae;
Size grading separates the faster and slower growing fish. these are (1) micro-encapsulated diets and (2) micro-bound
When these smaller fish are transferred to another tank, diets. Both have been used extensively in nutritional studies
their growth rate is no longer negatively impacted by the with fish larvae. The major difference between the two is
faster growing individuals. They should increase their that micro-encapsulated diets have a membrane or capsule
growth rates to compensate for the initial retarded growth wall which separates dietary materials from the surrounding
rates that developed during the nursery phase. In addition, a medium. The capsule wall helps maintain integrity of the
high fish load can retard the growth of juveniles, probably food particle until eaten and helps maintain water quality;

however, it may restrict leaching of water soluble dietary Its actual purpose is the replacement of brine shrimp,
components and therefore reduce the attractability of the spirulina and artificial plankton (APR) as starter diets for
food particles. The capsule wall is also thought to impair larval fish and shrimp.
digestion of the food particle and a number of studies have
reported poor growth and survival of fish larvae fed micro- The manufacturer describes Cyclop-eeze as a superior natural
encapsulated diets. product, suitable for almost any aquaculture purpose. The
copepods the product consists of “are selectively bred,
Micro-bound diets consist of dietary components held within biologically engineered micro organisms which are cultured
a gelled matrix or binder. They do not have a capsule and this in a pristine arctic lake”. The decapods harvested for the
has been suggested to facilitate greater digestibility and production of the product are described to be of “blood
increased attractability through greater nutrient leaching. orange” coloration. The company explains this with the high
Many different binders have been used in micro-bound diets level of astaxanthin. The importance of carotenoids in fish
including polysaccharides from seaweed such as agar, diets has been stressed by several researchers working in the
carrageenan and alginate and proteins such as zein and field of fish nutrition. In addition to the high content of
gelatine. They vary considerably in their properties and carotenoids, high levels of highly unsaturated fatty acids
nutritional value and choice of binder can significantly (HUFA) are also found in the copepods. All polyunsaturated
influence the rate of ingestion of formulated food particles fats are increasingly recognised as important to animal
and nutrient assimilation. Water stability of micro-bound health. High levels of omega-3 HUFA have been described
diets is also influenced by the binder employed. Micro-bound as favourable for larval aquaculture applications and
diets made from agar and alginate were amongst the most typically are obtained by food supplements.
stable in terms of integrity, while carrageenan was amongst
the poorest. Cyclop-eeze is also seen an interesting product because it
occurs to be rich in the attractant betaine as well as other
Prepared diets should be of a very fine grain, nutritionally palatability factors. Betaine as well as carotenoids and
complete, palatable, be less than 100 microns (µm) in size, phospholipids are widely used as attractants and stimulants.
and remain floating or suspended in the water column. I Unfortunately, not a lot of research on Cyclop-eeze has been
have found OSI® Micro-Food an excellent first food for published. The information available on nutritional values
rainbowfish larvae. OSI Micro-Food is a microencapsulated and compositional aspects of Cyclop-eeze are therefore
diet rich in protein, fatty acids, and vitamins. OSI Micro- limited to the manufacturer’s information and little
Food or artificial plankton (APR), as it is known in the independent research has been conducted evaluating the
aquaculture industry, was designed for feeding prawn product in fish feeding.
larvae, but it works well on larval rainbowfishes too. Just
use it dry and sprinkle it over the surface of the water. Other However, there are now numerous commercial products
well-known products such as ‘Sera® Micron and TetraMin® available for feeding fish larvae and they are all certainly
baby fish food are also suitable first food for rainbowfish worth trying. Recent developments have included the use of
larvae. a newly formulated larval micro-diet (Gemma Micro®) that
has helped reduce brineshrimp usage by more than 95 per
It is important that the feed size increases as the larvae grow cent. This diet has proven to be more attractive and beneficial
until they are large enough to take regular flake and pellet to the fish. You need to try these products yourself and see if
feeds. It can be advantageous to mix the sizes for a few they are suitable for your situation. Evaluating and
weeks, especially if there is size variation within the larvae. combining different food products can provide suitable diets
Care should be taken not to overfeed, as prepared diets tend for any of the fishes we maintain in captivity and can closely
to easily decompose and pollute the water if overfed. Just a resemble the wild diets with which they have evolved. This
small tip here, keep all your fish foods in the refrigerator, should minimise nutritionally related health issues and
they last longer. improve your success as well as the general wellbeing of the
fishes.
Another simple, less expensive but very efficient method to
feed larval rainbowfish is hard-boiled egg yolk. Just wrap
the yolk in a clean cloth (or old nylon stocking) and twist it Frozen Food
down into a section of the cloth. Then all you have to do is Frozen food can usually be fed approximately 14 to 21 days
swish it around in the water. The egg yolk will keep in a post hatching. Instead of hatching fresh brine shrimp nauplii
refrigerator for a few days. An even easier option is to for your baby and juvenile rainbowfishes every day, you
purchase some powdered egg yolk from your local baker. might consider making frozen brine shrimp blocks and
Powdered yolk can be stored in the refrigerator for several feeding these instead. First, hatch a large batch of brine
months. When you want to feed the yolk just sprinkle it dry shrimp. After hatching, collect the shrimp in the normal way
on the aquarium water surface. and rinse with fresh water. Place the normal ration of brine
shrimp for a tank into the well of an ice cube tray (plastic
The copepod, Diaptomus connexus (sold freeze-dried under ones that make small cubes are best). Add fresh conditioned
the commercial name of Cyclop-eeze®) is considered to be water to fill the trays and freeze. When it is time to feed the
another excellent food for juvenile rainbowfishes by many fish, just pop out a block and add to the tank. The ice will
aquarists. Cyclop-eeze is a commercially available product slowly melt and release the brine shrimp, feeding your fish.
marketed by Argent Chemical Laboratories. You can do the same thing with other types of live food.

A suitable homemade food can be made up with fish, A selection of larvae food and sizes
shrimp, and/or squid flesh, chicken eggs, beef liver, and cod Brine Shrimp: 400–800 micron (depending on origin)
liver oil. The fry should be eating brine shrimp nauplii Decapsulated brineshrimp eggs: 200–250 micron
before feeding this food. OSI Micro-food (APR): 50–150 micron
Cyclop-eeze: 750–800 micron
Percent weight: Active Spheres Golden Pearls: 5–50 micron
Fish, Shrimp, etc. – 85% Golden Pearls Rotifer Size I: 50–100 micron
Cod Liver Oil – 2% Golden Pearls Rotifer Size II: 100–200 micron
Chicken Eggs – 10% Golden Pearls Artemia Size I: 200–300 micron
Beef Liver – 3% Golden Pearls Artemia Size II: 300–500 micron
Golden Pearls Weaning Diet: 500–800 micron
A recommended procedure for preparation is as follows: Golden Pearls Juvenile Diet: 800–1000 micron
Thaw shrimp, squid or fish (if frozen) and blanch the liver
in boiling water for at least 10 minutes. Homogenise with Hatchfry Encapsulon
fish, shrimp, or squid in a food processor until well blended Hatchfry encapsulon is formulated to resemble artemia nauplii.
(smooth texture with no chunks). Mix chicken eggs, cod Sized matrix bound, micro-particulate larval feed are excellent
liver oil, and then add to food processor. Add a binding food for shrimps and fish. Argent has manufactured and
ingredient (gelatine or agar) gradually, and continue mixing distributed Hatchfry Encapsulon for more than two decades.
slowly until a paste is formed. Take the paste and place in a All grades of Hatchfry Encapsulon are chemically composed
plastic ice cube trays and store frozen. Later, the frozen so that their protein content, as expressed in the amino acids
food can be finely grated with a cheese grater. profile, closely resembles that of artemia nauplii. Larval of
freshwater shrimp as well as most marine and freshwater fish
This procedure will result in a mixture of particle sizes fry will thrive on this diet.
ranging from 250 to 1,000 µm. However, depending on the
size of the fish, you may require a certain particle size. To Grade 0: 30 micron
obtain the specific particle size, take a frozen cube out of Grade I: 50–150 micron
the freezer, thaw and blend with water in an electric blender Grade II: 150–250 micron
and manually press the material through a sieve having a Grade III: 250–450 micron
specified size. Drain the sieved diet to remove dissolved
particles that can foul the water and contribute to bacterial
growth within the nursery tank.
David Nelson
Melanotaenia duboulayi (day-old larvae)

Foods & Feeding
Infusoria
Gary Lange
The term infusion animals (animalculæ) was introduced by the
German naturalist, Martin Frobenius Ledermüller in 1763, to
include all those microscopic animals that appeared in water in
which hay had been steeped for several days. This was soon
formalised to infusoria by Heinrich August Wrisberg in 1765.
Wrisberg described what he took to be the process by which the
decaying animal and vegetable matter in infusions produced
infusoria. Many of these organisms would originally have been
present as spores and cysts, so the infusoria that appeared typically
included rotifers and other protozoa, as well as algae.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century infusoria comprised

a vast array of organisms spanning in size and complexity from
bacteria to small invertebrates including worms and crustacea
found in lakes, ponds, and streams, as well as in infusions of
decaying organic matter exposed to the air. Today the term
‘infusoria’ is mainly an informal aquarium hobby name that
covers a wide diversity of microorganisms, including single-
celled, colonial and multicellular forms.
By far most ‘infusoria’ are found in freshwater free from

actively-decomposing organic matter, rather than in those that
contain organic substances in a putrescent state. They may be
“benthic” (living in bottom sediments) or “epiphytic” (living
on aquatic plants). They are an important link in detritus-based
food webs in aquatic ecosystems and are consumed by other
small animals, which are in turn preyed upon by larger
organisms. Their principal importance is as consumers of
bacteria. Infusoria feed on bacteria and organic detritus, hence
when they present themselves in vegetable infusions, it is Infusoria Culture
usually after decomposition. The decomposing organic matter
feed the bacteria, which are even smaller than infusoria. They Most aquarium related cultures of infusoria are a collection of
are not, however, absolutely confined to water; for there are a many microorganisms and can include microscopic algae,
number of species which can maintain their existence in damp bacteria, protozoans, rotifers, and a host of other small organisms.
mud. Unless you are maintaining pure cultures in sterile conditions, your
culture will have a mixture of protozoans and algae in greater or
Many microorganisms can be collected in the wild and cultured as lesser degree. Variety in composition is one of the outstanding
infusoria. Organic materials such as aquatic plants, leaf litter or characteristics of infusions in which infusoria are to be cultured.
pond sediment can be collected and added to a container that is There appears to be no single method of successful culturing. In
then filled with water. After standing for a few days, the plant general, small quantities of materials, usually organic, must be
material decays and the infusoria will have come to the surface, introduced into water to induce bacterial multiplication. These
where they can be siphoned off. A tendency of most infusoria bacteria are the chief food supply of the infusoria, at least in the
is towards the light, and also to the surface. Such a culture will earlier stages of the culture.
produce infusoria for a number of weeks, without any further
treatment. When the infusoria begin to decline, they can be Although infusoria have been cultured and fed to fish larvae for
caused to increase again by the addition of small quantities of more than a hundred and fifty years, and many fish breeding
vegetable matter into the water to induce bacterial articles advise infusoria as a first food for fish larvae, there
multiplication. have been very few articles published in the aquarium literature
on how to successfully cultivate them. The procedure adopted
There are problems in collecting from the wild however, most by old time aquarists for obtaining a culture of infusoria was by
notably the risk of introducing disease or pests into your boiling hay, lettuce, spinach or other vegetable matter and
culture. In addition to collecting organisms in the wild they allowing the resultant infusion to decompose in the air for a
may also be purchased as pure cultures from biological supply while in the hope that various living beings developed therein.
companies. Obtaining a starter culture from a fellow hobbyist At best this was a hit and miss method and in many cases it
is probably the simplest solution. simply didn't result in a successful culture.

“Now the water in an aquarium which has been kept for any Culture water that is too rich in decomposing organic matter will
length of time necessarily becomes more or less charged with simply encourage a bacterial bloom and an unpleasant odour may
the effete matter of its inhabitants, which if allowed to develop. Generally the culture will settle down again once the
accumulate, would soon render the fluid poisonous to every bacteria do their work. You could also use one of the commercial
living thing within it. This result is happily averted by
Infusoria, which feed upon the decaying substance in solution,
solutions devised expressly for feeding paramecia.
while they themselves become in their turn the food of larger
animals. Thus the presence of Infusoria in the tank may be A healthy culture should be clear and somewhat odourless. A
considered a sign of its healthy condition, although their thriving culture can be maintained for months, but it’s always a
increase to such an extent as to give a milky appearance to good idea to start fresh cultures occasionally, because nothing
the water is apt to endanger the well-being of the larger, crashes more unexpectedly than populations of infusoria. Once
though delicate creatures. you have a good culture going it is a simple matter to prepare a
series of cultures from the original one.
The peculiar phenomenon allured to arises from decaying
matter, which should be sought after and removed with all
possible speed. The whereabouts of such objectionable
remains will be generally indicated by a dense cloud of
Infusoria hovering over the spot. The milkiness, however,
although it may look for the time unsightly, is ofttimes the
saving of the aquarium ‘stock’. When these tiny but
industrious scavengers have completed their task of
purification, they will cease to multiply, and mostly disappear,
leaving the water crystal clear.
I believe it is the absence or deficient supply of Infusoria that

sometimes so tantalizingly defeats the attempts on many
persons to establish an aquarium.” (John Harper, 1860)
The best way to bring about a successful culture is to make a

vegetable based infusion similar to the above (slices of potato or
banana skin works well) using water from a well-established
aquarium or outdoor pond (that hasn’t been chemically treated).
Cultures should be maintained indoors with sufficient daylight (but
not sunlight) and kept warm (28°C). Cultures should not be
covered if populations of maximum concentration are desired.
Aeration is helpful as the bacterial growth will consume most

of the oxygen in the culture, inhibiting the growth of the
infusoria. Aeration will also help to reduce any unpleasant Fig. 1
odours produced by the decaying organic matter. Within a
couple of days the water should turn cloudy with bacteria.
Once the culture begins to clear a pale, ever changing cloud of Feeding Infusoria
tiny specks will be seen when a clear glass jar containing the Infusoria are an excellent primary food source for newly
infusion is held to the light. Although just visible to the naked hatched rainbowfish larvae. You can collect the infusoria with
eye, to see infusoria properly, a microscope is needed. At this a syringe and feed part of the culture solution directly to the
stage you can begin feeding them to your fry. larval fish. Feed the larvae, according to their number, as often
as possible in small quantities so as not to pollute the water.
When the culture is thriving well add a few pieces of vegetable You should be able to tell when they are getting enough to eat
matter, which will provide organic matter when the original because their stomachs will be distended.
culture is nearing exhaustion. Beef extract powder, lettuce
leaves, cereal grains (rice, wheat, barley, oats, etc.), banana The best way to collect infusoria and avoid adding any of the
skin, hay, grass, skim milk powder, decaying aquatic plants culture solution into the raising tank is to use a laboratory grade
and leaves, cabbage leaves, and mud are some of the materials filter paper placed over a funnel and into an empty collection
which are reported to have been used. container. Pour the contents of the culture through the filter
paper. The filtered medium will collect in the container and the
Such diverse organic materials may be boiled in water, or they infusoria will be concentrated on the filter paper. The infusoria
may be allowed to macerate. Slight variations of the above are then washed off the filter paper with fresh water and fed to
techniques require the introduction of algae, yeast, or bacteria the fry. Return the filtered medium back to your culture container,
into infusions such as the above. The culture will decline as the culture will continue to reproduce.
rapidly if the nutrients are completely used up. However, care
should be taken with the amount added as too much could If it is desired to feed the culture to the fry over a predetermined
result in the water becoming depleted of oxygen and cause period of time the following method can be used (Fig. 1): Drill a
your infusoria to perish. small hole in the screw-on lid of a clear plastic food container,
the size of some small diameter plastic tubing. Push the tubing
through the lid until it is about a centimetre off the bottom of

the container. Fasten the tubing to the outside with some sticky
tape. The container is then filled with infusoria culture and
placed on the lid of the aquarium with one end of the tubing
Phytoplankton
dangling over the surface of the aquarium. The culture is Phytoplankton (green-water) is composed mainly of microscopic
transferred into the aquarium by syphoning and the flow is free floating or suspended algae and is generally referred to as
regulated with an aquarium clamp. By leaving the end of the greenwater by aquarium hobbyists. The word phytoplankton is
tubing, on the inside of the container, just above the base less derived from the Greek language (phyto = plant; plankton =
detritus is picked up. wanderer). It is a term used to describe plants that are so small that
their movement is primarily controlled by the motion of the water.
You can add some water-soluble vitamins to enhance the These plants called algae (alga = singular) include a number of
nutritional value of the infusoria a few hours before feeding. microscopic, single and multiple cell forms. In freshwater, large
They will absorb them directly from the water. Most vitamin numbers of phytoplankton often occur in lakes, rivers and ponds.
solutions designed for human babies generally contain all the Various phytoplankton species bloom in response to certain
necessary vitamins fish require. conditions such as changes in temperature, photoperiod, light
intensity and nutrients.
As an alternative feeding system you could use one of the
commercially available AquaDose® systems, or medical intravenous The majority of phytoplankton is made up of holoplankton,
infusion bag. These can also be used for feeding greenwater organisms that spend most of their life cycle in the planktonic
infusions, medications or any other aquarium additives. community. However, many phytoplankton species are capable
of producing resting spores, which can to be found in deeper
water or in the bottom sediment of freshwater habitats. These
‘resting stage’ spores are generally what cause the algal blooms
that we often see in freshwater environments. Phytoplankton is
AquaDose and Intravenous Infusion Bag ▼(photo: Gary Lange)
usually rich in green algae. However, it also includes diatoms,
flagellates and blue-green algae. Although, it is generally
accepted that blue-green algae are actually bacteria and not
algae.
The diet of most rainbowfish larvae consists of a wide diversity

of phytoplankton and zooplankton organisms that are found in
great abundance in their natural habitats. This abundance and
diversity of food organisms of different sizes and nutritional
composition usually provide all the dietary requirements of the
feeding larvae. Phytoplankton contains proteins, starches, fatty
acids and oils and forms the base of the food chain in aquatic
environments. As such, it is an excellent primary food source
for newly-hatched rainbowfish larvae.
Although several alternatives for feeding rainbowfish larvae

exist, such as commercially available fine powder-based feeds,
live greenwater is still the best and the preferred food source.
Most phytoplankton is very small, often-minute organisms
ranging in size from 2 to 100 µm and stay suspended in the
water column. Phytoplankton also serves as food for zooplankton,
which in turn are fed upon by the fish larvae. Besides, rearing
rainbowfish larvae using the “greenwater technique” directly in the
larval tanks is believed to play a role in stabilising the water
quality. It would appear that phytoplankton can use up a lot of
nutrients, and, instead of being over supplied with nutrients; an
aquarium with greenwater is more often low in nutrients, at least in
nitrogenous substances.
Phytoplankton species can vary significantly in their nutritional

value, and this may also change under different growth
conditions. Most phytoplankton contain 20–25% protein, 5–
30% carbohydrate and 5–25% lipid. Phytoplankton is rich in
essential amino acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Phytoplankton also provides vital bio-pigments that are
required for the development of improved colouration for
captive bred rainbowfishes, and can also be a rich source of
ascorbic acid (0.11–1.62% of dry weight).

Cultivation of phytoplankton for feeding rainbowfish larvae is sunlight each day. Fill the tank with old aquarium water and
very simple. All that is required is water, light and nutrients. it should turn green within a few days (depending on light
Natural sunlight is best, if not mandatory, as without strong and nutrients). Mechanical circulation can be used to keep
light the phytoplankton will simply not grow. Phytoplankton the algal cells in suspension, thus exposing as much surface
use energy from the sun to make their own food through area as possible to the light for photosynthesis, while
photosynthesis. In the process of photosynthesis, plants use making sure they don’t remain in the same spot too long for
carbon dioxide, water, nutrients, and sunlight to produce photo-inhibition to become a factor. Cultures are generally
oxygen, sugar and energy. The sugar molecules then combine maintained at a temperature range of 20–24°C, pH 7.5–8.5.
to form starch and cellulose, energy-rich organic molecules High-density cultures may require a pH buffer to prevent
that are food for the plants. One of the critical chemicals for pH drift.
photosynthesis is chlorophyll, which is bright green.
Unless you are maintaining pure cultures in sterile conditions,
Phytoplankton does not appear overnight, it may take a your culture will have both phytoplankton and zooplankton in
week or two to appear. However, once you have a culture greater or lesser degree. Cultures maintained indoors without
established, they will bloom much quicker when you use sufficient light will probably contain more zooplankton than
some old greenwater to start a new culture, often within 3 phytoplankton but outdoors the situation is usually reversed.
days. Under favourable conditions, phytoplankton grows Introducing more light will encourage the existing phytoplankton
continuously by a process known as cell division. Each cell to grow.
enlarges and divides into two daughter cells that subsequently
grow and divide yielding a culture that increases exponentially Providing phytoplankton with zooplankton as food for the
(e.g., 8, 16, 32, 64...etc.). Growth slows as the algal population newly hatched rainbowfishes has several advantages. The
becomes more crowded. Nutrients are depleted, metabolites larvae are easily able to switch to different sized prey, a feature
build, and light penetration decreases because of self-shading. not present in monocultures of organisms. Phytoplankton also
The culture will then go into a stationary phase for the current enables the resident zooplankton to feed on the algae and
conditions and will not increase in density. Phytoplankton microbes, thus retaining their nutritional value for greater
contain their best nutritional value when their growth is still periods of time. Studies performed in aquaculture have
within the “exponential growth” phase. shown that fish larvae fed on diets composed of multiple
phytoplankton species have higher survival rates and
Perhaps the simplest way to culture phytoplankton is just to quicker growth rates than those fed with a single type of
place some old aquarium water (that hasn’t been chemically phytoplankton.
treated) from one of your waterchanges into a suitable
container and store it outdoors. When it turns green you can Feed 5–10 ml (per 20–50 fry) of phytoplankton suspension
then collect a portion of the culture each day to feed to your three or four times per day. You can tell if they are feeding
fishes. Outdoor cultures should be protected from heavy well as the larvae should have nice “swollen stomachs”
rain and screened to prevent entry of predacious aquatic after feeding. As the fish larvae grow, the amount of food
insects. Filamentous algae and predators of fish larvae can they need increases and they prefer to eat larger-sized prey.
be troublesome in outdoor cultures. Larvae older than 14 days can start to be fed live brine
shrimp nauplii and/or microworm. Brine shrimp and
One of the problems with outdoor cultures is that you have no microworm will accelerate growth so it is important to
control over the sunlight. Generally, the more light the greater commence feeding as soon as possible. The smallest larvae
the phytoplankton density. While phytoplankton will grow all will continue to eat the greenwater while the larger ones
year round in one region, they may not grow in all regions. will start feeding on the brine shrimp nauplii or microworm.
Their light requirement remains the same even when the days Gradually increase the proportion of brine shrimp nauplii or
are shorter and the air temperature is colder. Another microworm and phase out the phytoplankton - this should be
requirement for successfully growing phytoplankton outdoors around day 14 to 21. This feeding regime should generally
is the shape, size and colour of the culture container. result in greater than 90% larval survival.
Deep containers need more light than shallower ones. The Alternatively, commercially available phytoplankton products
deeper containers get less light penetration and therefore fewer such as Phytoplan® can be incorporated into their diets. Phytoplan
algae will grow. Shallow white or clear translucent plastic is a spray dried blend of several strains of phytoplankton.
containers are the best. They allow the sunlight to penetrate However, research has shown clear difference in nutritional value
most of the water column. Decreasing the depth of the between non-living and living diets, and among commercial diets
container can have the same effect as higher light intensity. advertised as containing live algae. Overall, results showed that
Shallower containers require much lower light levels initially. fresh cultures displayed the best growth and lowest mortality
You could use a standard all-glass aquarium. Water circulation rates. Also, a mixed algal diet promotes faster growth and
can be also be used to keep the phytoplankton in suspension, higher survival than single algal diets. Results also suggest that
thus exposing as much surface area as possible to the sunlight. phytoplankton present in some commercial diets may lose their
nutritional value during processing or refrigerated storage.
If on the other hand you want to culture your phytoplankton
indoors, then the best way is to use a bare 50-litre aquarium
placed near a window that receives several hours of natural

Semi-intensive Green-water System In a green-water system most of the nutrients are recycled back
If you have a large breeding program you could set up a bank of to the fish. With light aeration using an airstone, detritus, faeces
50 litre aquariums as raising tanks for rainbowfish larvae and and plankton can be kept in constant circulation. Nitrifying
simply place the spawning mops containing eggs into the bacteria will colonise this floating “substrate” creating a
phytoplankton tanks for hatching. The configuration of the “suspended growth treatment process”. These bacteria oxidise
system is simple and maintenance needs are minimal. The toxic ammonia nitrogen into relatively harmless nitrate and
culture needs to be very thick whereby the bottom of the tank heterotrophic bacteria (bacteria that consume organic matter)
cannot be seen through the green water when looked at from proliferate. Rainbowfish larvae will feed on these and receive
above. When the eggs hatch the larvae will survive and grow supplementary nutrition.
without any additional help from you. As the fry grow you can
start feeding brine shrimp nauplii and other foods until they are The suspended growth treatment process maintains adequate
large enough to be moved to a more suitable environment. water quality for the fish while recycling waste nutrients into
phytoplankton and bacteria that encourages continued algae
Culture of phytoplankton indoors allows control over and bacterial population growth, which further improves water
illumination, temperature and nutrient level. The most crucial quality. An added advantage of this process is the elimination
part is getting the correct amount of light and nutrients. Strong of the need for a fixed-film biofilter.
light to simulate the outdoor brightness is required. The duration
of artificial illumination should be a minimum 18 hours of light Once the larvae are added the whole system can be managed
per day. Make sure the lamp’s output is “daylight”, (6500 according to the densities of phytoplankton and water quality.
Kelvin). A compact florescence lamp (55 watts, 7000 Kelvin) Water quality within the green-water system tank should be
should give you sufficient light if the tank is not too large or monitored on a regular basis, with water replacement performed if
deep (due to light penetration issue). Use the following rule: 0.7 ammonia or nitrite levels approach 1-ppm levels. Tank bottom
watts per litre of water at a minimum of 6500 Kelvin full cleaning using narrow-gauge siphon tubes should be conducted on
spectrum white light for 8 hours per day. The minimum wattage an as-needed basis to remove fungused eggs, dead larvae, etc.
required is 55 watt. Lights can be purchased according to the
size of the aquariums that are to be used for culturing. Larval stocking density should approximate 20–30 animals per
litres of culture water. Stocking densities higher than this will
Tanks are filled with dechlorinated water then fertilised and require more attention to water quality parameters and will
allowed to stand until the water turns green. Organic likely result in higher larval mortality or wide size variation
fertilisers (manure) are usually preferable to chemical among juveniles. Stocking densities below 20 larvae per litre
fertilisers. Chemical fertilisers may be used and usually may result in better overall growth and survival. Larvae will
work better in earthen ponds than in tanks or tubs. Organic grow more quickly and show fewer deformities at lower
matter will produce bacterial microbes and detritus as well stocking densities than at higher densities. However, stocking
as phytoplankton as food for the larvae. density is dependent upon the number of fry required, and the
quantity and quality of the cultured phytoplankton.
The fertiliser can be added to your culture in several ways. One
is to soak the dry material in water until it breaks down into a The only problem you are likely to face raising rainbowfishes
thin mixture, then pour the resulting concoction into the tank, in green-water system tanks is that there is the risk of the
allowing it to slowly deteriorate. Another is to place the dry culture suddenly ‘crashing’ (failing), dying off as suddenly as it
material in a mesh bag and suspend the bag inside the tank. appeared. The phytoplankton simply consumes all of the
Nylon stockings work well for this purpose. The use of a bag nutrients in the water and then collapses and the larvae are left
controls the organic matter and prevents suspended particles with nothing to eat. If this happens, it is important to vacuum
from being a problem. It also allows greater control of out all of the dead algae from the bottom of the tank as soon as
fertilisation. If fungus occurs on the bag containing the organic possible and start feeding an alternative diet. Otherwise, this
material it should be removed from the culture. organic material will consume substantial amounts of dissolved
oxygen from the water as it decays and in doing so can kill all
During the first 21 days of the larval culture period, water the fry. Therefore, careful observation of the tank is required at
within the culture tank should be static with light aeration, just all times. The whole concept of the “green-water technique” is
enough to gently keep the phytoplankton moving within the to mainly get the larvae through their early life stages until they
water column. Water exchange is not required with the can start feeding on larger foods, which is easier to provide.
greenwater technique and water only needs to be replaced due
to losses from evaporation.
Artificial Green-water
The presence of phytoplankton in the tank will maintain good Mix a suspension of 1 level tablespoon spirulina powder per
water quality by taking-up the excess nutrients produced in the litre of distilled water and fed at a rate of about 10–50 ml
system. Phytoplankton helps the maintenance of proper water per 20 litres - but only if the water has cleared from any
quality through their ability to cycle nutrients (such as nitrates and previous feeding. The amount of the powder is not so
phosphates). Phytoplankton are also able to utilise the wastes important that you need exact measures. It should not be so
produced by the young larvae (ammonia, urea), converting them much that it won’t go into solution and should be enough to
into non-toxic forms, and also play an important role in regulating make the mixture a dark green colour.
the pH of the water through their removal of excess carbon dioxide.

Microalgae Feed Supplements Carotenoids are the most common natural pigments
responsible for many of the bright colours found in fish and
Microalgae are an important food source and feed additive in
crustaceans in their natural environment, as well as a variety
the commercial rearing of many aquatic animals. Microalgae
of biological functions. More than 650 different naturally
such as Dunaliella salina, Chlorella spp., Haematococcus
occurring carotenoids are known. Carotenoids commonly
pluvialis, Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima are used
occurring in freshwater include beta-carotene (orange),
as a source of natural pigments for the culture of prawns,
lutein (greenish-yellow), astaxanthin (red), tunaxanthin
commercial fish species and ornamental fish. The use of
(yellow), doradexanthin (yellow), and zeaxanthin (yellow-
algae in aquaculture is not surprising as algae are the natural
orange).
food source of these animals. Microalgae are furthermore
used to produce mass quantities of zooplankton (rotifers,
The importance of carotenoids in fish diets has been stressed
copepods, and brine shrimp) which serve in turn as food for
by several researchers working in the field of fish nutrition.
larval and early-juvenile stages of fish.
Carotenoids are a group of naturally occurring lipid soluble
pigments that are produced primarily in phytoplankton.
Although several alternatives for algae exist such as yeasts
These pigments are responsible for the great diversity of
and microencapsulated feeds, live algae are still the best and
colour seen in nature. While plants and algae can synthesise
the preferred food source. However, all algal species are not
these pigments, animals are unable to produce them naturally
equally successful in supporting the growth and survival of
and must obtain them from food.
rainbowfish larvae. Mixed algal diets promoted faster growth
and higher survival than single algal diets.
Rainbowfishes are not able to synthesise carotenoids and
depend completely on the presence of the necessary carotenoids
Other studies have confirmed the feasibility of using dried
in their diet. In many cases, the level of colouration is
algae, and Spirulina appears to be the preferred species.
dependent on an individual’s foraging success. The level of
Longer-term trials have shown that Spirulina was nutritionally
colouration can also indicate their quality as a potential mate.
superior to all of the diets tested. Spirulina powder is an
Therefore, rainbowfishes maintained in captivity should be fed
excellent source of food for fish and shrimp larvae. In some
a complete diet that includes a colour enhancing agent, such as
cases, the addition of relatively small amounts of algae to
astaxanthin, to supplement natural feeds that might be limited
prepared diets has been observed to result in significant
in captivity. Typical commercial diets used for aquarium fish
improvements in growth and pigmentation. Thus, microalgae
are very low in total carotenoids.
have a clear role in dietary supplements to fulfil specific
nutritional requirements.
It has been recommended that feeds containing colour
enhancers or pigments such as astaxanthin should be fed to
Rainbowfishes are recognised for their bright, brilliant and
rainbowfishes to bring out their full colouration. Duckweed
beautiful colouration. The body colours of rainbowfishes
has high concentrations of carotenoid pigments, particularly
are predominantly dependent on the presence of special
beta-carotene and xanthophyll that make duckweed an
cells located in the dermis of the skin, above or below the
especially valuable supplement for rainbowfishes.
scales, called chromatophores. Colour changes result from
chromatosomes concentrating in the centre of the chromatophore
Feeding Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina spp. also produces
or dispersing throughout the cell. Iridiophores contain highly
positive pigmentation results in rainbowfishes, and the
reflective guanine crystals. The crystals act as mirrors,
microalgae Chlorococcum seems to be a promising source of
which reflect the colours of the outside environment.
astaxanthin, canthaxanthin and adonixanthin. These algae
Iridiophores are often responsible for the bluish or silvery
have strong concentration in particular carotenoid pigments.
appearance of many fishes.
It is worth noting that aside from giving an enhanced
The colouration of rainbowfishes often fades when
colouration, microalgae sources could provide better growth
maintained under aquarium conditions. Therefore, one of
performance as has been shown in a number of studies.
the greatest challenges for the aquarium hobbyist is to
accurately replicate the natural colouration of rainbowfishes
Carotenoids are vital nutrients for healthy growth, metabolism,
that are maintained in captivity. Most of the naturally
and reproduction. Male rainbowfishes use colouration to
occurring colour pigments are derived from phytoplankton,
produce sexual signals associated with breeding. It is well
zooplankton and photosynthetic bacteria consumed in their
known that the most highly coloured males have the best
natural diet, and these are not normally available in
chances of finding a mate.
captivity, as they are mainly dependent on artificially
prepared diets. Colour intensity can also be related to the
One reason why females are not usually highly coloured is
environment and will often decrease when the fish are
that they need to pass on their carotenoids to their offspring.
stressed, or from the nature of captivity itself.
At the time of sexual maturation, they mobilise stored
carotenoids to the ovaries and finally, on to the progeny.
Keeping and raising rainbowfishes in outdoor ponds with or
This active transfer of carotenoids from the female to the
without supplementary feed will enhance their colour
eggs has led to the hypothesis that carotenoids are vital for
development, most likely due to the natural food items in
larval survival and growth.
the pond. Many aquatic food organisms ingest astaxanthin-
containing algae and plankton as a major part of their diets.

Experiments adding algae to the diet of Pseudomugil
furcatus over a period of three weeks resulted in enhanced
colouration. They became significantly more intensely
coloured when fed a diet containing 1.5–2.0% of a
carotenoid-rich strain of Spirulina platensis and 1.0% of a
specially grown Haematococcus pluvialis. Colour enhancement
was apparent after only one week, when the fish consumed
these doses of algae; lower doses (0.5% and 0.4%,
respectively) were not significantly different. Both
treatments were significantly more effective than control
treatments with no added algae. It appears, however, that
Haematococcus pluvialis spores do not perform as well as
commercially available synthetic forms of astaxanthin.
Research has also shown that the addition of astaxanthin

can enhance the colouration of all rainbowfishes. Several
species responded positively, and maintenance of the bright Algae Culture
colouration was achieved with incorporation of 25 mg/kg
astaxanthin into various diets on a continual basis. Some Culturing Algae
species also had faster growth rates. However, more research Algae culture begins with a pure stock or starter culture of
is required to establish the optimal level of astaxanthin to the algal species desired. These can be obtained from a
use in rainbowfish diets. number of sources. Commercial biological supply houses
often sell algal cultures, but the species may not be suitable
Commercially available alga products (e.g., NatuRose®) can for raising rainbowfish larvae. Aquacultural suppliers are
be incorporated into their diets. When these alga products are perhaps the best method of obtaining algae cultures.
incorporated into the diet at 1~2%, an enhancement of
coloration in the treated fish may be noticeable within two Once obtained, starter cultures (usually transported in test tubes)
weeks. NatuRose algae meal is a natural source of astaxanthin are used to inoculate several new cultures. Some of these are
derived from the microalgae, Haematococcus pluvialis. It is a kept as stocks for when an old culture dies, is harvested, or
spray-dried, dark red powder, and is currently used worldwide otherwise lost and must be restarted. The rest are used to
as a coloration and nutrition source for numerous species of inoculate progressively larger vessels until there is enough
animals. The flakes of Haematococcus pluvialis contain the culture to start mass production tanks. The culturist must supply
largest concentrations of astaxanthin found in nature (some 40,000 light, aeration, relatively stable temperature control, and sterile
parts per million). water with nutrients (media) to produce successful algal
cultures. By avoiding major contamination from unwanted algal
H. pluvialis is a freshwater alga which normally grows in species and microscopic predators, a continuous, dependable
temporary water bodies. The widespread occurrence of supply of high quality algae will be available. However, pure
Haematococcus in temporary rather than permanent bodies cultures can become contamination by unwanted algae,
of water is due, at lease in part; to the fact that such pools bacteria, and predatory protozoans, and is a problem that cannot
are usually free of other competing algae. The astaxanthin is always be controlled successfully. Cultures are easily
produced in a thick walled resting stage, the aplanospore, contaminated from non-sterile containers or splashed water
whereas maximum growth occurs in the green thin-walled from buckets, hoses, or hands.
flagellated stage. This necessitates a two-stage culture
process, one optimised for biomass production and the other Production of pure algae cultures is accomplished by
for astaxanthin production. providing a favourable environment for the species being
cultured. As with all plants, microalgae photosynthesise, i.e.
Commercial production of astaxanthin from the freshwater they assimilate inorganic carbon for conversion into organic
microalgae H. pluvialis is a growing business worldwide, matter. Light is the source of energy which drives this
primarily due to its high astaxanthin content. However, this reaction and in this regard intensity, spectral quality and
alga exhibits some unfavourable characteristics like its slow photoperiod need to be considered. Light intensity plays an
growth rate and complex life cycle, when compared to other important role, but the requirements vary greatly with the
microalgae successfully cultivated on a commercial scale culture depth and the density of the algal culture: at higher
like Dunaliella and Spirulina species. depths and cell concentrations the light intensity must be
increased to penetrate through the culture (e.g. 1,000 lux is
Other commercial ventures for natural astaxanthin suitable for Erlenmeyer flasks; 5,000–10,000 is required for
production utilise fermentation of the yeast Xanthophyllomyces larger volumes).
dendrorhous or extraction of the pigment from by-products of
crustacea such as the Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). Light may be natural or supplied by fluorescent tubes. Too high
In addition to production from natural sources, astaxanthin light intensity (e.g. direct sunlight, small container close to
may be chemically synthesised, and synthetic astaxanthin is artificial light) may result in photo-inhibition. Also, overheating
the major form currently being used in commercial fish due to both natural and artificial illumination should be
feeds. avoided.

Fluorescent tubes emitting either in the blue or the red light Copepods feed on diatoms, bacteria and protozoans. Food
spectrum should be preferred as these are the most active availability and water temperature are thought to be the
portions of the light spectrum for photosynthesis. The prime factors influencing their reproduction and growth.
duration of artificial illumination should be minimum 18 Reproduction takes place through copulation and involves
hours of light per day, although cultivated phytoplankton the transfer of sperm from the male’s spermatophore to the
develops normally under constant illumination. female oviduct. Prior to reproduction a male copepod will
grasp a female with his modified antennules. Coupling
The optimal temperature for microalgae cultures is arrangements tend to be species specific.
generally between 20 and 24°C, although this may vary
with the composition of the culture medium, the species and Males may grasp the third or fourth legs of the females, the
strain cultured. Most commonly cultured species of caudal rami, the caudal setae, and the posterolateral margin of
microalgae tolerate temperatures between 16 and 27°C. the cephalothorax or around the genital double-somite.
Temperatures lower than 16°C will slow down growth, Precocious coupling of males and juvenile females is also
whereas those higher than 35°C are lethal for a number of common. In these situations, a male attaches himself to a
species. If necessary, algal cultures can be cooled by a flow juvenile female and stays with her until her final moult, when
of cold water over the surface of the culture vessel or by she is ready to mate. Males have been observed to release their
controlling the air temperature with refrigerated air- hold on moulted exoskeletons of copepods, and then reclasp
conditioning units. the body of the newly matured female. This behaviour ensures
that the ‘trailing’ male is the first to mate with the female when
she reaches maturity. Post-copulatory coupling has also been
“Abundant in nature, green signifies growth, renewal, health, and observed in some copepods and this is thought to prevent
environment.” subsequent matings of the female with other males. Copepods
carry their eggs in either a single egg sac or a pair of sacs, but
many pelagic species release their eggs directly into the water
column, since the carrying of egg sacs renders the adult more
liable to visual predation. After an incubation period of one to
eight days eggs hatch, and nauplii are released.
In general, copepods go through six naupliar stages and six

Copepods copepodite (post-naupliar) stages, the last one being the adult
form. The time this cycle takes varies and developmental rates
are influenced by temperature, food supply and salinity. Some
Copepods are small crustaceans that occur naturally in all copepods reach maturity in just six days after hatching; while
aquatic habitats and are one the major food items of larval others can take up to 62 days. The early life stages are very tiny
rainbowfishes in their natural habitat. Copepods are aquatic and can be as small as 0.05 mm. Males are smaller than
crustaceans, smaller relatives of the crabs and lobsters. They females.
have colonised virtually every habitat from 10,000 metres
down in the deep sea to lakes 5,000 metres up in the
Himalayas, and every temperature regime from sub-zero
polar waters in the Antarctica to hot springs. Copepods are
found in marine, estuarine and freshwater environments and
also inhabit the terrestrial realm occurring in mosses and
leaf litter. The majority are free-living and benthic, although
there are a few pelagic and symbiotic species. This free-
living form is only part of the copepod success story, since
they have also become parasites of almost every major
animal group from sponges and corals to fish and mammals.
Copepod’s that parasitise fish skin and gills, for example,
are serious pests of commercial fish farms.
Copepods exhibit a diverse range of body shapes, but in

general they are linear and range in length from 0.2 to 28
mm, but most planktonic forms are between 0.5 mm and 2.5
mm. They represent a significant component of the
meiofauna in freshwater habitats. The word ‘meiofauna’ is
used to define an assemblage of benthic invertebrates
smaller than the macrobenthic fauna. Prior to the
introduction of the word meiofauna, researchers had
Dave Wilson
referred to small invertebrates as microfauna; however this

term now refers largely to Protozoa. Meiofauna are defined
as animals that pass through a 500 µm mesh sieve but are
retained on 45 µm mesh.

Dave Wilson
Natural Zooplankton
Rotifers The preferred size of prey for larval fish increases as mouth
size and feeding competency increase and different types of
live foods need to be cultured for the different stages in the
Rotifers are valuable live food for feeding the larvae of most larval development. For example, different species of
fish species because of their very small size. In addition, microalgae range from 2~100 µm; rotifers from 50~200 µm,
rotifers swim slowly and stay suspended in the water copepods from 100 ~ 300 µm and brine shrimp nauplii 400 ~
column, thus being available for easy capture and 800 µm. Apart from these main groups, a few other live feeds
consumption by larval rainbowfishes and blue-eyes. They are used on a more limited scale including microworm
can tolerate temperatures of between 15 and 31°C and pH (Panagrellus redivivus), vinegar eels (Turbatrix aceti), and
6.0–8.0. Rotifers can also be used as a conditioning food to small cladocerans. This group includes many species
induce smaller adult species, such as Iriatherina werneri, to (Daphnia, Moina etc.). They can reach up to 4–6 mm but
spawn. typically are much smaller than this; the smallest species is
around 250 µm. Larger juveniles and even adults, will feed
The mouth size of first-feeding larvae usually restricts the on these crustaceans.
size of the food particles which can be ingested. In general,
mouth size is correlated with body size, which in turn is Most rainbowfish larvae are not particular about the types
influenced by egg diameter and the period of endogenous of live food they will eat, but the animals must be small
feeding (i.e., yolk sac consumption period). There are few, if enough for the larvae to ingest. Rainbowfish larvae are
any, published information on the mouth size of rainbowfish usually small in size (2–5 mm, total length), have poorly
larvae. Rainbowfishes larvae typically have a small mouth developed eyes, do not swim well but are mostly present in
size and limited yolk reserves and therefore are dependent the water column, and require easily digested food. Having
on the presence of abundant microinvertebrates or algal food such tiny mouths, the size of the food is crucial to their
at the time of first feeding. surviving the most difficult period in their lives.
The major difficulty for the aquarist is providing organisms Rotifers are microscopic animals ranging in size from 50~
appropriate to the size of the larvae at the first feeding stage 2500 µm and found in aquatic habitats worldwide. They
and then supplying the large numbers necessary to maintain inhabit freshwater streams, lakes and ponds, brackish water
them.

and, to a lesser extent, salt water but they are predominantly Because of the capacity of these eggs to resist drought,
freshwater inhabitants. They can be recognised by the rotifers can live in places that are only temporarily wet. As
presence of a crown of cilia at the anterior end, which is soon as moisture appears they hatch into females and swim
used for feeding and/or locomotion. However many species about and feed actively. Resting (diapause) eggs always
spend the majority of their lives attached to a host such as produce parthenogenetic amictic females. Reproduction
plants, rocks or even other cladocerans. In some forms the rates are related to the quality and quantity of food and
beating of the cilia, which are arranged around the edge of temperature. Rates are generally lower if food volume is
one or more disc-shaped lobes, give the appearance of a insufficient or of poor quality. Temperature affects the rate
revolving wheel - hence the name Rotifer from Rota, Latin of egg development, metabolism, feeding, movement,
for wheel. longevity, as well as reproduction.
Rotifers are tremendously varied and the cilia rotifers use Most species are adapted to specific temperatures at which
for feeding and locomotion can vary enormously. Some they exist best. Some are stenothermal (tolerate only a
species don’t use it for locomotion but have developed very narrow range of temperatures) others are eurythermal
special capturing devices. The genus Collotheca live (tolerate wide range of temperatures). Perennial species
attached to a substrate and capture bacteria with their commonly exhibit maximum densities in early summer in
elongated cilia. For feeding rainbowfish larvae, the free- temperate region. However, some species are seasonal, with
swimming kind is the only useful ones. some that develop greatest population densities in winter
and early spring, and others that reach a peak in summer,
Rotifers are filter-feeders and feed by moving food particles often with two or more peaks, especially in late summer and
into the mouth through the action of the coronal cilia. Size often in conjunction with the development of blue-green
of the particles varies, but most are small (<25 µm). algal species.
Feeding is related to food size and shape and consists
mostly of algae. Some species seize and ingest whole prey
or puncture the cell or body wall and suck out the contents. Culture
Asplancha, the largest rotifer, preys on algae, other rotifers, Rotifer eggs have been commercially available for a number
and small planktonic crustaceans and has the ability to alter of years and their use would eliminate the need to maintain
its size in response to changes in size of food particles. culture stocks. Both the saltwater rotifer (Brachionus
plicatilis) and the freshwater rotifer (Brachionus calyciflorus)
Most natural populations of rotifers are composed primarily are available commercially and sold as Resting Rotifers®
of females that produce eggs, which are capable of from aquaculture or aquarium suppliers. Resting Rotifers
development without fertilisation. This development is are actually lab-cultured resting eggs, and are ideal for
called ‘parthenogenesis’ and occurs in other freshwater either direct feeding after hatching, or setting up starter
crustaceans, such as daphnia. Parthenogenetic amictic cultures. Brachionus plicatilis will survive for several hours
females are diploid and produce amictic1 eggs that develop after transfer to fresh water, and are comparable to brine
further into amictic females. There may be up to 20–40 shrimp. Brachionus calyciflorus, in contrast to Brachionus
amictic generations before sexual reproduction occurs. Egg plicatilis will stay alive in freshwater and do not sink to the
development time is about 1 day under warm optimal bottom but stay in the water column until eaten. Any excess
conditions, so populations of amictic females can develop can be stored in the refrigerator for up to a week.
rapidly in 2–5 days under good growing conditions. This
seems to be the main advantage of asexual reproduction. When placed in a suitable culturing environment, hatching
commences over a period of 24 to 36 hours. Rotifers begin
As habitat conditions alter, some of the females lay eggs, reproducing 18 hours after hatching and will continue
which are smaller than and differ in other ways from the producing eggs every 4–6 hours if properly maintained and
usual female-producing eggs. Factors that can trigger this are fed. The diet of rotifers most commonly consists of dead or
not clear. Stimuli appear to be species-specific and include decomposing organic materials, as well as unicellular algae
high population of amictic females, food availability, and bacteria. Cultures should be aerated and generally
accumulation of wastes, temperature changes, etc. Research maintained on algae concentrate. Feed with a small amount
has shown that when populations are fed paramecia, mostly of green-water from either concentrated algae (e.g., Instant
amictic females are found. However, low densities of algae Algae®) or live algae. They can be harvested from 7 to 10
lead to a high proportion of mictic2 females. days after hatching with a fine net (50 µm) and fed to the
fishes. Keep about a quarter to start a new culture.
If not fertilised, these smaller eggs hatch into males. Males
are capable of copulating within an hour of hatching. The Most rotifers are indiscriminate filter feeders and will feed on
males then fertilise the females, after which fertilised eggs algae, yeast, bacteria and micro-particles up to approximately
are laid. These are distinguished from the parthenogenetic 25 µm in size. There are many different methods and adaptations
ones by a hard thick shell. These ‘ephippia’ contain used to mass culture rotifers. In general, rotifer production is
embryos in a state of arrested development (diapause) that based on either (a) a diet of marine microalgae and bakers
can withstand drying, freezing, and other unfavourable yeast, or (b) a single diet of commercially produced fortified
conditions. They remain in this state and will not complete yeasts. Within each of these feed types, rotifers are cultured
their development and hatch until favourable conditions using either batch, semicontinuous or continuous methods.
return, which may be several years.

In commercial fish hatcheries, rotifers are usually fed Brachionus calyciflorus
bakers yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), or proprietary Brachionus calyciflorus is the most commonly cultured
products as a food source. The amount of baker’s yeast fed freshwater rotifer for both freshwater fish species and
on a daily basis is about 1 gram per million rotifers. shrimps. There are several strains of different sizes of this
Although baker’s yeast has a small particle size (5–7 µm) rotifer, thus making them suitable for fry of a variety of
and a high protein content and acceptable as diet for sizes. With the increasing developments in larval rearing
Brachionus calyciflorus, it is not advisable to be used alone technology of freshwater fish species, demand for
for rotifer culture. Rotifers raised on yeast alone often lack Brachionus calyciflorus is further increasing. Discus
the essential fatty acids and vitamins required by larval fish larvae are dependent on the body slime of their parents as
species. Furthermore, rotifer cultures fed only baker’s yeast a nutrient during the first two weeks of exogenous
are characterised by varying success and the occurrence of feeding. One study found that Discus larvae could be
sudden collapses of cultures. Most probably the reason for raised in the absence of the parent fish through feeding
these crashes was explained by the poor digestibility of the with Brachionus calyciflorus for 4 days (Days 4–7),
yeast, which requires the presence of bacteria for digestion. followed by Artemia nauplii for a week (Days 8–14).
Commercially available diets including Culture Selco, Their growth and survival rates were comparable with
Rotimac, DHA Selco, Protein Selco and Algamac. Ground those that rely on parental feeding.
shrimp meal, flour and rice bran are some other food
1
sources that have been used for the cultivation of rotifers. Amictic egg: A thin shelled diploid egg which cannot be
The food should be run through a 100 µm sieve to obtain a fertilised. Instead, it develops by parthenogenesis. It is produced
suspended feed suitable for feeding the rotifers. by rotifers when living conditions are optimal, and will develop
to produce amictic females.
More rotifers can be produced from the same volume of
2
water with a continuous culture system. However, Mictic egg: Pertaining to the haploid eggs of rotifers. If it isn't
continuous culture systems suffer from a build-up of waste fertilised, the egg develops parthenogenetically into a male; if
products in the form of faeces and uneaten food, fertilised, mictic eggs secrete a heavy shell and become dormant,
contributing to contamination problems with filamentous hatching in the spring into amictic females.
algae and fungal infections. It is imperative that continuous
culture systems have some form of bio-filtration or organic
waste removal system. The use of bakers yeast causes much
of the water quality problems associated with continuous
culture systems. It is important to note that feed rates should
be based on the actual density of rotifers in the system and
care should be taken not to overfeed. The culture container Natural Zooplankton
should be clear of algae before the next feeding to avoid
excess algae accumulation. Any algae or food that is not
consumed within 48 hours will degrade, increasing the level
of ammonia and this reduces the dissolved oxygen level in
the water. Optimal temperature of culture is usually 20–30°
C with a pH of 7.5. To get a bloom, an entirely new culture
can be started with a reasonable amount of feed/algae and
subsequently harvested when it becomes concentrated with
rotifers.
Brachionus plicatilis
Brachionus plicatilis is a euryhaline species being found in
both brackish and saltwater environments. It is about one
third the size of a newly hatched brine shrimp. They have
been found in saline lakes in Australia with salinity levels
almost twice that of seawater and also at a salinity of less
than 1% of seawater. Geographic strains range in size from
90 to 320 µm in length. Hatching rates run at about 80%
after 24 to 36 hours when hatched at a salinity level of 20‰
and a temperature of 28°C. Brachionus plicatilis is one of
the rotifers which have become very popular for aquaculture.
They can reproduce either sexually or as is more common,
asexually. This organism is an excellent first feed for larval
fish because of its small size and slow swimming speed and
Dave Wilson
habit of staying suspended in the water column, thus being

available for capture and consumption by fish larvae. Also
they can be cultured in large numbers due to their high
reproductive rate.

Gary Lange
Microworm Culture
Panagrellus has a worldwide distribution, with species

Microworms described from almost every continent except Australia and
Antarctica. Currently 12 species are recognised, with P.
Microworms are well known to be an excellent food source for pycnus as the type species and eleven other named species:
first feeding fish larvae. The species most commonly cultured P. ludwigi, P. nepenthicola, P. silusioides, P. redivivus, P.
in the aquarium hobby is believed to be Panagrellus redivivus, redivivoides, P. ventrodentatus, P. dorsibidentatus, P.
a member of the nematode family, Panagrolaimidae. The dubius, P. filiformis, P. ceylonensis and P. leperisini. These
Panagrolaimidae family include opportunistic bacterial-feeders species have been delimited and described using Linnaean
and some notable specialists of fermenting liquids or or phenetic species concepts, based on morphological or
decomposing wood. I suspect, however, that there are probably morphometric data. Only the morphology of the spicules
a number of different nematode species being cultured in the and occasionally the structure of the vulva in females are
aquarium hobby as “microworms”. useful for diagnosis and identification of species. This lack
of distinctive morphological features makes diagnosis of
The first Panagrellus species to be described is currently Panagrellus species rather problematic (Stock & Nadler,
known as Panagrellus redivivus. It was described by Linnaeus 2006).
(1767) as Chaos redivivus. This species was more commonly
known as the ‘sour paste nematode’ in reference to its isolation Panagrellus redivivus is a small bacteriophagous,
from book-binding glue, or as described by Linnaeus in 1767, ovoviviparous, free-living (non-pathogenic) nematode found
“habitat in aceto and glutine bibliopegorum”. The generic name living naturally in soil. It moves using four longitudinal bands
Panagrellus was not established until 1938, when Gerald R. of muscle with alternate flexing and relaxation generating
Thorne described a nematode isolated from wounds of a dorsal-ventral waves along the body that propel the animal
cottonwood tree in Utah. Based on observation of new along. The adult essentially comprises a tube, the exterior
diagnostic morphological features, Thorne erected the genus cuticle that contains two smaller tubes, the pharynx and gut,
Panagrellus, describing Panagrellus pycnus, as a new species. and by a reproductive system that takes up most of the animal.
Controversy over the acceptance of the generic name Neural structures include an array of sense organs in the head
Panagrellus over Chaos prevailed for many years. However, region which co-ordinate responses to smell, taste, temperature
because Chaos redivivus had a rather vague description and no and touch. Panagrellus redivivus does not possess eyes, but
known type specimens, the name Panagrellus was eventually will respond to light; of the 530 somatic cells of the female
accepted based on modern taxonomic standards. approximately 250 of them are neurons.

Gary Lange
Feeding Microworm
It is one of the few that do not lay eggs, but hatch juveniles temperature range of 20–25°C is about right. As the
internally. It has four larval stages before becoming adults. The temperature begins to rise or fall below this range; their
first larval stage is intrauterine, but the remaining stages are production rate will decline. However, they can maintain
free-living. It is gonochoristic, producing equal numbers of their life cycle at temperatures from 5°C up to and including
males and females (Stock & Nadler, 2006). Bacteriophagous 37°C. They have the added advantage of staying alive for
nematodes are already known as a potential food source for six to eight hours in freshwater, by which time they should
fish larvae. Panagrellus redivivus is a nematode which is easy all have been eaten.
to rear in large quantities in culture. The worms feed on
bacteria which are precultured. They have a short life cycle and I have cultured microworm for many years and have tried
a high fecundity. Panagrellus redivivus are a tiny nematode several different culture mediums; bread soaked in beer, yeast
about 0.5 to 2.0 mm in length and 0.05 mm in diameter. They blends, and a host of other foods. There are almost as many
reproduce sexually and are livebearers; releasing 10–40 young different culture methods for microworm as there are aquarists,
every 5–7 days for a 26–36 day life span. The young reach each having their own successful anecdote. I will outline some
sexually maturity in approximately three days. Their size of the more successful methods I have used. What you have to
increases by three times during the first day and five to six do is find one that suits your particular requirements. Starter
times during the next three days. cultures are available from biological supply companies or
fellow hobbyists.
Microworms have been cultured by aquarists since the early
1930’s as a live food for a variety of fish species. Their small Microworm can be cultured in almost any shallow, flat,
size and ease of culture has received renewed attention in watertight container with a snug-fitting lid. This prevents
recent years with rising costs and declining hatch rates of contamination by insects and other bugs, and also prevents the
brineshrimp eggs sold in the aquarium hobby. Microworm has culture from dehydrating. Small holes should be punctured in
as good if not better nutritional profile to that of brineshrimp, the lid for air circulation and the containers stored in a well
containing 48% protein, 21% lipids, 7% glycogen, 1% organic ventilated room. Microworm should be able to be harvested
acids, and 1% nucleic acids. Approximately 70% of the lipids daily for about 28–56 days using the same culture medium.
are fatty acids and the remainder is phospholipids. However, it largely depends on the culture medium used. It is a
good idea to have at least two cultures running at the same
Microworms are one of the simplest live foods to culture. time. Start your second culture about two weeks after the first.
When cultured under the right conditions they will multiply You may find that a culture will sometimes rapidly decline in
in vast numbers. They are a valuable live food and tolerant production of worms. Having a second culture in production
of environmental variables. Microworms like it warm and a will ensure that you have worms available at all times.

Gary Lange
Microworm (in water)
Culture medium can be prepared from almost any grain flour, You can increase the production of worms by sprinkling dry
yeast, and water. However, research has shown that the type of yeast powder over the surface of the mixture. You do not have
culture medium used has a dramatic influence on worm yields. to add the yeast until after about two weeks, then once a week
One such trial was conducted using three mediums - wheat should be sufficient. If the culture medium becomes very
flour, oatmeal, and cornmeal. Yield of worms in wheat flour watery, you can add a slice of bread to the container to soak up
was significantly greater than in oatmeal or cornmeal. the moisture. The addition of bread has a similar effect as does
Production of worms stopped after day 20 in cornmeal, day 33 the bakers yeast.
in oatmeal, and day 53 in wheat flour.
Yet another method requires only a slice of white bread and
The addition of yeast during initial media preparation was brewers yeast. This culture method produced the best results
found to have no effect on worm yields. However, the addition for me in terms of the number of worms produced. Firstly, cut
of yeast on a weekly basis to the wheat flour medium gave a the crusts off the slice of bread and place it squarely on the
significant greater yield of worms than did untreated wheat bottom of the container. Mix 5 grams of brewers’ yeast with ¼
flour. The wheat flour was mixed with water to form a smooth cup of water and pour the mixture onto the bread, making sure
paste and placed in the culture container. After inoculation with that the bread is completely saturated. It is important that there
live worms, the addition of 5 ml of a yeast solution, consisting should be very little excess fluid in the container when the
of 7 gm bakers or brewers yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) container is tilted.
dissolved in 70 ml water; was lightly sprayed over the medium
every 7 days. The addition of yeast should also inhibit the Next add the starter-culture of microworm, by spreading it over
growth of nematophage fungi. the surface of the bread. Replace the container lid securely, and
place the container in a warm area. Within three to four days,
One method I have used is oatmeal (porridge). Use one part the culture should be thriving with worms migrating up the
oats with one part of water. Place the mixture into the culture side of the container. As the bread is consumed another slice
container and spread to a thickness of 15–25 mm and can be added to keep the culture active. After the addition of
microwave on high setting for three minutes. The mixture is around 3 or 4 slices of bread the culture will need to be
then allowed to cool to room temperature. Any media on the replaced. If the culture becomes too wet, more bread should be
sides of the container should be removed with a damp cloth. added to absorb the excess moisture. Remember the wetter the
After the mixture has cooled, place the starter culture on top of culture, the lower the production of worms.
the porridge. Within 3–6 days you should see the surface
moving. If you use a magnifying glass, you will observe During the warmer months of the year I often found another
hundreds of tiny worms. small worm in the culture as well. This is because the odour of

the culture will attract the common housefly, which lays its The use of different culture media to produce microworms
eggs through the small holes of the container lid. The eggs then affects the reproduction of the nematodes as well as their
hatch and the larvae develop and grow on the culture medium. nutritional composition. Studies on enriched media for
This may seem a little unpleasant to some people, but these microworm have shown encouraging results. The nutritional
worms are ideal for larger rainbowfishes, which love them. quality of microworm can be enhanced by the use of the direct
Their development doesn’t appear to have any detrimental enrichment technique. Enrichment is simply carried out by
effects on microworm production. Nuov (1995) reported very adding the product to the culture medium. In one report (de
excellent growth of African catfish fry after feeding the high Lara et al. 2007) the microworm were cultured in two media:
protein and lipid content house fly larvae as live maggot. one with oatmeal and the other with spirulina enriched oatmeal,
in 15x15x5 cm plastic containers with 200g oatmeal and 300
Ricci et al. (2003) developed a system for the mass production millilitres (ml) purified water. Five grams of spirulina was used
of Panagrellus redivivus. It consisted of autoclavable plastic in the medium. The results show that growth of the microworm
bags filled with sponges soaked with medium. This system population in the spirulina-enriched medium presented the
enlarges the usable surface inside the growing system by using highest abundance of individuals on the second week of
crumbled polyether polyurethane sponges to create an culture, whereas the population grown in the oatmeal medium
interstitial space. This space allowed optimal reproduction showed the highest abundance on the fifth week of culture but
conditions and served as a living habitat for the nematodes. It did not reach the number of organisms attained by the
also guaranteed sufficient aeration. The bags were inoculated population cultured in the spirulina-enriched medium.
with Saccharomyces cerevisiae to guarantee a monoxenic
culture. The system was aerated and kept humid during the 11– The amino acids content of the populations from both media
13 days of incubation at 25°C. Ricci et al. (2003) also were compared to those reported for brineshrimp fed with
experimented with different potato/water mixtures and found spirulina, observing that the amounts were higher for most
that a one-part instant potato flakes to two-parts water was the amino acids in microworm cultured in the spirulina-enriched
best mix for the worm-frosting technique presented above. medium. The composition of fatty acids in the microworm
cultures in both media depicted significant differences for the
Worm harvesting is a very simple procedure. Wait until the linoleic, arachidonic, and eicosapentaenoic fatty acids, which were
worms are climbing the container walls and you will be able to found in a higher percentage than reported for microworm cultures
collect them by running your finger around the walls. If you in oatmeal supplemented with sunflower oil. This information
find this method a little unpleasant, then you can use a small shows that Spirulina accelerates growth of microworm
stiff brush. The worms can then be fed directly to the larvae by populations and allows the presence of amino and fatty acids.
swishing your finger or the brush in the aquarium water. Do
not dip your finger or brush into the culture medium to collect Rouse et al. (1992) used a culture medium which was fortified
worms, as any culture media residues should be minimised in with a 10% fish oil emulsion, obtaining nematodes that had
order to avoid pollution of the aquarium water. Another significantly higher total lipid content and elevated levels of
method of harvesting is to lay wooden ice-block sticks (or highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA). Additional investigations
similar objects) on the surface of the culture. The worms will concerning the effect of an added oil source (fish oil or
crawl onto the sticks and you can then simply swish the stick in sunflower oil) on body composition, average yields and
the aquarium water. Yet another method is to use a damp multiplication factors of the nematodes were conducted by
(thick) paper towel cut to fit over about half of the culture Schlechtriem et al. (2004). Corn oil and yeast were added in
surface. To harvest the worms just use a spoon or spatula to varying combinations to culture media of Panagrellus
gently scrape the worms right off of the paper towel, making redivivus to effect a change in growth and fatty acid content.
sure you don’t tear the towel (Wedekind, 2008). The addition of corn oil or yeast to cultures increased nematode
growth over standard media. Combinations of corn oil plus
Do not forget uneaten worms will die and pollute the aquarium yeast increased nematode growth by 68%.
water, particularly in a small aquarium. If left unattended, it
can decimate an entire batch of fish larvae in a matter of hours. Other nematodes currently being cultured in the aquarium hobby
To prevent this problem, try feeding the larvae three or four that are similar to microworms are Walter worms and Banana
times per day in small amounts rather than one or two large worms. Both can be cultured in the same manner as microworm.
ones. In all, microworm offers a cheap, simple and nutritious
food for feeding the larvae of most freshwater fish species. It is Walter worms were reportedly isolated from a grindal worm
also suitable for feeding juveniles and adults of some of the culture in 2002 and cultured by Helmut Walter of Germany. They
smaller fish species such as Iriatherina werneri and Pseudomugil are smaller but thicker than microworms. They are reported to live
species. up to 35 days, producing 60 or more young from about day-4
onwards. Walter worms can stay alive in the aquarium water for
Microworm can be fed alone or in combination with other 24 hours or more and stay suspended in the water column longer.
foods such as brineshrimp nauplii, rotifers, zooplankton, egg
yolk, dry diet, etc. Studies of fish larvae fed microworm are not Banana worms are an endoparasitic soil nematode found in the
significantly different from those fed brineshrimp. A feeding banana-growing areas of Australia, Central and South America,
program utilising a combination of food items is better able to Africa and the Pacific and Caribbean Islands, causing what is
meet the nutritional requirements of all freshwater fish larvae. variously called root rot, blackhead or toppling disease, and
predisposing trees to fungal infection.

Vinegar Eelworms
Gary Lange
Turbatrix aceti, formerly known as Anguillula aceti and
colloquially as the vinegar eel, wine eel or vinegar worm, are
small (1–2 mm) free-living, non-parasitic roundworms that
feed on bacteria and yeast that cause fermentation in vinegar.
They are adapted to living in a low pH (acidic) medium and are
an excellent live food for freshwater fish larvae. Although
vinegar eelworms live best in an environment of weak vinegar,
they can be cultured in a variety of different media such as
apple cider and 4% sugar in water. It is the sugar rather than the
acetic acid which appears to be the essential element of the
medium. Turbatrix aceti is often found in great numbers in
vinegars made of apples or other fruits, or in other fermenting
substances. The nematode is free-swimming in the liquid,
reaching high individual numbers at the surface, where the
oxygen concentration is higher, and are constantly in motion.
Starter cultures can be obtained from biological supply

companies, aquarium stores, or fellow hobbyists. Vinegar
eelworms are readily cultured in large numbers provided
certain simple procedures are followed. They must be grown in
natural cider vinegar or Balsamic vinegar that has not been
chemically treated to inhibit growth of bacteria and yeast upon
which the worms feed. The vinegar can be used either pure or
diluted with 25 to 50% water. The periodic addition of a small
amount of apple juice seems to add something that causes a
greater population of worms, but is not absolutely necessary.
Another successful method for culturing vinegar eels was

reported by inoculating commercial clear apple juice diluted 1:
1 with water with a dense suspension of eels in vinegar (about
20 millilitre per litre of diluted apple juice). Other fruit juices, The advantage of culturing and feeding vinegar eels is:
e.g., pear, peach, apricot, may also be used although the
sediment interferes with observation and cleaning of the Vinegar eels will live for a long time in the aquarium water.
worms. The inoculated juice was poured into five litre glass
containers to a depth of about 25 mm. The bottles were Vinegar eels swim in the water column and stay towards
covered loosely and kept at room temperature. After 7–10 days the surface where rainbowfish fry feed.
the fermenting cultures were dense with vinegar eels. At this
point the bottles were half-filled with vinegar. These cultures Vinegar eels are just a little smaller than micro-worms, a
can be kept for long periods of time with no attention. If the great size for most baby fish.
fermenting juice was kept too long without adding vinegar,
putrefaction with loss of the culture often occurred. With a Vinegar eel cultures require little attention (indeed they can be
little experience it was possible to judge the right time for the ignored for weeks at a time). I had two stock cultures (ca. 500
addition of the vinegar. ml each) in my fishroom that had living populations for more
than two years without the addition of either fresh vinegar or
Add your eelworm culture to approximately 500 ml of culture apple.
medium in a wide-mouth glass jar covered to reduce
evaporation. Punch small holes in the lid (cover) for aeration. Vinegar eel cultures don’t “go off” leaving an unpleasant
Cultures should be maintained at 20–30°C and subcultured smell.
every 6–8 weeks to fresh medium. Vinegar eelworms can
rapidly increase in number and females with developing Harvesting of the worms may test your patience until you have
embryos can be found within one week of starting a new developed a procedure to collect them, as it is very important
culture. Embryonic development takes about 7–10 days from not to get any culture medium in the fish larvae tank. Several
time of fertilisation of the egg to time of birth of the young. methods of concentrating the worms and washing them free of
The larvae become sexually mature in about 28 days. Median the culture medium have been reported. The most common
life span of vinegar eelworms varies with temperature, from 55 method to harvest the worms is to pour or siphon the culture
days (25°C) to 40 days (30°C). The maximum life span has medium through a laboratory (1.2 µm) or coffee filter paper
been reported as 10 months. and in so doing collect most of the worms. Filters with larger
pore sizes would probably be better as a small pore size

When a sufficient number of worms have been collected they
Gary Lange
may be washed any desired number of times by repetition of
this procedure.
An even less complicated method (P. J. Unmack, pers. comm.)

is to hang something porous in the culture such as a plastic
coffee filter. In the absence of a plastic coffee filter an abrasive
pot scrubbing sponge used for cleaning the dishes can be used.
The reason for the abrasive sponge rather than a regular sponge
is that the culture medium will drain out of it fairly thoroughly
without having to squeeze it. The sponge only needs to be
inserted in the culture medium about 2–3 cm as most of the
vinegars eels are at the surface.
Vinegar Eelworm culture and dosing implement

To feed your fish just lift the sponge out and allow it to drain.
Vigorously swash the sponge in some water and you have your
captures more debris. Return the medium back to your culture vinegar eels ready to feed to your fry. Hang the sponge back in
container. The filter paper with the collected worms is then the culture and you are ready for next time. One thing to be
rinsed into a jar of clean freshwater and can then be poured into wary of is that you will transfer very small amounts of vinegar
the larvae tank. The eelworms will live for a long time in the to your aquarium which may lower the pH. To counter this,
tank but care should be taken to prevent supplying too many add some sodium bicarbonate to the water that is used to swash
worms at one time. the sponge in containing the vinegar eels once every few days.
As the water-worm mixture is pour into the fry tanks it buffers
Some culturists separate the worms from the vinegar in small the tank against acidic conditions. Just try the different methods
test tubes. Culture medium on the bottom; some filter floss, and until you find one that works best for you.
clear water on top. The worms seeking oxygen move up
through the filter floss to be near the surface. Very effective,
but not enough worms to feed many fry.
Whiteworms
A modified technique using the same theme but productive
enough to be useful is to use longneck bottles for culturing. Whiteworms, Enchytraeus albidus (Henle, 1837) are probably
Keep the culture medium level well below the neck to have one of the most popular forms of live food cultured by
adequate surface area. To harvest, remove the floss plug and aquarists. They are an excellent, easily produced form of live
add enough spare culture medium to reach above the bottom of food that is highly nutritious and especially valuable for
the narrow neck. Push the polyester filter floss down to the conditioning rainbowfishes before spawning, or for young fast
surface. Add fresh water up to the top of the neck. In a few growing fish. Fed two or three times a week; they will give
hours (or overnight), there will be a rich collection of eels in your fish a nutritional boost. The actions of your fish will
the fresh water, but no noticeable mixing from the vinegar change dramatically when they see the movement of live
below. struggling worms in the aquarium.
Collect the worms with a bulb baster or dropper. Remove the Some aquarists feel that fish fed exclusively on whiteworms
floss and squeeze dry. Pour enough vinegar back into a spare become obese due to the fat content of the worms. However,
bottle to get good surface area again in the main culture bottle the problem may lie more with overfeeding with the worms,
and loosely plug the top of the neck with the damp floss. rather that the fat content of the worms.
Another method depends on the negative geotropism of the The secret for successfully raising whiteworms is to understand
vinegar eels. The culture is concentration in a separatory their particular needs and supply them. Their successful
funnel. Most of the organisms will, within a few minutes, cultivation is largely dependent upon constant care and
aggregate at the surface of the liquid in a dense layer 5–8 mm attention to small details in the condition of the culture. The
or so deep. The lower liquid is drained off rapidly. The principal things to be considered are the medium; moisture,
concentrated suspension remaining is poured into burettes (50 and food. Whiteworms required soils containing relatively high
or 100 ml.). After a few minutes the lower portion of the organic matter content and a soil pH of about 6.8 to 7.2 for
burette will contain few worms and the organisms will have optimal conditions. Whiteworms will usually not survive in
begun to aggregate at the surface. The stopcock is opened acid soils (i.e. < pH 5).
slightly and the liquid allowed to drain out drop wise at a rate
which will leave the surface-aggregated organisms behind, Experience has shown that shallow wooden boxes work best.
adhering to the wall of the burette. If the outflow rate is Typical worm boxes are 15 to 60 cm long, 15 to 30 cm wide
properly adjusted, most of the vinegar eels will remain on the and no more than 10 to 15 cm deep. In any case the use of
walls of the burette when the liquid has drained out. The several small cultures rather than a large one is advisable.
worms are rinsed from the burette with a small amount of a Plastic containers with drainage holes punched in the bottom
suitable solution. have been used with success.

Gary Lange
However, simple boxes made of pine and plywood is generally Whichever soil you choose, ensure that it doesn’t contain
preferable to plastic, Styrofoam, or other materials because the any chemical fertilisers, sterilisers, fungicides, pesticides
joints allow better drainage and aeration of the soil. and other man made chemicals or contaminants, as these
additives will kill the worms.
The culture must be covered to block out light and keep out
predators. Ants, beetles, and other creepy crawlies will feed Fill the box about two-third full with your chosen soil mix.
either on the worms or the food. A secure lid and careful The surface of the soil should be level and pressed down,
placement of the culture box will prevent such pests. An not too firmly, to leave no lumps above to dry or mould.
inner soil cover is recommended to keep the soil surface Wet the soil until it’s reasonably damp, allowing any excess
from drying out. Any flat material that can be pressed water to drain. There should be sufficient moisture to allow
lightly onto the surface of the soil will serve as a cover. free movement of the worms but not enough to bring them
to the surface except as they may congregate on the under
I use a thin piece of scrap glass cut smaller than the surface side of the piece of glass resting on the surface of the soil.
area of the soil. Leave a border of about 15-mm of soil The next step is to get your starter culture. These are often
exposed to the air. The collection of moisture at the cover available from aquarium stores, live foods suppliers or from
attracts the worms, making it an ideal place to feed them. a fellow hobbyist.
By feeding and attracting the worms to the surface, it will
be easier to collect them to feed to your fishes. Once you have your starter culture, empty the contents on
top of the media. Sprinkle a small amount of food over the
Whiteworms will grow in any kind of light loam soil of surface of the soil and spray with water. Place the soil cover
such a character that it does not easily harden when dry, on the surface, put the lid on and move the box to an area
while on the other hand it should not be sandy. Potting mix that will stay between 15–21°C. For best results, keep the
obtainable from most garden supply stores should be culture in a cool dark area. Allow the culture to stand
adequate. Choose a good quality mix as I have found some undisturbed for several days to allow your whiteworms to
potting soils contain a lot of coarse material in them. Leaf propagate.
mould and humus are excellent additives that will improve
the soil significantly. Some of the best mixes are those that The current trend for culturing whiteworms is to use small
have been designed for growing seedlings. These are individual flat plastic food containers stored in an electronic
generally very fine and hold moisture well, but remain wine cooler, which can be maintained at the desired
loose. temperature. This not only provides the ideal temperature,
but also keeps unwanted pests out of the culture.

which is then passed on to your fishes. Similar procedures are
Gary Lange
used in commercial fisheries with brine shrimp. Young brine
shrimp are fed an enhanced diet, which is passed on to the
fish when they eat the shrimp.
Whiteworms should not be fed too heavily at first because

surplus food tends to attract mites, fungal growth, and bacterial
contamination. You will have to regulate the amount of food
offered during the first month until the culture stabilises.
Replenish the food supply, as needed (ideally every three to
four days). If the food supply is not entirely consumed between
feedings, you are adding too much food for the worm
population.
Whiteworms are one of the largest species of the genus

Enchytraeus (adults reach 15–40 mm in length and from 0.5 to
1.0 mm in diameter). They are hermaphroditic, with each
individual having both male and female reproductive organs.
One worm mates with another individual and each fertilise the
Whiteworms reproduce normally at and above 8–10°C, with other. The worms exchange sperm cells during copulation and
optimum growth and reproduction occurring between 15– eggs are laid in transparent cocoons. Each cocoon produced by
21°C. As the temperature begins to rise or fall below this young adults contains 9–10 eggs; cocoons from mature adults
range; their production rate will decline. Growth has been produce 20–25 eggs. As the culture density increases, the
reported to occur more rapidly at the higher end of the range reproductive rate levels off and old worms will only produce
with maturity in about 28 days at 20°C, the clitellum (The around 2–3 eggs per cocoon. The highest egg production
clitellum is responsible for producing the cocoon in which reported was in the vicinity of 35 eggs per cocoon. Average per
the eggs are deposited) forming when the worms were about total population in culture is 10 eggs per cocoon. The eggs
13–14 mm. The maturation period at 8°C was at least twice hatch in 12 days, and worms begin reproducing in 20–28 days
that at 20°C. Experience has shown that at temperatures depending on temperature. Each individual can produce as
above 30°C or below 0°C, whiteworms will die. many as 1000 eggs over its life span.
Whiteworms will eat just about anything organic. Aquarists If the culture is maintained properly, the worms will gather in
feed their worms vegetable based foods such as plant mass on the surface of the soil. The worms will often
material, oatmeal, bread soaked in milk, wheat flour, cereal, congregate on the glass cover where they can be scraped off
mashed potato and dozens of other similar foods. They will and fed to your fish. Do not harvest worms before the first
even eat flake and pelleted fish foods, dry dog and cat food, month of growth. Let the culture grow and you will be able to
if they are pre-soaked beforehand. One feeding trial reported make new cultures and collect all the worms you need. You
that the best single food for whiteworms was breadcrumbs. In will need to inspect the culture for food and moisture levels
another study (Memi et al., 2004), whiteworms were fed five two or three times a week. If the food is gone, then increase the
different diets, and after 90 days the numerical increase in their amount of food given. If food remains, then remove the excess
population was calculated. Four of the five diets were and reduce the amount provided.
composed of carbohydrates, vegetables, fruits, and commercial
trout feed pellets, and the fifth was composed of a combination You may find that the moisture level of the culture will drop
of all four of these. At the end of the study, the greatest and that the surface of the soil will begin to dry out. If this
numerical increase and best reproduction was found to have condition is allowed to continue the worms will start to go
occurred with the commercial trout feed pellets, which deeper in the soil seeking moisture. When they do this, they are
contained 45–47% protein and 12% fat. The least increase in also moving away from the food you place on the surface of
number of individuals was observed in the vegetable-based the soil. Spray with water to maintain a damp, but not soggy,
group. In yet another study with whiteworms that were fed look and feel. A plant sprayer or mister can be used for this
vegetable-based and cereal powder-based diets containing purpose. The regulation of moisture may be aided by removing
casein attained higher levels of weight and reproductively than the cover for a time as necessary. In laboratory testing,
those that were fed vegetable and cereal powder-based diets reproduction and body length was reduced with soil humidity
not containing casein. (moisture) content of 15% and lower. On the other hand,
higher soil humidity did not necessarily coincide with higher
A more recent study reported that the best results in densities. During the test, it was found that low soil humidity
whiteworm production were obtained by implementing inhibited not only reproduction, but had also a negative effect
different diets in alternation. However, we are what we eat, so on the growth of the parent generation. Soil humidity is best
the nutritionists tell us. Well, worms are no different and I maintained at around 22–26%.
found that Heinz® high protein baby cereal (blended with
water), provides excellent results. The cereal also provides Mould may often be present but does not seem to interfere with
higher protein levels than many of the other foods. This higher worm production if the food masses are not large. Removal of
protein increases the nutritional value of the whiteworms, surface growth and taking the cover off to allow short drying

periods will help keep it in check. However a souring culture is
to be strictly avoided. Whiteworm cultures are often infested Grindal Worms
with mites. These small spiders like creatures are harmless and
will not do any damage other than eating the whiteworms’ Grindal worms, Enchytraeus buchholzi (Vejdovsky, 1879) are
food. If you keep your culture in a refrigerator, then mites will a smaller relative of the whiteworm, that usually only grow to
not be a problem. After a period of six to nine months, the soil about 10-mm and thus are an ideal size for most rainbowfishes
texture will begin to break down due to the activity of the including both adults and larger fry. Mrs. Morten Grindal, of
worms, and the soil will become very acidic. This inhibits the Sweden, who was prominent in the development of culturing
production of worms, leaving you with only adult worms. To techniques for whiteworms, was apparently the first person to
maintain your culture, the old soil should be removed and fresh isolate this smaller species. Grindal worms can be cultured
soil placed in the box. The culture can be divided into several exactly as whiteworms but are a much more adaptable species
boxes at this time, as it is a good idea to have more than one and have a greater tolerance for warmer temperatures. Maturity
culture in operation. You can transfer most of the worms by has been reported to occur around 16 days at 20°C, the
collecting from the old box and placing them in the new box. clitellum (see above) forming when the worms are about 3–4
Another simple method to replace an old culture is to scoop mm. The generation period (cocoon to cocoon) is about a
away the top 2–3 cm of soil with most of the worms and gently month at 20°C.
mix it into fresh, moist soil in a new box.
In laboratory testing, Enchytraeus buchholzi were kept in an
incubator at 15 ± 2°C. Water loss and food were replenished if
necessary during the test period. After 21 days the offspring
and the surviving adults were counted. For two moisture levels
(5% and 20% water content) the segment number of the
surviving adults was counted. From 20% up to 40 % water
content Enchytraeus buchholzi showed no significant difference
in reproduction. Below 20% and above 40%, the number of
offspring was reduced. No juveniles were found at 5% water
content, although adult survival was equal to higher moisture
levels. Reproduction was decreased at 30% water content
compared to 25% and 35% water content. Low soil moisture
inhibited not only reproduction, but had also a negative effect
on the growth of the parent generation.
Photos: Gary Lange

▲Grindal Worm Cultures ▼ Grindal Worms (close-up)

Earthworms can be easily cultured in any suitable container
Wonderful Worms filled with alternating layers of good-quality soil and dead
leaves. The earthworms will consume the leaves as well as
Any number of worm species may be readily cultured or fish food flakes, or any vegetable matter. Collection of the
purchased for use as a live food source for your rainbowfishes. worms can be simplified by feeding them on the surface of
All will provide excellent nutrition for your fishes, especially the soil, below a layer of damp burlap.
if they have been cultured under clean conditions and fed on
a nutritious diet. One can also find different types of worms
Gary Lange
Blackworms
in streams and ponds all of which are good for rainbowfishes.
Nearly all rainbowfishes go into a feeding frenzy when
presented with live worms. The smaller they are the better
because rainbowfishes do not masticate their food, they
swallow it whole, but you can always chop or squash the
worms according to the size of your fish. Chopped worms of
all kinds make an excellent food for small juveniles and fry.
However, although worms can be chopped into pieces so as
to be readily swallowed by the smaller rainbowfishes, a
whole, small worm will provide more complete nutrition than
will a small piece of a larger worm. Therefore, you may wish
to purchase worms in various sizes or maintain a live culture
at home.
Blackworms
Blackworms (Lumbriculus variegatus) are small, aquatic
relatives of earthworms. They are found in sediments and
submerged organic debris - especially along the shallow
margins - in ponds, marshes, and lakes throughout North
America and Europe. This family of some 18 genera and
about 170 described species is represented in Australia by
only two species: Lumbriculus variegatus are usually small
(4–6 cm in length), green anteriorly with the remainder red
to black and Stylodrilus heringianus, (3–4 cm in length),
and pale to white in colour. It is very likely that both these
species have been introduced in modern times. Lumbriculus
variegatus is commonly cultured and sold in Australia as a
live food for aquarium fishes. Although, some blackworms
sold in aquarium stores in Australia are actually Limnodrilus
udekemianus, a species of tubifex. Blackworms are readily
accepted by all rainbowfishes.
Earthworms Lumbriculus variegatus is often readily identifiable in the
Many aquarists have had excellent results when using field by its vigorous thrashing when handled and the
earthworms as food for the larger rainbowfishes. They may greenish-brown anterior end and reddish posterior end, the
also be chopped into smaller pieces for feeding the smaller latter due to the branched blood vessels in each posterior
rainbowfishes. Earthworms may be purchased at some pet
segment. This species is commonly found in disturbed
stores, or ordered in large quantities from commercial habitats and is particularly common near urban centres or in
suppliers. Earthworms that are purchased and stored for catchments associated with major cities and towns of
later use do best when kept in a refrigerator. They usually eastern and southern Australia. Stylodrilus heringianus,
keep for weeks in the refrigerator; simply rinse them off
with its pair of permanently exposed penes on mature
with tap water before feeding. Some people take the extra specimens, is distinctive but less common.
step of stripping the worms before feeding them to their
fish. Worms usually have their stomach filled with dirt or Blackworms will live well in freshwater aquariums, where they
undigested matter; to remove this, hold the worm by the
burrow into the substrate and provide foraging opportunities
thick end, pinch its body, and slide your hand down its for bottom dwellers such as catfish and even rainbowfishes. It
length. The dirt will be pushed out the other end and can is possible that they will develop their own self-sustaining
then be rinsed off before you feed the worm to your fish.
population. At normal aquarium temperature populations can
Uneaten earthworms will remain alive in freshwater
double in about 3–4 weeks or less. The worms are also
aquariums for up to eight hours, but they decompose rapidly excellent scavengers, burrowing under rocks and deep into the
upon death. substrate to consume uneaten food and wastes.

Tubifex
Gary Lange
The type species of this family, Tubifex tubifex was one of
the first aquatic oligochaetes described and is well known to
aquarists as an excellent live food. It is cosmopolitan in
distribution, as are several of these species in Australia. The
Australian tubificid fauna appears to have biogeographic
affinities with northern hemisphere tubificids. The Australian
fauna is relatively small, with only about 29 described
freshwater species. Tubifex tubifex has been the subject of
intensive research because of its role as the intermediate
host of the myxozoan parasite (Myxobolus cerebralis) that
causes whirling disease in salmonid fish. The presence of
this species in Australia is thus of interest to the aquaculture
industry, although the parasite itself has not yet been
recorded here.
Freshwater tubificids are often called sludge worms for the

propensity of some widespread species, such as Limnodrilus
hoffmeisteri, to occur in organically polluted waters, even However, live worms commonly sold as ‘tubifex’ may
sewage sludge. This has sometimes led to all tubificids comprise a mixture of species including Tubifex tubifex,
being labelled as ‘pollution tolerant’ whereas in fact many Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, L. udekemianus, Rhyacodrilus
species are sensitive to organic enrichment and tubificids coccineus, Dero digitata or Lumbriculus variegatus.
show a wide range of sensitivities to other pollutants such as
pesticides and heavy metals.
Feeding Worms
Tubificids occupy a wide range of aquatic habitats, from Blackworms and tubifex are not usually cultured by the
deep lakes to small streams and ponds and have recently home aquarist as they are readily available in the aquarium
been found in Australian groundwater. In its natural habitat trade. However, with a little research, successful cultures can
the tubifex has a bi-annual life cycle although the period of be easily maintained. Generally they are just purchased as
breeding is influenced by several environmental factors. required and stored in a pan of shallow water in the
Most adult tubifex die after breeding, others are able to re- refrigerator, where they should live for at least two weeks.
absorb their reproductive organs and return to the immature
condition. These individuals are then able to reproduce Optimum water temperature is 18–20°C with an upper lethal
more than once in their life time. temperature of 35°C; at 5°C the worms become inactive.
Tubifex and blackworms are very sensitive to chlorine or
Tubificids are small burrowing worms often about 2–5 cm long chloramine, so treat the water with a suitable chlorine
and roughly 1-mm in diameter when fully mature. They neutraliser. Change the water after 24 hours and thereafter
typically feed by placing their heads down into the sediment once a week should be adequate. An airstone can be used to
and leaving their tails protruding into the overlying water. help circulate and aerate the water. However, keep the
Although, the worms can also remain totally submerged during airstone off the bottom of the container; otherwise the
feeding. Particles of sediment ingested at depth then pass tubifex will clump tightly around the airstone cutting off the
through the worm and are egested onto the sediment surface in air supply. A small piece of boiled potato can be added to
small mounds of faecal pellets. The worms use the dissolved water if the worms are to be kept for any length of time.
oxygen present in the ingested water to breathe. Once isolated
outside their protective sediment the worms come together and When feeding the worms to your rainbowfishes, a plastic cone
form a protective ball. worm feeder will help retain the worms up at the top of the
aquarium until the fish have had time to eat them. If the worms
Many aquarium books advise aquarists to avoid feeding are simply added directly to the tank, many will fall to the
these worms. Years ago, these worms were collected from bottom and bury themselves in the gravel where the fish will be
the mud of polluted waters and fed to aquarium fishes. If unable to find them.
they were not thoroughly rinsed and purged, they would
often cause disease problems. However, because tubificids
are directly exposed to contaminated sediments and are at
the bottom of the food chain, the greatest threat I would
think would be from the bio-accumulation of toxic
substances that can cause a wide range of health problems.
Today, however, tubifex worms such as Limnodrilus

udekemianus and Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri are commercially
cultured as a food source for aquarium and food fishes.

Brine Shrimp
Gary Lange
Adult Brine Shrimp
Brine shrimp nauplii are widely used in aquariculture for

feeding fish larvae. The nauplii exhibit two essential qualities
for this purpose: they are of an appropriate size to be ingestible,
and they move actively in the water column, establishing
themselves as an active target for young fishes. Brine shrimp
can produce cysts (eggs) under certain conditions and these,
since they float, are easily harvestable. The eggs are collected
and placed into cold storage for at least three months. This
process is called ‘Diapause Inactivation’ - a process that is
similar to hibernation.
Following the cold storage period, the eggs are cleaned,

washed, and separated. The partially hydrated eggs are
disinfected, dried in rotary ovens to about 6% residual moisture,
and then vacuum packed. The finished product can then be
stored for long periods. When the eggs are placed into saltwater
they are re-hydrated and hatch. The hatching rate of cysts varies
according to storage time and conditions as well as
geographical origin and commercial brand. Generally, 150,000
hatched Artemia nauplii can be obtained from 1 gram of cysts.
Another overlooked fact is that fish larvae are thought to take
Brine shrimp eggs can last for several years as long as they are advantage of the nauplius’ digestive enzymes, as most fish larvae
maintained in a dry condition at all times. Sealed cans can be have a very weak digestive system when being young. Additional
stored for years at room temperature, but once opened, should support for this hypothesis is found in the different growth results
be used up within two months. Store opened eggs in an airtight when fish larvae are fed with either decapsulated cysts or nauplii.
container in the refrigerator or in a cool dry place. If the entire On an individual weight basis, the decapsulated cysts and nauplii of
contents of a can will not be used up in two months, it is Artemia have similar biochemical composition in all the major
recommended that the portion that is expected to be unused be nutrients. Thus, with regard to the amount of nutrients, there is no
placed in a tightly closed container and frozen until needed. difference in feeding brine shrimp cysts or nauplii to fish larvae.
However, in some fish species higher growth rates have been
Alvin Seale, the Superintendent of the Steinhart Aquarium, achieved with nauplii. Protein is the major component of the dry
USA, first reported the suitability of brine shrimp nauplii as a matter in brine shrimp. Because the interaction of proteins with
source for larval fish in 1933. However, it wasn’t until the late water has an effect on the functional properties of the protein, the
1970s that a continuous supply of eggs was available. At that protein structure might differ between cysts and nauplii due to the
time, the major supply of eggs occurred in the United States, high water content in the latter.
mainly from San Francisco Bay and the Great Salt Lakes, Utah.
Commercial brine shrimp farms have now been established in Brine shrimp nauplii are an excellent live food, not only for larvae
many parts of the world, and are commonly introduced into but also for adults of the smaller species of rainbowfishes. They can
evaporation ponds used for the commercial production of salt. live in freshwater for around 2–4 hours before they die, making
However, except for limited, small-scale production, the bulk of them an ideal live food for small rainbowfish larvae. However, they
the eggs used today emanate from a wild-capture harvest are not suitable as a first food for all rainbowfish larvae; some
susceptible to over-fishing and reduced production due to larvae are so small that they will require micro-organisms.
uncontrollable climatic influences. The net result is an
unreliable supply of a product with concomitant fluctuations in Initially sold as a frozen product to the ornamental fish hobby,
price. There is also a large variation in nutritional quality, adult Artemia are now marketed live, and in several forms such
hatching quality, and size of nauplii among commercial sources as decapsulated cysts, newly hatched nauplii, meta nauplii,
of brine shrimp eggs. juveniles and adult stages as well as processed forms like
frozen, freeze dried, dried and flakes.
The ease of hatching brine shrimp eggs and the commercial
availability of the adult stage has made them a popular food Brine shrimp are a relatively primitive form of aquatic
source. Freshly hatched brine shrimp nauplii have a lipid-rich crustacean that occurs naturally in saline waterbodies
yolk, high in unsaturated fatty acids. Due to this nutritious yolk worldwide. The original species first described by Schlosser
and small size, brine shrimp nauplii have become the standard from the salterns of Lymington, England (1755) and named by
food for larval fish in the aquaculture industry. Brine shrimp Linnaeus (1758) as Artemia salina is now considered extinct,
nauplii emerging from their protective shells are extremely and several sibling species or sub-species are recognised today.
small, mostly less than 500 µm but can differ (400 to 800 µm) They belong to the subclass Branchiopoda, which is characterised
according to origin. The smallest is believed to be the San by many pairs of flattened appendages on the thorax, in contrast
Francisco Bay variety. to other members of the Crustacea that have no more than six
pairs.

The environmental conditions under which brine shrimp live Australian saline lakes harbour a rich diversity (with eight
are highly variable. The salinity can exceed 300‰, (parts per described species) of endemic brine shrimps (Parartemia), which,
thousand) where most other life cannot survive. Advantaged by like Artemia, can produce cysts from which nauplii hatch, but
the absence of predators and food competitors in such places, under quite different limnological conditions. Their economic and
brine shrimp develop very dense populations. Although not a scientific values remain almost totally unexplored. Australia also
marine species, they sometimes occur in bays and lagoons. has a freshwater cousin of the brine shrimp (Branchinella), with
They are more commonly found in highly saline lakes, such as nineteen described species that occur in temporary fresh waters
the Great Salt Lake, Utah where the shoreline may become (pools, ditches, rock-pools, and ponds).
ringed with brown layers of accumulated brine shrimp eggs.
Artemia (Artemia francisiana) have been introduced into a
The development of brine shrimp is influenced by many factors number of coastal salt-works in Australia for a number of years.
and the tolerance of these factors is strain dependent. Optimum Artemia are now found in habitats occupied by Parartemia,
temperature for most strains ranges between 25 and 35°C but facilitated both by increasing degradation of saline lakes and by
strains have been reported thriving at 40°C. Most geographical human involvement. The net result could be the replacement of
strains do not survive temperatures below 6°C except as eggs. many local species of Parartemia with a cosmopolitan species.
These eggs are tolerant of temperatures from far below 0°C to
near the boiling point of water.
Hatching Brine Shrimp
Although brine shrimp can survive and reproduce under a wide The standard procedure for hatching brine shrimp nauplii is
range of salinity, they are seldom found in nature in salinities to incubate the eggs for 24–48 hours in a saltwater solution
below 45‰ or above 200‰. The pH tolerance varies from and then separate the nauplii from the unhatched eggs and
neutral to highly alkaline but the eggs will hatch best at a pH of shells. I use a 2-litre wide-mouthed glass jar filled with tap
7.5 to 8.5. Many predators including zooplankton that populate water. To this I add 10 to 20 grams (2 to 4 level measured
natural salt waters, fish, several insect groups (odonates, teaspoons) of cooking salt and a pinch (¼ level teaspoon) of
hemipterans and beetles), and birds feed on brine shrimp in Sodium bicarbonate.
situations where they can tolerate the conditions.
Brine shrimp eggs have been shown to hatch out at salinities
Copulation is initiated when the male grasps the female with its ranging from 5 to 35‰ (parts per thousand). However, research
modified antennae. At low salinities (<85‰) and optimal food has shown that better hatching results have been achieved at the
levels, fertilised females usually produce free swimming nauplii lower range. During the hatching process, the eggs absorb water
(ovoviviparous reproduction) at a rate of up to 75 nauplii per through the shell by osmosis. When the osmotic pressure within
day. They may produce 10–11 broods over an average life cycle the egg is great enough, the shell then bursts, freeing the larval
of 50 days. Under ideal conditions adult brine shrimp survive brine shrimp. At higher salinities, the osmotic pressure outside
for several months and produce up to 300 nauplii every 4 days. the egg is higher than within the egg, lengthening the time for
Cyst production (oviparous reproduction) is considered to be hatching. However, if you are having problems with poor hatch
induced by high salinity, under conditions of high rates then experiment with different salt levels as I have found
eutrophication (large O2 fluctuations between day and night) that you can get better results using different salinity levels.
and chronic food shortages.
The pH for the hatching solution may range from 7.5 to 8.5. A
At high salinities (>150‰) and low oxygen concentrations, the pH above 9.5 tends to be too alkaline, while a pH below 6.5
embryos develop to the gastrula stage. They then become results in a dramatic decrease in the hatching results. Hatching
surrounded by a thick shell and enter dormancy (diapause). time varies with incubation temperature and the geographic
Females can release up to 75 cysts per day which float in the strain of brine shrimp used. The temperature for optimal
highly saline water (eggs from Mono Lake in California sink). hatching rate and high hatching efficiency is considered to be
The floating cysts are eventually blown ashore where they 27–30° Celsius. However, at least 90% of premium grade eggs
accumulate in large masses and dry. should hatch within an 18-hour period in a temperature range of
25–32° Celsius. Lower temperatures will cause the eggs to
Development is resumed when the cysts are re-hydrated and the hatch at a slower rate. The air temperature of my fish room
life cycle is begun again. After several hours the outer governs the temperature in my case. During summer, I harvest
membrane bursts and the embryo emerges still encased in the the shrimp after 24 hours, wintertime 48 hours, and spring/
hatching membrane. Soon the hatching membrane is ruptured autumn 36 hours. I live in a sub-tropical climate and my
and the free-swimming nauplius is born. The first instar is fishroom rarely drops below 20°C during winter, but in summer
brownish-orange coloured and has three pairs of appendages. it can reach 30 to 35°C.
The larva grows through about 15 moults and becomes
differentiated into male or female after the tenth moult. The recommended hatching density of eggs should not exceed 5
grams per litre of water. Constant aeration should be provided by
Brine shrimp are typically filter feeders that consume organic an airline, without an airstone, inserted to reach the bottom of the
detritus, microscopic algae, and bacteria. Blooms of jar. Aeration is essential for two reasons - the maintenance of
microscopic algae are favourite habitats, and large populations dissolved oxygen levels, and keeping the eggs suspended in
develop in such areas where they feed on the algae and solution. Adjust the air supply so that moderate aeration occurs.
heterotrophic bacteria that are produced by these blooms.

Gary Lange
Brine Shrimp in collecting net
Too little aeration will result in low levels of dissolved oxygen

while too much aeration will cause the cysts to stick to the upper jar
out of the water. These conditions will significantly affect the hatch
rate.
After the incubation period, turn off the aeration and allow the
contents to settle for about 5 to 10 minutes. A distinct separation
will occur; the unhatched cysts and egg shells will rise to the
surface and be dark brown. Brineshrimp nauplii are bright orange
and are located near the bottom of the hatching container or within
the water column. Most of the newly hatched nauplii will
accumulate just above the bottom. Siphon the shrimp into a fine
mesh net (<120 µm) through a length of airline tubing, which has a
short rigid extension (the depth of the jar) on the intake end. This
makes it possible to position and siphon very accurately. This
separation step is necessary, however, because small fry cannot
digest unhatched cysts and shells, which can cause mortality if
consumed. After rinsing the nauplii in a gentle stream of freshwater,
which will remove any waste or salt residue, the nauplii can be fed
to the fish. It is important to collect the nauplii quickly, because
after 10 minutes or so, the oxygen levels of the water begin to drop
quickly and the nauplii will begin to show signs of distress and die.
Discard the remaining contents of the hatching jar and wash with
hot soapy water, rinsing well before use. The net should also be
rinsed. Prepare fresh salt water for each new hatch. To have a fresh A distinct separation will occur; the unhatched cysts and egg
supply of brine shrimp daily, at least two hatching containers shells will rise to the surface and be dark brown. Brineshrimp
should be used; so that newly-hatched shrimp can be harvested nauplii are bright orange and are located near the bottom of
daily. the hatching container or within the water column.

Gary Lange
Feeding basters
Artemia nauplii are most nutritious while they contain the Decapsulated Brine Shrimp Eggs
yolk sac and should be fed as soon as possible after hatching. Brine shrimp eggs (cysts) consist of dormant embryos covered
Artemia nauplii in their first stage of development can not with a three-layered shell. Under optimal hatching conditions
take up food and thus consumes its own food reserves. At the embryos break out of the shell and hatch into nauplii, which
28°C, the freshly-hatched Artemia nauplii develop into the are then used for feeding. However, the hard outer shell of the
second larval stage within 12 hours. It is important to feed brine shrimp egg, the alveolar layer can be completely removed
first-instar nauplii to the fish rather than second-instar meta- through a chemical process known as decapsulation.
nauplii which will have already consumed 25 to 30% of their Consequently, the task of separating the nauplii from the
food reserves within the first 24 hours after hatching. unhatched eggs and shells is eliminated because 100% of the
Moreover, instar II Artemia are less visible as they are decapsulated eggs (both hatched and unhatched) can be fed. An
transparent, are larger and swim faster than first instar larvae, important application of the decapsulated cysts is that even low-
and as a result consequently are less accessible as a prey. hatch or no-hatch cysts can be used for feeding.
Furthermore they contain lower amounts of free amino acids.
The decapsulated cysts can be used immediately or dehydrated
Moulting of the Artemia nauplii to the second instar stage in brine solution for storage (brine cysts), or further subjected to
may be avoided by storing the freshly-hatched nauplii at a a drying process for longer term storage (dried cysts). The
temperature between 5 below 10°C. This procedure decreases advantages of decapsulation include disinfection of the cysts,
the metabolism of the nauplii, thereby preserving a higher improved hatching and no risk of fish larvae suffering from gut
nutritional value. Only slight aeration is needed in order to obstruction due to the ingestion of empty egg casings.
prevent the nauplii from accumulating at the bottom of the
container where they would suffocate. In this way nauplii can Many studies have demonstrated that the growth and survival of
be stored for periods up to more than 24 hours without fish fed decapsulated cysts is better than or comparable with
significant mortalities. This technique allows not only a those fed newly-hatched nauplii. In one study (Lim et al. 2002),
constant supply of high quality nauplii but also more frequent it was found that the fry of five common ornamental fish species
feeding for freshwater fish larvae. tested (Poecilia reticulata, P. sphenops, Xiphophorus maculatus,
X. helleri and Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi) could readily feed
on the decapsulated cysts, and their performances in terms of
growth and survival was comparable to or better than those fed on
Artemia nauplii or Moina.

Decapsulated eggs offer a number of advantages compared to Decapsulation [Method 2] (Schumann, 2000)
the non-decapsulated ones: Prepare a buffer solution by dissolving 40 grams of 40%
sodium hydroxide in 60 ml of freshwater. Then add seawater
 Empty egg casings are not introduced into the fry tanks. to yield a total amount of 0.33 ml of sodium hydroxide and
 Nauplii that are hatched out of decapsulated eggs have a 4.67 ml of seawater per gram of cysts. Cool the buffer solution
higher individual weight (30–55 % depending on strain) to 4°C. It should be about pH 10. Add the cysts. Then add 10
than regular instar I nauplii. ml of liquid bleach to the buffer solution. Use a thermometer to
 In some cases, hatchability is improved by decapsulation. watch the temperature during the chemical reaction and keep
 Decapsulation results in disinfection of the eggs. the solution between 20° and 30°C. Starting with pre-cooled
buffered seawater makes it easier to keep the reaction in the
Decapsulated eggs can be used as a direct energy-rich food right temperature range. If needed, an ice cube or “ice pack”
source for rainbowfishes. The cysts contain an average of 30% can be added to help drop the temperature.
more nutrients than newly hatched nauplii. The cysts have the
appearance and the practical advantages of a dry feed and, in Powdered pool chlorine can be substituted for household liquid
contrast to nauplii (470–550 µm); their small particle size bleach at a rate of 0.7 g of dry chlorine powder per gram of
(200–250 µm) is more suitable for smaller fish. If they have cysts. If pool chlorine is used, substitute sodium carbonate for
been dried before use, they have a high floating capacity, and NaOH as a buffer, adding 0.68 g sodium carbonate to 13.5 ml
sink only slowly to the bottom of the culture tank. Dried filtered seawater per gram of cysts. It is easier to split the water
decapsulated cysts, when treated appropriately, can be stored in two equal parts, adding the chlorine to the first part and the
for years, and hence may be fed off the shelf without the need sodium carbonate to the second. Allow them to dissolve and
for hatching. react, which will cause a precipitate. Pre-cool the two
solutions; mix them together then add the hydrated cysts. After
everything is placed together, note the colour of the solution. It
Decapsulation [Method 1] will change from a dark brown, to gray, to white, and then to a
Decapsulation involves soaking the eggs prior to hatching in a bright orange. This reaction usually takes 2 to 4 minutes. With
solution of chlorine bleach (Sodium hypochlorite). Chlorine the liquid bleach the cysts will change only to gray or light
bleach chemically removes the shell without affecting the orange, and the reaction takes about 6 minutes.
viability of the unhatched embryo.
The cysts must be filtered from the solution quickly and
1. First, hydrate the eggs by soaking 5 grams of eggs per immediately after the membranes have dissolved (as indicated by
150 millilitres tap water for about 1 hour at 25° Celsius. no more colour change or the final colour-bright orange or gray);
Hydration is helped with low aeration and by the eggs being otherwise you will dissolve the whole cyst instead of only the
kept in suspension. outer shell. Washing cysts and deactivating the residual chlorine is
the next step after decapsulation. The chlorine should be washed
2. After hydration, add an equal measure of Sodium off the cysts with freshwater or saltwater until there is no more
hypochlorite to the decapsulating container. The decapsulation chlorine smell. The residual chlorine attaches itself to the
process is allowed to proceed under low aeration and decapsulated eggs and must be neutralized. Do this by washing
constant stirring for 5–10 minutes (depending on the cysts in a 0.1% sodium thiosulfate (0.1 g sodium thiosulfate in
hypochlorite strength) or until the eggs are completely 99.9 ml water) solution for 1 minute. An alternative method uses
decapsulated. As the eggs decapsulate, they change colour acetic acid (one part 5% vinegar to seven parts water). The first
from dark brown to grey to orange, and they lose their method works better, but the second method is easier because the
buoyancy. Decapsulated eggs are completely orange and no materials are more readily available.
longer float.
Obviously, the time and effort involved in decapsulating brine
It is crucial not to leave the embryos in the decapsulation shrimp eggs may not suit every one. However, if you have the
solution longer than strictly necessary, since this will affect time and patience, it could be worth trying.
their viability. The time it takes for all the eggs to be
decapsulated will vary with the type of eggs being used, so For long term storage (several months) decapsulated eggs need
it is more important to observe the colour change than to to be dehydrated in a saturated brine solution. A saturated brine
watch the clock. solution is salt dissolved in water until no more can be
dissolved and salt remains in the bottom of the container. The
3. The decapsulated eggs are then placed in a fine mesh net brine solution dehydrates the eggs, effectively stopping the
(100–150 µm), where they are rinsed thoroughly with a hatching process, but the eggs hatch normally when placed in a
steady stream of tap water for 1–2 minutes, or until the hatching solution of lower salinity water later. (For storage, 50
chlorine smell is no longer detectable. (Sodium thiosulphate ml brine should be mixed with every 100 grams of cysts.)
could also be used to neutralise the chlorine residue)
Since they lose their hatchability when exposed to UV light it
4. The eggs are now ready for hatching, or can be stored in a is advised to store them protected from direct sunlight. For
refrigerator (0–4° Celsius) for a few days without any decrease hatching the decapsulated eggs use a 2-litre wide-mouth glass
in hatchability. jar, tilted at 45°, with aeration provided by a 3-mm rigid plastic
airline that extends to the lowest point of the jar.

Decapsulated eggs hatch better at higher salinities (above Brine Shrimp are continuous, non-selective filter feeders and
20‰) and are maximised at a salinity level of 28‰. You may should be fed around the clock or several times a day at the very
find that decapsulated eggs require increased aeration to keep least. The food should be continuously added to the water
the eggs in suspension than non-decapsulated eggs, even at the column in the grow-out tank. The trick is to prepare the food as
higher salt level. When newly hatched nauplii are to be fed, the a solution (with light aeration) and drip the solution into the
contents of the hatching jar are poured into a fine-meshed net. grow-out tank. Provide plenty of aeration to keep the food in
The nauplii and unhatched embryos are rinsed with fresh water suspension and maintain maximum oxygen levels. Brine shrimp
and all eggs are thus utilised as food. populations have done well in cultures when fed algae, rice
bran, soybean meal or whey powder.
Decapsulated cysts can be dried by spreading eggs over a 100
µm screen in a layer < 5 mm thick and oven dried at 35–40°C Brine Shrimp are sensitive to poor water quality, such as high
for 24 hours. Heat treatment at 40°C used in cysts preparation levels of ammonia and nitrite. The ideal on-growing tank should
does not affect the protein quality of the cysts. Freeze dried contain only a sponge filter. In this way the tank is easily kept
decapsulated artemia cysts are available commercially and can clean and helps prevent any disease or water quality problems.
be used for direct feeding to small fish and fry as a dietary Controlling water quality can be accomplished through a
supplement and transition from live food to pelleted diets. The combination of biological filtration and frequent water changes.
cysts are not hatched and so they retain all of the nutrition When doing a water exchange, simply catch the brine shrimp in
inside the cyst that would normally be used by the nauplii at a fine mesh net as you are siphoning out the water and
hatching. 100g of freeze dried decapsulated artemia is equal to immediately return the shrimp to the grow-out tank. Maintain
1 kg of unhatched artemia cysts. pH between 8.0 and 8.5 and temperature 25 to 30° Celsius.
Harvesting of shrimp for feeding the fish is done with a

Growing Brine Shrimp standard aquarium net. The larger netting will allow immature
When feeding young rainbowfishes, adult brine shrimp may be shrimp to remain in the culture. Cultures, which are not over-
preferred over nauplii. Nauplii grow rapidly and may double in harvested, can become self-sustaining in 4–6 weeks.
size in 20 hours or less. They continue to grow through several
moults or instar stages and become adults in about 3 weeks. All
that is required is a small (50-litre) aquarium filled with natural Bioenriched Brine Shrimp
or synthetic salt water. For about 2 days after the shrimp hatch The nutritional value of brine shrimp nauplii can decrease as
they live on the food from their yolk sac so no feeding is much as 25–30% within 24 hours after hatching when kept at
required until the yolk sac is depleted. Feed the brine shrimp 28°C. This has meant that the nauplii must be fed to the fish fry
nauplii on a micro encapsulated diet, which has a particle size as soon as possible after hatching or be stowed at low
of 5–50 microns. Adult brine shrimp can be fed a homemade temperatures to decrease their rate of metabolism. Another
food formula containing the following ingredients: drawback is that they have been found nutritionally deficient,
especially in the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.
20% - Brewers Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) However, what makes the nauplii so attractive to fish fry is their
35% - Soy Flour wriggling way of swimming, which acts as a powerful feeding
35% - Wheat Flour response for fish fry.
10% - Powdered Milk
In recent years, several enhancement techniques have been
Feeding Rate: 1 level teaspoon per 40 litres - feed again when developed by the aquaculture industry to improve the nutritional
the water has cleared. value of brine shrimp by feeding them a nutrient-rich medium.
Obviously, the time and effort involved in nutritionally enhancing
Another suitable food for adult brine shrimp is spirulina alga brine shrimp may not be worthwhile for the average aquarist.
powder: Pre mix a suspension of 1 level tablespoon spirulina However for the serious aquarist with an extensive breeding
powder per litre of distilled water. Allowed the mixture to program, nutritionally enhanced brine shrimp may well be worth
settle for 5–10 minutes then strain through a fine brine shrimp the effort. It is more convenient and easier to use a commercial
net to remove larger particles and any detritus. The suspension enhancing supplement rather than make up your own concoction.
can be fed to the shrimp at a rate of about 10–50 ml per 20
litres - but only if the water has cleared from any previous A feeding trial using Selco® at 300 ppm found that their fatty
feeding. acid profiles changed according to the duration of the
enrichment period. Newly hatched brine shrimp had 7.0 mg
When feeding the shrimp, the water needs to be a light green total fatty acids/100 mg dry weight. After enrichment for 12
colour while still being able to see the bottom of the tank. hours the total fatty acids increased significantly to 10.3
Small amounts are much better than overfeeding. A bright mg/100 mg. After 24 hours of enrichment the total fatty acids
green detritus (dust) sitting on the bottom indicates that you’re increased to 12.6 mg/100 mg dry weight. The results indicated
putting more algae than you need into the tank and it’s settling that the length of the enrichment process should be considered
out. In that case, use a little less by aiming for a lighter shade of when preparing brine shrimp nauplii as a food for the larvae
green water at feeding time. Light feedings will allow the of ornamental fish. However, enriching nauplii will result in
shrimp to consume most of what’s in the water before it can larger individuals than newly hatched nauplii, and may not be
settle out. As they feed, the water will become clear again. a suitable size for all fish larvae.

Bio-enrichment of brine shrimp began several years ago using Enriching Nauplii
emulsified fish oils containing highly unsaturated fatty acids The use of brine shrimp nauplii as a delivery system for
(HUFAs) for marine finfish and crustacean larvae. This enabled dietary enrichment or chemotherapeutics for fish larvae is
many previously difficult species of marine food fishes to be developing rapidly. Commercial enrichment preparations
cultured. Marine fish require Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a have also been tested with other live feeds used in
fatty acid common in marine fish oils, in their diet. DHA is freshwater ornamental fish culture and have been found to
virtually absent in brine shrimp although a strain from China have similar results.
were found to contain DHA, but they are extremely difficult to
obtain. 1. Prepare and hatch brine shrimp nauplii as normal.
The cause for this variability in DHA and other fatty acids is 2. Add bio-enrichment about 12 hours after hatching. The
unknown, but it may well be that the types of fatty acids shrimp will either ingest the supplement or it will just
found in certain strains of brine shrimp are influenced by adhere to their body. Either way the fish will benefit from
their natural diet. Freshwater fish have a limited ability to the enrichment when they are fed.
synthesise DHA from one of the omega-3 fatty acids
(linolenic acid), but they too will benefit from a diet that 3. Feed enriched shrimp within 12–16 hours or they will
includes DHA. have digested the enhancement formula and you will need
to repeat the enrichment.
Enriching brine shrimp is essential for culturing some
species of marine fish, but is not critical for most freshwater Brine shrimp nauplii are filter feeders but will not consume
species including rainbowfishes. However, improved any supplements until after the second instar II stage
consistency and higher survival in larval discus, improved (moult) begins, at about 12 hours after the nauplii hatch.
growth and survival of goldfish fry, and increases in The first instar nauplii do not feed. Their value as food
fecundity of angelfishes and guppies have been reported by decreases from birth until they begin feeding. To enrich live
aquarists who are using enrichment procedures. The adults, just add the supplement about 12–16 hours before
implications of these results are that the general health and feeding the fish.
well being of the fish fry have been significantly improved
by the feeding of enriched brine shrimp nauplii. These Bio-enriching brine shrimp with hormones has been used
observations still needs to be verified however, under successfully to induce ovulation in Paracheirodon axelrodi.
controlled laboratory testing. Fry mortality can be the result Exposure of the brine shrimp to the hormones for between
of several factors including inbreeding, inferior water 30 and 60 minutes was optimal for inducing ovulation while
conditions and improper incubation methods. shorter and longer periods showed a trend to a decreasing
percentage of ovulating fish.
Another role for enriched brine shrimp is feeding adult
female rainbowfish for several weeks prior to spawning Because brine shrimp are non-selective and continuous
them. In other species, fish eggs with low levels of DHA filter feeders, almost anything will be consumed, as long as
generally have poorer survival rates to the first feeding stage the particle size is between 5–50 microns. Any supplements
than eggs that are rich in DHA. Giving females a diet high in must be in a non-soluble form as brine shrimp do not
DHA allows them to carryover excess DHA into their eggs. “drink” soluble components.
Essential fatty acid deficiency is not a problem with most
rainbowfishes fed a varied diet. It is possible; however, that
supplementation with enriched brine shrimp may increase
growth rates, fecundity, and fry survival. Therefore, if you
are having problems raising a particular species, it may well
be worth the effort.

Mosquito Larvae
adult mosquitoes are attracted by the odour of decomposed

Mosquito Larvae material. The larvae can easily grow even without the presence
of dissolved oxygen, due to the presence of air sacs in which
Mosquito larvae grow in aquatic habitats and provide a good larvae can store air containing oxygen for a long period and use
natural live food for fish and other aquatic predators. Their the oxygen for respiration.
nutritional value has been fairly well recognised. Due to
presence of high micronutrients and all the essential amino acids, Culturing mosquito larvae is fairly straightforward. First
the larvae (and pupae) may be used as a live or processed (frozen) established a tub or container outside where it will obtain
food for feeding rainbowfishes. Furthermore, mosquito larvae partial shade. Shallow containers with a large surface area
have a high protein content (~50%). seem to be preferred to deep containers. Fill the tub with pre-
conditioned freshwater. The best source of water is filtered
Rainbowfishes are well adapted to capturing live mosquito stream or pond water; collected rainwater, or use the water
larvae, and will show an active response to this type of from your aquarium water changes.
food, indicating that mosquito larvae are a very attractive
food for rainbowfishes. Upon adding mosquito larvae to the Next, add some animal manure or organic fertiliser. Fresh
tank, it is quite often the case that rainbowfishes will exhibit material is preferred over old because they are richer in microbes
an immediate response that somewhat resembles a feeding and organic matter. This especially applies to manure, which is
frenzy. Live food is preferred over inert food by rainbowfishes, usually dried before use. The fertiliser can be added to your
suggesting a moving prey item may stimulate or influence culture in several ways. One is to soak the dry material for
feeding preference. Rainbowfishes seem to prefer mosquito several hours, then distribute the wet material over the bottom,
larvae to all other live foods, and their effortless method of allowing it to slowly decompose. Another is to place the dry
culturing or collection makes them an ideal live food. material in a mesh bag and suspend the bag inside the tub.
Other substances such as crushed dry dog food or fish food
Mosquitoes have four aquatic instars, and a final or fifth pellets can also be used.
stage being a non-feeding pupal stage. Adults will emerge
after 2 to 3 days from pupae. The eggs may be laid singly or Sometimes a scum will form on the surface of the culture
in rafts, deposited in water, on the sides of containers where container, which can affect the earlier instar larvae as well
water will soon cover, or on damp soil where they can hatch as the pupae. The nature of such scum formation is
when flooded by rainwater or high tides - even small water undoubtedly influenced by various conditions of the
bodies such as the bottom trays of pot plants are used. culturing container, for instance water temperature, nature
Australia has about 350 species of mosquitoes. It is only the and amount of organic matter, and number of larvae.
females that seek animals out for their blood, which they Generally speaking, high temperature, fatty or large-sized
need in order to reproduce. Females live for about a month particles, excess of added organic matter, and high larval
while males often only live for a week, during which they density may result in scum formation.
feed on nectar.
After a few days when the water has cleared, add a handful
Mosquitos have been cultured for many years by aquarists of duckweed to afford the mosquitoes a place upon which to
in numerous parts of the world. There are numerous reports rest while laying their eggs in the water. The elongated eggs
on this subject, and many aquarium hobbyists have developed look like little black rafts and are about 6 mm wide. Each
their own technique. The mosquito usually lays its eggs in raft contains from 50 to 500 eggs, depending partly on how
water containing decomposing organic matter. Often the much blood the female has fed on, and one female may lay

Bloodworms
Bloodworms are larvae of the mosquito-like midge family
Chironomidae. Almost all chironomids have aquatic larval
and pupal stages. They have a world-wide distribution and
occur in a wide range of aquatic habitats from fast flowing to
completely still and stagnant, and in waters that range from
fresh to saline. There may be more than 2000 species but
only a small number have been formally identified. There is
little difficulty in recognising the larvae; they are small,
distinctly segmented worm-like animals. Although, they are
not a true worm due to their exoskeleton and small clawed
legs. Their colour is variable; some common ones are white,
green, yellow, or deep red. The last is due to the presence in the
larval blood of a red pigment, erythrocruorin, the presence of
which is of respiratory advantage in waters with low levels of
dissolved oxygen (stagnant pools). Some are also transparent
and are commonly known as Glassworms. However, only those
that contain erythrocruorin are red and hence the common name
“bloodworm”. In some countries they are also known as red
several batches. If the female doesn’t get blood she is still able mosquito larvae.
to produce eggs, but the eggs will be smaller and have less
chance of survival. In warm water, the eggs of most species Chironomidae larvae and pupae are highly nutritious and
will hatch in two to three days and the larvae or “wrigglers” nourishing and constitute one of the staple food items of
feed mainly on algae, protozoans, and organic matter. rainbowfishes in their natural environment. Chemical
analysis (% of dry weight) shows that bloodworms contain
Once you observe egg-floats or rafts, spoon them into small 71–93.6% moisture, 47.7–62.5% protein, 4.9–28.6% fat, 2.3–
glass jars containing about 5 cm water and cover with a fine 21% ash, and 4–23% carbohydrates. They are also a good
mesh. Later, when the eggs hatch into larvae, merely pour source of iron for the fish since they contain haemoglobin.
the contents of the jar into the aquarium. Then again, if you
require larger larvae or pupae, place the eggs-rafts in a Bloodworms are a commonly used live or frozen food source
larger jar until the desired size is reached. The larvae are for aquarium fish culture. Almost all fishes will greedily
tiny and must moult five times before reaching the adult devour them when they are offered. Research has found that
stage of life. The larvae hang upside down on the underside most fishes when provided with bloodworms as a supplementary
of the water surface. The tail of the larvae has feather like food item have better growth and spawning rates. Frozen
structures, which allow it to hang onto the surface using the bloodworms could be used as a substitute for live tubificids
water surface tension. The mosquito larvae have an as they have a comparable protein level.
interesting way of breathing. They have a breathing tube
that reaches from the tail to the water surface. This tube is Chironomidae go through a complete metamorphosis in their
used in much the same way humans use a snorkel to breathe life cycle, egg, larva, pupa, and winged adult midge. Each stage
while remaining underwater. having different characteristics. After mating in flight the
female releases the eggs while skimming the water surface. Egg
Sometimes the culture will be so successful that if all the numbers can range from 50 to 700. The eggs sink to the bottom
larvae were fed at once to the fish not all would be eaten where, under tropical conditions, they hatch in 24–48 hours into
and the mosquitos will hatch causing at the least some the next stage - the larva or aquatic stage. The newly hatched
nuisance. In this event you can either place some of the larvae are not more than 1 mm long but they can measure up to
larvae into containers in the refrigerator where their 10–25 mm when they reach the last stage of the larva period.
metamorphosis will be slowed down or preferably frozen The larva stage can last from less than 2 weeks up to 7 weeks
and fed to the fish during the winter months. Other species depending on temperature.
of insects produce different larvae such as bloodworms and
glassworms, which may be found in the container and can Each larva moults four times before it reaches the pupal
also be fed to the fish. stage. This stage of the chironomid forms a large part of a
rainbowfishes natural diet as they leave the larval tube and
It is far preferable to breed mosquitos in the manner actively swim to the surface of the water. Those that reach
outlined above than to permit the eggs to hatch in the the surface emerge into flying adults after a few hours and
outside tub. It is inevitable, that some will manage to immediately fly off to mate, living only a few hours or days.
complete their metamorphosis and escape to plague you and The adults do not feed during their adult existence and
your neighbours. Some mosquitos are capable of transmitting mating normally occurs during the night. The entire life
diseases such as encephalitis, malaria, and fever. cycle can be completed in 2 weeks, although it is common
for the life cycle to take longer to complete.

Midge larvae can be found in most waters with muddy Chironomid pupae and larvae
bottoms. They occur in great numbers in ponds, swamps,
and streams, usually 1–4 metres deep. Natural breeding sites
for chironomid midges are diminishing due to urbanisation,
land clearing and other changes to much of the natural
environment. However, they are abundant in waste water
channels, sewage treatment and settlement ponds, and other
man-made water systems. It is these breeding areas that
cause a variety of nuisance problems and public health
agencies regularly spray these areas with insecticides to
control their population and distribution.
If you wish to collect bloodworms the best time to catch

them in large numbers is during the night when the larvae
leave their self-made tubes and when the dissolved oxygen
at the bottom of water is low. They can be caught easily
using small mesh netting. Bloodworms can also be obtained
by sieving the mud on the spot. The larvae and the coarse
particles of detritus will remain in the sieve and then shaken
into a bucket filled with water. After a while the larvae will
Mortalities of post-larvae can occur due to not digesting the
swim to the surface where they can be fished out with a net.
chitin as well as some toxic effects of chemicals of chitin
(Steffens 1989). The chitinous body covering remain very
soft up to the 3rd instar stage which is easily digestible, but
Remarks becomes harder in the 4th instar and very hard in the pupal
Attempts to propagate bloodworms have been carried out in stage. Mortalities have been reported when chironomid
many countries without much success. The major problem larvae of 4th instar and pupae were fed to 4–5 days old
is the inability to induce swarming and mating of the Clarias batrachus post-larvae (Habib et al. 1993). They
chironomid midges in captivity. However, there is now found intact body coverings of chironomid larvae and pupae
some successful cultivation of bloodworms in Southeast in the intestine of C. batrachus post-larvae which was not
Asia. digested due to absence of the chitinase enzyme.
There have been some reports of fish with swollen abdomens Chitin is the principal structural component of the exoskeletons
and obstructions from being fed on bloodworms. The concern of invertebrates such as Crustacea. It is also present in the cell
seems to be related to the structure of the bloodworms walls of most fungi and many algae. Endogenous chitinase,
“undigestible” exoskeleton and its potential for creating the enzyme that degrades chitin, has been described in the
stomach blockages. digestive tracts of a number of finfish (Lindsay and Gooday,
1985) and so it can be considered that chitin is available to
“A note of caution here on feeding the larger imported frozen these animals. However, the efficiency with which it is
bloodworm. These worms have a chitinous exoskeleton and digested is unknown.
numerous bristles that are indigestible for fishes with small
intestinal apertures. The meaty portion of the worm is readily It is also claimed that some bacteria in the digestive tract of
processed, but the hard bits remain and clog up the stomach in fishes participate in chitin digestion. However, enzyme
an immovable mass. Be careful not to feed your discus, activities measured in the stomach, intestine, blood, liver
rainbows and some tetras on the larger bloodworms.” and lymphomyeloid tissues have all been determined to
~ Dr Jim Greenwood BVSc. Canterbury Veterinary Clinic, reflect endogenous enzyme capabilities of fishes, and teleost
Victoria. chitinase genes have been found leaving little doubt that the
majority of chitinolytic activity in their digestive tracts is
I have fed frozen bloodworms to rainbowfishes for many produced by stomach and intestinal mucosa.
years and have never experienced this problem. However,
there have been a number of reports on larval mortality of There have also been some reports of respiratory and/or
freshwater fish species when being fed live bloodworms. skin allergy to Chironomids. Cases of aquarium hobbyists
developing conjunctivitis, rhinitis with or without bronchial
This is because the pupae contain a chitinous body covering asthma or urticaria after handling fish foods have been
which is not digestible in the early larval stages of some fish reported. The aetiological agents were chironomid larvae,
species due to a lack of a chitinase enzyme in the stomach. and in the some cases, shellfish/crustaceans present in some
The chitinase enzyme develops at a later stage of fry fish foods. However, studies suggest that Chironomid
development, which helps them to digest the chitin. Usually allergies are rare and are mainly seen in those who handle
early post-larvae cannot produce this enzyme. bloodworms used for fish foods.

Suitable containers for culturing include commercial fruit
Drosophila fly vials or flasks, open-mouth glass jars, and other small
bottles (glass is better than plastic). The jars must be very
Drosophila are small flies about 3-mm long, of the kind that clean, preferably sterile, or you could end up culturing a
accumulates around spoiled fruit. They are cultured in host of moulds, instead of fruit flies. The jars can be washed
public Aquariums and Zoos around the world and are one of and then sterilised in a microwave oven. Cover the tops
the most popular feeder insects for a variety of captive with a piece of paper towelling or fine mesh netting held in
amphibians, reptiles, and fishes. The adult flies and their place by a rubber band. Small glass jars with plastic lids are
larvae can provide rainbowfishes with an excellent variation very suitable. A small opening can be cut out of the plastic
to their diet and supply natural vitamins and fatty acids they lid and covered by a piece of netting or fine mesh either
otherwise may not get in large enough quantities. glued or held in place with tape. This provides ventilation
and prevents regular fruit flies access to the culture as they
Drosophila melanogaster is one of the better-known species will breed with the wingless variety and ruin the culture.
and is cultured in laboratories around the world. It is used
extensively in biological research, particularly genetics and Maintain the cultures at between 20 to 30ºC. The optimum
developmental biology. Intensive biological research into temperature for good reproduction without accelerating
Drosophila melanogaster isolated a genetic mutation that mould growth is 24–25°C, below 20°C; development takes
only had rudimentary wings and could not fly; the mutation twice as long. Many culturists suggest placing some sort of
bred true and was further selectively bred so that a totally stiff plastic screen in the jar to give the flies a dry area to sit
wingless variant was established. on and as a surface for the larvae to pupate on. The
additional surface area not only provides somewhere for the
The reproduction time for Drosophila melanogaster is flies to roost but also increases the quantity of flies
rather quick and small cultures can yield large amounts of considerably. However, supplying a roost is not entirely
flies. Another species (Drosophila hydeii) is also cultured. necessary as the adults and larvae will just use the sides of
Drosophila hydeii is 1.5–2 times larger than Drosophila the jar.
melanogaster with red eyes and full wings, but their wing
muscles are genetically impaired. Both species are prolific As soon as the larvae are seen in the medium or climbing the
breeders, producing hundreds of offspring during their life sides you can feed the adult flies to your fishes. When adult
period. Neither species can fly but they hop, climb, and flies hatch from the pupae, allow a day or two for them to lay
attempt to fly. eggs and use the first hatch to start new cultures. Once you
have your new cultures set up the flies can be fed to your fish.
Drosophila melanogaster has a shorter life cycle (14–15 Each jar will provide flies for two or three weeks before
days) than Drosophila hydeii (approx. 25 days). Female requiring cleaning and setting up again. Feed the flies to the
Drosophila lay an egg about half a millimetre long. It takes fish daily from then on, as production will suffer if too many
about one day after fertilisation for the embryo to develop adult flies remain in the culture.
and hatch into a worm-like larva which can be seen in the
medium or on the inside of the culture jar. During the warmer months of the year you may get an
explosion of larvae, and these can be harvested and fed directly
The larva eats and grows continuously, moulting on day to the fish which relish them. At anytime that you find the
one, day two, and day four after hatching (first, second and Drosophila are breeding at a faster rate than you can use them,
third instars). After two days as a third instar larva, it moults it is a good idea to place them in a small plastic bag and freeze
one more time to form an immobile pupa. Over the next them for future use when supplies are less plentiful.
four days, the body is completely transformed to give the
adult winged form, which then hatches from the pupal case Culture jars are always under attack from unwanted predators.
and is fertile after another day. From laying the eggs, If your container is left open and receives a flying fruit fly that
hatching, and the larva emerging and pupating can take six contaminates your existing culture, it becomes the dominant fly
to ten days dependent on temperature. The pupae require and that culture must be destroyed. If your cultures start to
another six days before the adult fly emerges and the contain mites, just isolate those cultures and use the adult fruit
females lay eggs and the cycle begins again. The flies can flies for food only. Adult fruit flies often carry microscopic
live from 20 to 30 days and the female will continue to lay mites on their wings, which usually cause them no harm. Mites
eggs until she dies. can, however, attack the eggs and larvae. They can be
transmitted from one culture to another if not caught early on.
Culturing Drosophila is remarkably simple, but make sure
that you obtain a culture of the wingless variety. Fly There is quite a lot of debate among culturists regarding which
generations will usually breed true as long as no winged media is best, and like everything else, what works for some,
(wild) fruit flies infiltrate your cultures. may not work for others. There are a variety of homemade and
commercial media available to use. Special culture mediums
The normal method of raising the flies is to place a layer of are available from biological suppliers or live food dealers.
medium on the bottom of a wide necked jar. Add 10–20 Following are a couple of simple recipes that can get you
flies (females have a black band on the abdomen, which is started. Other recipes are often available from Reptile and
slightly pointed), sit back and await the results. Herpetology magazines or books.

Recipe #1:
Equal parts banana and apple sauce - mixed to the consistency of
baby food, oatmeal is then added until the mixture is stiff enough to
stay in the bottom of a culture vessel. Inoculate with a sprinkle of
yeast and add flies. It is reported to yield huge numbers of flies, but
can have an odour that some culturists find unpleasant.
Recipe #2:
Mix one tablespoon of sugar with one cup of dried instant mashed
potatoes, available from any supermarket. Add one inch of this
blend to a wide mouth jar. Pour in water to the same level as the
potato-sugar. Sprinkle a pinch of dried yeast on the surface of the
mash.
There are several methods of harvesting the flies to feed to your

fishes. Flies can be tapped directly onto the water surface from
an established culture where the culture medium is still stiff.
Where there is a risk of shaking out culture medium into the tank
then simply place a jar of the same size on top of the culture and
shut off the light to the culture jar. Drosophila are phototropic -
that is they are attracted by light. To get the flies to leave the
culture jar you should remove the jar's cover, place another jar
mouth to mouth, above the jar containing the flies, then cover The body of the fly is soft and floats on the surface of the water,
the lower jar completely with a dark cloth or paper to exclude as where it can live for several hours until eaten. Most fishes soon
much light as possible. The flies migrate towards the light and become accustomed to eating the flies and will feed voraciously
when sufficient flies are in the top jar simply upturn and recap on them floating on the water surface. In fact some species will
the culture. The flies in the top jar may now be shaken onto the literally jump out of the water to get at them, particularly
water surface or as some aquarists prefer mixed with a small Archerfishes. Both the fly larvae which are very good for smaller
quantity of aquarium water and poured into the tank. fishes and the flies can be fed.
Gary Lange
Drosophila Culture Containers

Daphnia
Norbert Grunwald
Daphnia (pronounced daff-knee-uh) are members of the order
Cladocera (cladocerans), and are one of the several small
aquatic crustaceans commonly called water fleas due to their
small size and jerky swimming motion. They live in various
freshwater environments ranging from swamps, lakes, ponds,
streams and rivers. They are usually translucent or amber in
colour and are an important component of the food chain in
freshwater environments. Most species occur worldwide and
are truly cosmopolitan, but on the other hand there are several
that are endemic in distribution.
The body of daphnia is shaped rather like a clam with a slit

along the belly side. A single eye capable of distinguishing light
from darkness is present in the head. If a shadow is cast across a
daphnia pond, the animals quickly swim out of the shadow into
the light. Two large appendages behind the head (actually
modified antennae) are used like oars to propel the animal in a
jerky fashion through the water. Other appendages are inside
the shell, and they are used to filter suspended particles on
which the daphnia feed.
Most daphnia are cyclical parthenogens, so are well adapted to

short seasons of reproduction such as in seasonal environments.
Natural populations are composed of females who clonally
reproduce until conditions within their environment deteriorate. Collecting Daphnia
One clutch of eggs is normally released into the brood pouch
during each adult instar (an instar is the period between moults). ephippium is cast off. It does not disintegrate, but remains intact
Since these animals are crustaceans, the only way they can grow in protecting the eggs, which will not complete their development
size is to moult their exoskeleton. As long as environmental and hatch until favourable conditions return.
conditions remain favourable females will continue to reproduce in
this manner, producing only female offspring capable of asexual Daphnia can suspend their growth and development for years
reproduction. or even centuries during periods of unfavourable conditions. In
habitats, which dry completely, annual recruitment is entirely
When unfavourable conditions occur, e.g. severe temperature from the ephippia. Ephippia sink or float and are able to
changes, drying, or crowding which leads to competition for withstand extremes of temperature and moisture. When
food or a decrease in the quality or size of food, then the environmental conditions are again favourable the embryos
production of parthenogenetic eggs declines. Some eggs develop into parthenogenetic females and break free of the
develop into males and females capable of sexual reproduction. ephippium. The ephippia are also used as a means of dispersal
These females have modified carapaces, which are thicker and for many species, being carried by the wind or in the fur,
darker dorsally than a regular carapace and produce haploid feathers or digestive tracts of animals to new habitats.
eggs that must be fertilised by the males. The fertilised egg goes
through several cell divisions, the zygote enters a resting stage The life span of daphnia, from the release of the egg into the
and cell division stops. Males are slightly smaller and different brood chamber until the death of the adult, is highly variable
in form compared to females. depending on the species and environmental conditions. Generally
the life span increases as temperature decreases, due to lowered
The mechanisms underlying the production of males and metabolic activity. The average life span of Daphnia magna is
haploid eggs are not clear. Male production seems to be about 40 days at 25°C, and about 56 days at 20°C. The average
correlated with crowding and a rapid reduction in food supply life span of Daphnia pulex at 20°C is approximately 50 days.
(a constant low food supply simply inhibits reproduction). The time required to reach maturity (produce their first
Short-day photoperiod seems to increase the production of offspring) in Daphnia pulex varies from six to 10 days (mean =
ephippia in Daphnia pulex in contrast to the longer light periods 7.78 days) and appears to be dependent on body size.
of midsummer, i.e. as autumn approaches and days get shorter,
and the number of ephippia produced seems to increase. The growth rate of the organism is greatest during its juvenile
stages (early instars), and the body size may double during
After these haploid eggs are fertilised by the males, the wall of the each of these stages. Daphnia pulex has three to four juvenile
brood pouch thickens and encloses the eggs in a semi-elliptical instars, whereas Daphnia magna has three to five instars. Each
saddle-shaped ephippium. These ephippia contain embryos in a instar stage is terminated by a moult. Growth occurs immediately
state of arrested development. When the female moults the after each moult while the new carapace is still elastic.

Feeding live daphnia to rainbowfishes results in a remarkable
National Center for Biotechnology Information

improvement in their colouration, and health. Rainbowfishes fed
an exclusive diet of daphnia grow rapidly and breed readily.
Daphnia are a high bulk food; that is, a high proportion of the
animal's body is covered with a chitinous exoskeleton - a sort of
skeleton on the outside. This chitinous material provides food high
in fibre but low in nutrients; its bulk stimulates peristalsis.
There are many species of daphnia but the most common ones
cultured in the aquarium hobby are Daphnia magna and Daphnia
pulex although numerous other species have been cultured
successfully. The taxonomy of daphnia species is very confused
and it can be very difficult to distinguish one species from another.
The characteristics used to separate these species are extremely
variable and many intermediate forms occur.
Daphnia can be easily cultured if suitable water conditions and

food is provided. The best source of water is filtered stream or
pond water or rainwater collected for low air polluted areas. Never
use distilled or deionised water, as it does not have the minerals
needed for growth. Daphnia are very sensitive to dissolved
contaminants like chlorine, chloramine, and copper. Daphnia
magna are quite resistant to phosphorus and can withstand
concentrations as high as 5–7 ppm and are usually not affected by
the addition of nitrogenous fertilisers for the promotion of algae Life cycle of a cyclic parthenogenetic Daphnia. This diagram depicts the
sexual and the asexual (parthenogenetic) life cycle of a Daphnia.
growth in outside ponds. During the parthenogenetic cycle, females produce diploid eggs that
develop directly into daughters. The same female may produce diploid
Daphnia have a wide tolerance to temperature but grow best asexual eggs that develop into sons. Male production is under
environmental control. Furthermore, the same female may produce
at a temperature range of 18–22° Celsius. Moina, on the haploid eggs that require fertilization by males. These eggs are then
other hand, withstand extreme temperatures better, resisting enclosed in a protective shell (ephippia) and need to undergo a
daily variations of 5–31° Celsius. Their optimum temperature diapause before female offspring will hatch from them.
range is 24–31° Celsius. This higher temperature tolerance
makes this species a better choice for culturing in area The variations in ambient light intensities and prevailing
where temperatures may rise above 22° Celsius. A pH day/night cycles in most fishroom situations do not seem to
between 6.5 and 9.5 is acceptable. affect daphnia growth and reproduction significantly.
However, a minimum of 16 hours of illumination should be
Starter cultures of daphnia can be collected from the wild but provided each day.
beware of predators like hydra and various carnivorous insect
larvae. Obtaining a clean culture from a fellow hobbyist or Start your culture with approximately 25 daphnia / litre. Although
biological supplier is the preferred source for a starter culture. a culture can theoretically be started with a single female, always
Immerse the starter culture into your culture water and gently use an adequate number to develop a harvestable population
empty the contents (don't pour the starter culture through the quickly. If fewer are used, the population in the culture will
air). increase more slowly; therefore, the initial quantity of fertiliser or
food should be reduced to prevent overfeeding. A greater number
Daphnia magna can survive when the dissolved oxygen used for inoculation reduces the time to harvesting and lessens the
concentration is as low as 3 mg/L but Daphnia pulex does chance of contamination by competitors.
best when the dissolved oxygen concentration is above 5
mg/L. Therefore it is recommended that the dissolved Cultures are usually inoculated 24 hours or more after fertilisation.
oxygen concentration in the culture be maintained at 5 mg/L However, when yeast is used, daphnia can be added to the culture
or above. Unless the cultures are too crowded or overfed, after a few hours of aeration, assuming good water quality, and
aeration is usually not necessary. Daphnia magna is proper temperature. This is because the yeast cells are immediately
principally a lake dweller, but can also be found in shallow available as food. The small amount of phytoplankton present in
ponds with muddy bottoms rich in organic matter. Daphnia the water and digestive tract of the daphnia used to inoculate the
pulex is principally a pond dweller where the oxygen culture is usually sufficient to initiate a phytoplankton bloom.
content is higher, but is also found in lakes. It is generally Sometimes the mortality of the initial inoculation is high and an
considered a clean water species being dominant in nature additional inoculation is required.
during periods of low turbidity.
The health of the culture is determined by stirring the culture,
Daphnia can be successfully raised indoors maintained in removing 15 ml of the culture, and examining the sample with
any suitable container, although better results will be a 10X-hand lens or dissecting scope. Green or brown-red
obtained when they are cultured outdoors. Do not expose daphnia with full intestinal tracts and active movement
indoor cultures to direct sunlight or strong artificial light. indicates a healthy culture.

Gary Lange
Daphnia magna
Pale daphnia with empty digestive tracts or females producing Powdered spirulina is another suitable food for feeding
resting eggs are indications of sub-optimum environmental daphnia: Pre mix a suspension of 1 level tablespoon spirulina
conditions or insufficient food. powder per litre of distilled water and fed at a rate of about 10-
50 ml per 20 litres - but only if the water has cleared from any
The food concentration in the culture water, when examined in previous feeding.
a clear glass, should appear slightly cloudy and tea coloured or
green. Clear culture water is an indication of insufficient food. Care must be taken not to overfeed with these foods, as
Feeding the proper amount of the right food is extremely overfeeding can quickly cause problems with water quality.
important in daphnia culturing. The key is to provide sufficient Regardless of the type of media used, start with small amounts
nutrition to support normal reproduction without adding excess of feed or fertiliser added at frequent intervals; slowly
food, which may clog the animal's filtering apparatus, or greatly increasing the amount used as you gain experience.
decrease the dissolved oxygen concentration and increase mortality.
Well-established cultures reproduce very quickly and can
Daphnia are herbivores or detritivores, feeding on phytoplankton, quickly become crowded in culture tanks. High population
bacteria, or decaying organic material. They are well adapted to densities of daphnia can result in a dramatic decrease in
live in algal blooms, which are high in proteins and reproduction, but this is not apparently the case with moina.
carbohydrates. Small particles in the water are filtered out by The maximum sustained density reported in cultures of
fine setae on the thoracic legs and moved along a groove at the daphnia is 500 individuals per litre. Moina cultures, however,
base of the legs to the mouth. Although there is some evidence routinely reach densities of 5000 individuals per litre and are,
that certain types of food, such as particular types of algae, therefore, better adapted for intensive culture.
protozoa, or bacteria may be selected by some species, it is
generally believed that all organic particles of suitable size are The batch culture method of producing daphnia uses a
ingested without any selective mechanism. continuous series of cultures. Briefly, a new culture is started
daily in a separate container using the procedures outlined
You can feed your indoor culture sparingly with brewer’s yeast, below. When all the yeast, bacterial, or algal cells are
powdered milk or egg yolk, astaxanthin, powdered chlorella consumed, usually about 5 to 10 days after inoculation, the
algae or hard-boiled egg yolk squeezed through a piece of cloth. daphnia are completely harvested, and the culture is restarted.
Another satisfactory food is spinach juice. It has a minimum of This method is particularly applicable when a specific quantity
indigestible fibrous material and can be easily made from of daphnia is needed each day, because daily production is
frozen spinach in a food blender. Keep the spinach juice much more controlled. Batch culture is also useful for
refrigerated and feed once or twice a day to an active culture. maintaining pure cultures because there is less chance of the

cultures becoming contaminated with competitors (e.g., Daphnia maintained in outdoor ponds will feed on
protozoans, rotifers, copepods) or predators of fish larvae or fry phytoplankton present in water, which is very rich in organic or
(e.g., hydra, dragonfly larvae). nutrient matter. A container or pond outside that gets plenty of
sun will virtually guarantee alga soup and a successful daphnia
Semi-continuous cultures can be maintained for two months or culture. The pond is filled with water, fertilised with organic
more by daily partial harvests, water changes, and regular matter, and allowed to stand until it turns green before a starter
feeding, keeping the population in a state of rapid growth. culture is introduced. In about three weeks, the pond should
Eventually, the culture will fail to respond to additional reach maximum population and the daphnia can start to be
fertilisation. When it is evident that they are not reproducing harvested.
well, the daphnia should be completely harvested and a new
culture started. Organic fertilisers are usually preferable to mineral fertilisers.
Mineral fertilisers may be used and usually work better in
Daphnia can be produced either in combination with their food earthen ponds than in tanks or vats, but can be toxic to some
or as separate cultures. Combined culture is the simplest, but species of daphnia. Organic matter (manure) provides bacterial
production from separate cultures has been reported to be and fungal cells and detritus as well as phytoplankton as food
approximately 1/3 higher. Production from separate cultures for the daphnia. This variety of food items more completely
has the disadvantage of requiring additional containers for the meets their nutritional needs, resulting in maximum
cultivation of phytoplankton. Regardless of the culture method, production. Although not necessary, the manure is frequently
always maintain several cultures to ensure a supply in case of a dried before use. Although manure is widely used to culture
die off. daphnia, micronised rice bran, and agro-industrial wastes, eg
wheat bran, soybean meal, and dried blood are less
It is important to do this because once the population of objectionable to use and work well.
daphnia becomes too crowded or the water too old or not
acceptable to the daphnia for whatever reason, the females start The fertiliser can be added to your culture in several ways. One
producing male offspring and only ephippial eggs are is to soak the dry material in water until it breaks down into a
produced. These eggs will not hatch until more favourably thin mixture, then pour the resulting concoction into the pond,
conditions return so your culture may just fade away. allowing it to slowly deteriorate. Another is to place the dry
material in a mesh bag and suspend the bag inside the pond.
Cultures can be maintained in 50-litre aquaria. However, this Change the bag every five days. Cheese cloth, hessian, muslin,
volume is usually too small to yield enough daphnia to satisfy nylon, or other relatively loose weave fabrics may be used.
demand. Tanks or vats (concrete, plastic, or fibreglass), and
earthen ponds can be used. Wading pools, old bathtubs, Nylon and other synthetic fabrics, however, do not deteriorate
discarded refrigerator liners, and cattle watering troughs also in water as do cotton or hessian. For smaller culture containers,
work well. Water depth should be no greater than 45 cm. The nylon stockings work well for this purpose.
shallow water depth allows good light penetration for
photosynthesis by phytoplankton. Diffuse light or shade over The use of a bag prevents large particles from being a problem
1/3 of the water surface of the daphnia culture container is when the daphnia are harvested and allows greater control of
recommended. A greenhouse covered with shade cloth (50- fertilisation. If fungus occurs in the culture container due to
80% light reduction) is ideal. over-fertilisation, the bag containing the organic material
should be removed from the culture. If fungus persists in large
Outdoor cultures should be protected from heavy rain and quantities, the culture should be discarded and restarted.
screened to prevent entry of predacious aquatic insects.
Filamentous algae and predators of fish fry can be especially The nutritional content of daphnia varies with age, and what it
troublesome in daphnia cultures. Gentle aeration can be used to has been eating. The protein content is usually around 50% of
oxygenate the water, keep food particles in suspension, and dry weight. Quite the opposite from brineshrimp, adults
increase phytoplankton growth, but fine bubbles should be normally have a higher fat content than juveniles do about 20–
avoided. 27% for adults, and 4–6% for juveniles. Some species have
been reported to have protein contents exceeding 70%.
A partial harvest every day is required to keep the culture
healthy and productivity high. They can be harvested by The fatty acid composition of food is important to the survival
simply dipping out the required number with a brine shrimp net and growth of fish fry. Omega-3 highly saturated fatty acids
as they concentrate in “clouds” at the surface. Cultures may are essential for many species of fish. Daphnia cultured on
also be harvested by draining or siphoning the culture water brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) are high in monoenoic
into a plankton collector equipped with 50 to 150 µm mesh fatty acids. By using what is called w-yeast (yeast enriched with
netting net suspended in a container of water. Turn off the cuttlefish oil), daphnia will contain very high levels of omega-3
aeration and allow the food particles to settle before harvesting. fatty acids.
For semi-continuous culture, do not harvest more than 20 to
25% of the population each day, unless you are restarting the Commercial formulas can also be obtained from aquacultural
culture. Harvesting by draining the culture tank allows for a suppliers for the enrichment of brineshrimp, rotifer, and
partial water exchange, improving water quality. daphnia cultures.

Differences in size, brood production, and optimum
environmental conditions exist between different species Summary
and varieties of daphnia. Adjustments will need to be made
in the culture technique depending on the particular species The development of commercially manufactured fish food could
or variety you wish to produce. It may not always be be considered as one of the contributing factors to the tremendous
possible to match production to the food demand of the fish growth of the aquarium hobby over the past 50 years. However,
fry. Harvested daphnia can be kept alive for several days in most information on the nutrient requirements of aquarium fish is
clean water in a refrigerator. However, the nutritional derived principally from research carried out by the aquaculture
quality of the stored daphnia probably will not be optimal industry. These results do however, have limitations in their
because of the period of starvation, so they should be applicability for feeding rainbowfishes because it is based on
enriched with algae and yeast before feeding them to the intensive cultured conditions aimed at maximum growth in a short
fish. time period. This might be of value for the commercial farming of
aquarium species, but would be unsuitable for rainbowfishes kept
Daphnia can be stored for long periods by freezing them in in home aquaria.
flatpacks. Try to make as thin a layer as possible in order to
achieve quick freezing. Otherwise it will take too long for the Not only do rainbowfishes have different nutrient requirements,
animals to get frozen resulting in the formation of ice crystals, but also the digestibility of various components of the diet will
which then puncture the cell walls lowering the nutritional differ depending on their natural diet. In nature, rainbowfishes feed
value of the daphnia dramatically. Use plastic bags in order to mainly on aquatic insect larvae, microcrustaceans, food from
prevent freezer burn and try to lower the temperature of the terrestrial origin (mainly terrestrial insects), and many other items
freezer compartment. With some practice you should end up that they encounter in their environment. When confined to an
with correctly frozen daphnia retaining their nutrients. aquarium these supplemental food items are no longer available.
Although freezing does not significantly alter the nutritional In captivity their survival dramatically depends on exogenous
content, nutrients do leach out rapidly into the water. Nearly all food. Hence, complete and balanced nutrition is critical for
of the enzyme activity is lost within ten minutes after their wellbeing. However, despite the wide range of food items
introduction in fresh water. After one hour, all of the free consumed in their natural diet, under aquarium conditions they
amino acids and many of the bound amino acids are lost. are forced to feed on a very limited number of food items (two
Adequate circulation is required to keep them in suspension or three) which frequently are not part of their natural food and
after thawing so they will be available to the fish. But of hence their nutritional composition is not always the most
course, live daphnia are better as their movement arouses the suitable for maximum growth, development and survival.
hunting behaviour of many fish.
The nutritional requirements of most rainbowfish species is
Some “daphnia” cultures are not daphnia at all, and upon further poorly understood. Rainbowfishes are essentially omnivorous
investigation other cladoceran genera such as Ceriodaphnia, and for this reason, it is a good management practice to feed a
Daphniopsis, Bosmina, Bosminopsis, Moina and Moinodaphnia variety of foods to captive fish. Omnivores, by definition, eat a
can be recognised. However, as they all are the same to culture wide variety of food items including plant and animal material,
and eagerly accepted by all rainbowfishes, it will not matter and some detritus as well. Physical characteristics of the diet
which species you have; although, there is considerable size also play an important role. Food particles need to be small
variation between the different genera. enough for the smaller species to ingest, but large enough to be
identified and eaten by the larger species. The availability of a
Moina, for example, are approximately half the maximum suitable diet is critical for successful transition of larvae to
length of daphnia. Adult moina (700 to 1000 µm) are larger juvenile and juvenile to adult stages.
than newly hatched brine shrimp and approximately two to
three times the size of adult rotifers. Young moina (less than Moreover, the development and survival of rainbowfishes in the
400 µm), however, are smaller than newly hatched brine wild undergo several morphological and physiological changes
shrimp and approximately the same size or slightly larger than which in nature are simultaneous with changes in behaviour and
adult rotifers. Therefore, moina are ideally suited for feeding even habitat and type of food consumed. All these changes will
rainbowfish fry, and many species can ingest newly hatched affect to nutrient availability and feed utilisation by the fish in
moina as their initial food. order to match their nutritional requirements. In practice, most of
these problems could be simplified by the proper development
Cladocerans occur throughout the world, even in Antarctica. of inert diets which are able to cover nutritional requirements at
Most are freshwater animals, but some species are estuarine different stages of development. In order to achieve those diets
and marine. Eight families (Daphniidae, Moinidae, Macrothricidae, we need, among many other important things, is to have a
Chydoridae, Sididae, Bosminidae, Sayciidae and Ilyocryptidae) complete knowledge of the nutrient requirements for the
and over 170 species of Cladocera are known from Australian different rainbowfish species.
inland waters. Daphnia is the most commonly known genus
in this group. Unfortunately, most hobbyists do not research the fish they
keep, and consequently, do not provide an appropriate diet for
the species they are trying to maintain.

Rainbowfishes
Species Section
Photo: Hristo Hristov

Rainbowfish Family
Melanotaeniidae monticola Allen, 1980
O Cairnsichthys mubiensis Allen, 1996
rhombosomoides (Nichols & Raven, 1928) nigrans (Richardson, 1843)
O Chilatherina ogilbyi Weber, 1910
alleni Price, 1997 oktediensis Allen & Cross, 1980
axelrodi Allen, 1980 papuae Allen, 1981
bleheri Allen, 1985 parkinsoni Allen, 1980
bulolo (Whitley, 1938) parva Allen, 1990
campsi (Whitley, 1956) pierucciae Allen & Renyaan, 1996
crassispinosa (Weber, 1913) pimaensis Allen, 1980
fasciata (Weber, 1913) praecox (Weber & de Beaufort, 1922)
lorentzi (Weber, 1908) pygmaea Allen, 1978
pricei Allen & Renyaan, 1996 rubripinnis Allen & Renyaan, 1998
sentaniensis (Weber, 1908) sexlineata (Munro, 1964)
O Glossolepis splendida australis (Castelnau, 1875)
dorityi Allen, 2001 splendida inornata (Castelnau, 1875)
incisus Weber, 1908 splendida rubrostriata (Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886)
kabia (Herre, 1935) splendida splendida (Peters, 1866)
leggetti Allen & Renyaan, 1998 splendida tatei (Zietz, 1896)
maculosus Allen, 1981 sylvatica Allen, 1997
multisquamata (Weber & de Beaufort, 1922) synergos Allen & Unmack, 2008
pseudoincisus Allen & Cross, 1980 trifasciata (Rendahl, 1922)
ramuensis Allen, 1985 utcheensis McGuigan, 2001
wanamensis Allen & Kailola, 1979 vanheurni (Weber & de Beaufort, 1922)
O Iriatherina O Pelangia
werneri Meinken, 1974 mbutaensis Allen, 1998
O Melanotaenia O Rhadinocentrus
affinis (Weber, 1908) ornatus Regan, 1914
ajamaruensis Allen & Cross, 1980
ammeri Allen, Unmack & Hadiaty, 2008 Pseudomugilidae
angfa Allen, 1990 O Kiunga
arfakensis Allen, 1990 ballochi Allen, 1983
batanta Allen & Renyaan, 1998 bleheri Allen, 2004
boesemani Allen & Cross, 1980 O Pseudomugil
catherinae (de Beaufort, 1910) connieae (Allen, 1981)
caerulea Allen, 1996 cyanodorsalis Allen & Sarti, 1983
corona Allen, 1982 furcatus Nichols, 1955
duboulayi (Castelnau, 1878) gertrudae Weber, 1911
eachamensis Allen & Cross, 1982 inconspicuus Roberts, 1978
exquisita Allen, 1978 ivantsoffi Allen & Renyaan, 1999
fluviatilis (Castelnau, 1878) majusculus Ivantsoff & Allen, 1984
fredericki (Fowler, 1939) mellis Allen & Ivantsoff, 1982
goldiei (Macleay, 1883) novaeguineae Weber, 1908
gracilis Allen, 1978 paludicola Allen & Moore, 1981
herbertaxelrodi Allen, 1980 paskai Allen & Ivantsoff, 1986
irianjaya Allen, 1985 pellucidus Allen, Ivantsoff & Renyaan, 1998
iris Allen, 1987 reticulatus Allen & Ivantsoff, 1986
japenensis Allen & Cross, 1980 signifer Kner, 1866
kamaka Allen & Renyaan, 1996 tenellus Taylor, 1964
kokasensis Allen, Unmack & Hadiaty, 2008 O Scaturiginichthys
lacustris Munro, 1964 vermeilipinnis Ivantsoff, Unmack, Saeed &
lakamora Allen & Renyaan, 1996 Crowley, 1991
maccullochi Ogilby, 1915
maylandi Allen, 1982
misoolensis Allen, 1982
Scientific Names
“The beginning of wisdom, as the Chinese say, is calling The current system owes its origin to the father of modern
things by their right names.” classification or taxonomy; a Swede named Carl von Linné
(1707-1778). He is better known by the Latinised name that
When a fishkeeper sees a new fish, the first question most he adopted, Carolus Linnaeus. Linnaeus devised a naming
frequently asked is “what is the name of that fish” It is the system for species that is still in use today. Linnaeus
nature of most aquarists to want to name every fish that he/ introduced the hierarchy from broadest to most specific
she maintains. In addition, biologists need to know the which today with some amendment consists of a kingdom,
correct name of a fish when consulting work already carried phylum or division, class, order, family, genus, and species.
out by others. Common names are not reliable; they are The only taxonomic unit taxon (plural taxa) that actually
inconsistent and can be very confusing when loosely exists in nature is the species. The species is the lowest
applied. Scientific names, on the other hand, enables people taxonomic category and, indeed, is the only ‘true’ biological
of all nationalities to communicate about plants and animals one; that is to say, the species is recognised as the living
without confusion and allows universal recognition. To this thing upon which natural selection operates. Species that are
end a complicated scientific identification system was very similar are placed in the same genus. Similar genera
developed to try to match the extraordinary complexity of are then placed in the same family and families are grouped
nature. By using the scientific name of a fish you can be into orders and classes. Above this the classification is
sure that everyone is talking about the same species. This is subphylum and phylum (plural phyla) for animals, and
why name changing by taxonomists often irritates aquarists. division for plants. Species is either singular or plural;
specific is the adjectival form. Genus is singular, genera is
The terms, taxonomy and nomenclature are often confused, plural, and generic the adjectival form.
but have quite distinct meanings. Taxonomy is the science
of classifying, describing and characterising different Rainbowfish taxonomy example:
groups (taxa) of living organisms. Nomenclature, on the Phylum - Chordata
other hand, is about giving names to those different entities Class - Osteichthyes
or groups. The system of classifying species may seem very Order - Atheriniformes
scientific. But in fact, the system involves much human Family - Melanotaeniidae
judgment. It is a system in constant flux as new knowledge Genus - Melanotaenia
is discovered. Perhaps the most modern and significant Species - trifasciata
means of differentiating species is through the increase in
our knowledge of genetics. It is now possible to sequence The convention is that scientific names are written in italics
and compare the genes in different species. with an initial upper-case letter for the genus and all lower
case letters for the species name. The rank is not italicised.
Species names are essentially adjectival in nature and thus
Scientific Names must agree with the gender of the generic name to which
Scientific names of plants, animals, etc., follow internationally they are attached. This is reflected in the endings of the
agreed rules, which are published as their respective “Codes of names. When a species is transferred from one genus to
Nomenclature”. These rules are largely the same for the another, the ending of the species name may also have to be
different groups of organisms, but there are some differences. altered to agree with the new genus name. For example,
A scientific name is not accepted until it appears in print with a Melanotaenia sexlineata were initially described as Nematocentris
full description of the species. sexlineatus. In a later review of the rainbowfish group (Allen,
1980) the name was changed to Melanotaenia sexlineata.
Scientific names are essentially ‘binomials’ consisting of
the name of a genus followed by the name of the species A genus name may be used on its own. Species names,
(which for plants is called the specific ‘epithet’). The however, cannot, and must always follow a genus name or
complete species name is comprised of the generic (genus) its initial. A genus name should be spelt out in full the first
name and the specific (species) name. The genus is named time it is used and then may be abbreviated to an initial
first and is capitalised followed by the species, which is not. letter and full stop when it is unambiguous to do so e.g.,
Both the genus and species are often italicised. It is Melanotaenia trifasciata (may be abbreviated to M.
customary to add the name of the author of the species and trifasciata).
the date of publication, for example, Melanotaenia angfa
Allen, 1990. Brackets around the author’s name, for example, A third level or rank can be applied to further delineate taxa
Melanotaenia nigrans (Richardson, 1843) indicates that, into subspecies, varieties, etc. In animals only one level or
although the original description is accepted, the generic name rank is formally recognised – that of subspecies e.g.,
is no longer valid and has been changed since the species was Melanotaenia splendida subsp. splendida and is often
first described. written without indication of rank as a “trinomial” e.g.,
Melanotaenia splendida splendida.

In plants, there are several levels below species that may be Botanical author citation
used. These infraspecific ranks are subspecies, variety, The name or names of plant authors are abbreviated to a
subvariety, forma and subforma. The last three are seldom standardised index of author names published by the Royal
used. In spite of there being a hierarchy, any taxon can be Botanic Gardens, Kew; the date of publication is not cited in
characterised by just using the trinomial (genus, species and brief citations.
infraspecies) with indication of the rank. Names must be unique
within a species (that is, one cannot have a subspecies and Example: Aponogeton elongatus F.Muell. ex Benth. subsp.
variety in the same species with the same name but with Elongatus - The abbreviation “F. Muell.” refers to Ferdinand Jacob
different circumscriptions). With plants the rank must always be Heinrich von Mueller (1825-1896) and “Benth.” refers to George
cited – usually as an abbreviation - and is not italicised. Bentham (1800-1884).
Eucalyptus globulus subsp. bicostata Note: If the author of a validly published taxon ascribes it to
Eucalyptus globulus var. compacta another person, the author citation will include the ascribed
author followed by the term “ex” and then the publishing
Occasionally the hierarchy is included, but this is unnecessary author.
to unambiguously define the taxon.
Zoological author citation
Leucochrysum albicans subsp. albicans var. tricolor (= The name or names of animal authors have their surname
Leucochrysum albicans var. tricolor). given in full, not abbreviated, while first names are not
included, or if two authors share the same surname, are
The authors of a species name may be included, but more often given as initials. The date of first publication is also cited,
than not, their inclusion can lead to error as they are seldom with a comma between the author and date.
thoroughly checked before inclusion. They are only really
necessary where the same name may have inadvertently been
given to two different taxa (homonyms) within the same genus. Common Names
The inclusion of the author’s name following the species (or Often what are called ‘common’ names are in reality
infraspecies) name can then distinguish the two names. With colloquial names and may have just been coined from a
animal names the author name is always followed by a year; translation from the scientific name. Most common names
with plants, the author name or abbreviation is given alone. are not governed by rules. For some groups, such as fishes,
guidelines and recommended common names are available
Animals (Zoology): at: http://www.marine.csiro.au/caab/namelist.htm Standard
Emydura signata Ahl, 1932 Names of Australian Fishes.
Emydura australis (Gray, 1841) - (the bracket indicates that
Gray ascribed the species to a different genus) The Australian Environment Department, guidelines for use
of common names have been developed to support
Emydura (Bonaparte, 1836) consistency. These include beginning each word in the name
The generic name Emydura was derived from the Greek emys with an initial capital i.e., Sunset Frog. With generalised or
(freshwater turtle) and the Greek oura (tail), Latinised to ura. Its grouped names a hyphen is recommended. The word
grammatical gender is feminine. The type species was Emys following the hyphen is generally not capitalised, except for
macquaria (Cuvier, 1829) by monotypy. The genus name birds where the word following the hyphen is capitalised if it
Emydura was erected by Charles Lucien Jules Laurent is a member of a larger group.
Bonaparte (1803-1857) in 1836.
Plants (Botany): Fishes – an exception to the rule:

Melaleuca nervosa (Lindley) Cheel Specific names are in lower case barramundi, golden
Synonym: Callistemon nervosus Lindley - (Lindley originally snapper, as are groups of fish, jewfish and salmon, except at
described it as a Callistemon; Cheel later transferred it to the the beginning of a sentence. Australian bass is the exception,
genus Melaleuca). capital A is used as it relates to a country. Common names
that consist of a place name, or a person’s name are capitalised.
However, generally it is common practice that most common
Authorship in Scientific Names names be capitalised!
Sometimes you will see a name or abbreviation of a name after
a scientific name and even a year as well. A complete reference The correct biological term when referring to more than a few
to a species includes not only the binomial name, but also the individuals of one fish species or for two or more species, is
author(s) that described the species and gave it a name. While fishes. However in common use fish and fishes are often used
the scientific name is italicised, the author citation is not. This interchangeably.
addition of authorship is usually only done once in a particular
article or citation. Conventions in author citation differ
somewhat between botany and zoology, and are governed by
the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature respectively.

Unpublished Names Abbreviations and Contractions
Unpublished names can take many forms. In the interests of Sometimes you will see the generic name of an organism
conservation management, threatened species often have to be with sp. or spp. after it, for example:
listed long before they have a formal name. Sometimes, these
are listed as manuscript names (e.g. Genoplesium vernalis D.L. Melanotaenia sp. means a species of the genus Melanotaenia;
Jones ms.) if they are about to be published. However, in some Melanotaenia spp. means species of the genus Melanotaenia (i.
cases these manuscripts names remain unpublished for years or e., more than one).
even decades.
There are a number of important abbreviations and contractions
In the 1980s in Australia, botanists agreed on a formula for use used in nomenclature:
with unpublished names to avoid the confusion that was arising
through the use of such things as “Verticordia sp.1”, “Verticordia cf. - confer (compare with …)
sp.2” etc. There was no guarantee that what was called “sp.1” in cv. - cultivar
one institution was identical to “sp.1” in a second. f. - form/ forma
fam. - family
The agreed formula is in the form of: gen. nov. (genus novus) - a newly described genus
“Genus sp. <colloquial name or description> (<Voucher>): ined. - ineditus (unpublished)
Prostanthera sp. Somersbey (B.J.Conn 4024) ms. - manuscript (unpublished manuscript name - generally
follows an author name)
Elseya sp. nov. (AMS – R140984) p. p. - pro parte (in part)
sect. - section/sectio
Some zoologists use a similar convention, but it is not done s. lat. - sensu lato (in the broad sense)
so universally. s. str. - sensu stricto (in the narrow or strict sense)
sp. - species
Where animal populations need to be identified, they are sp. aff. - species with affinity to …, or close to … (NB. ‘aff.
often done by inclusion of a form or population identifier in sp.’ should not be used)
brackets following the species name e.g., Melanotaenia sp. nov. (species novus) - a newly described species (NB.
duboulayi (Mary River form) or Melanotaenia duboulayi ‘nov. sp.’ should not be used)
(Mary River). spp. - species (plural)
ssp. - (not preferred - see subsp.)
subg. - subgenus
Synonyms subsp. - subspecies
Synonyms are names that have previously been applied to a subspp. - subspecies (plural)
taxon, but are now generally superseded. They may be syn. - synonym
names originally ascribed to a different genus and have the var. – variety
same specific epithet or name - these are based on the same
voucher or type specimen and are known as nomenclatural Abbreviations of italicised words may be italicised, however
synonyms. Melanotaenia duboulayi synonym: Atherinichthys they are often better not italicised in order to provide a contrast
duboulayi with the (italicised) genus and species names.
Alternatively, they may have once been described as a separate Examples:

taxon, but later studies have determined them to be the same Eucalyptus smithii s. lat.
taxon - these generally have different type specimens and are Eleocharis sp. aff. acuta
known as taxonomic synonyms. Craterocephalus capreoli Zenarchopterus cf. buffonis
synonym: Craterocephalus anticanus
Pronunciation of Species Name

In general, scientific names are derived from Latin or Greek
(both defunct languages and therefore not undergoing
continual change), and their pronunciation should follow
strict Latin or Greek pronunciation rules. General usage has,
however, often anglicised or corrupted true grammatical
pronunciation and more and more, names are being derived
from languages other than Greek or Latin. Scientific names
are often based on the appearance of the species or include
the name of people or places associated with the discovery.
How they are pronounced really doesn’t matter providing
they are understood by all concerned.

Gunther Schmida
Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides is believed to be a very old
(Nichols & Raven, 1928) isolated species, whose current distribution is the remnant
Cairns Rainbowfish of a previously larger distribution range that has been
reduced due to environmental changes. It is possible that
they were the original rainbowfishes in rivers of northern
Species Summary Queensland.
Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides were originally collected by
Henry Raven in October, 1921 from Babinda Creek, a
tributary of the Russell River in north Queensland. They
were scientifically described in the American Museum Distribution & Habitat
Novitates Nr. 296, in 1928 by John T. Nichols and Henry C. Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides is a tropical species inhabiting
Raven and placed in the genus Rhadinocentrus. Gerald mainly the river systems that arise in the Francis and Bellenden
Allen’s revision of the family Melanotaeniidae in 1980 Ker ranges about 45 km south of Cairns in northern Queensland.
placed them in the monotypic genus Cairnsichthys in They have been collected from a number of river systems
recognition of its distinctiveness. draining eastward, such as the Hull, Johnstone, Moresby,
Mulgrave, Russell, and Tully Rivers; Liverpool and Maria
Body colouration is yellow-brown on the dorsal half of Creeks. They also occur in some small isolated coastal
body and silvery-white below with a continuous thin dark streams around the Innisfail region. They have a very
mid-lateral band. A large silvery or yellowish spot can be limited distribution range and as such, have a “restricted”
seen on the operculum. Males have a yellow-orange conservation status listing which means “a species which is
coloured outer margin on the dorsal and anal fins. The not presently in danger but which occurs in restricted areas
caudal fin has a similarly coloured fan. They may reach a and/or are uncommon”.
maximum body size of 10 cm, but are usually around 7 cm.
Males can be distinguished from females by their elongated Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides can be found in both
dorsal and anal fins and brighter colours - females have lowland and headwater tributary streams in water depth
shorter and more rounded fins. Males are also larger and ranging from a few centimetres to about three metres. They
deeper bodied than females. are however, more commonly found in water between 30
and 50 cm deep.

Photos: Alan Travers
Babinda Creek [Russell River, Queensland]
Behana Creek [Mulgrave River, Queensland]

Hans Herbert Boeck
Upland streams generally have higher water flow over a Breeding
substrate composed mainly of large rocks and bedrock with Very little is known about the natural life history and
sand and fine gravel with good riparian cover (remnant ecology of Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides in their natural
rainforest) and minimal aquatic plants. Small lowland environment. In their natural environment spawning fish
streams usually have mud, sand and fine gravel substrates have been observed from April through to December with a
with abundant leaf litter. The temperature range recorded in peak in August to October. Like all members of the
their natural habitat is 15–29° Celsius. They are often found rainbowfish family, Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides are
in company with Melanotaenia splendida, M. maccullochi egg-scatterers and generally spawn amongst aquatic plants
and M. utcheensis. The pH in their natural habitat has been and leaf litter, with a small number of eggs being deposited
reported from 4.5–8.5 (lowland 4.5–6.8, upland 7.5–8.5). at a time. In captivity, I have on a regular basis observed
Conductivity from almost zero to 91 mS. They are generally this species spawning in the gravel substrate.
found in small schools swimming above or among aquatic
plants, woody debris and leaf litter. Fish commence spawning in their first year and mature
females produce between 40 and 200 eggs. The number of
eggs shed by a single female is directly related to the size of
Remarks the female. Eggs adhere to water plants and hatching occurs
Although an attractive species if kept under suitable conditions, after 5–9 days depending on temperature. Egg size is around
they are rarely seen in the general aquarium hobby and are mainly 1.139 ± 0.021 mm with larvae hatching at about 3.46–5.46
kept by a few aquarists who are principally interested in Australian mm. Larval development is complete at around 14–15 mm
native fishes. body length. I found this species seems to ignore free-
swimming larvae in their aquarium. Although the larvae
always stay close to some form of cover and generally avoid
open areas of the aquarium.

Gerald Allen
Chilatherina alleni The first dorsal fin is light blue; second dorsal and anal fins
translucent bluish becoming reddish on margins. Caudal fin
Price, 1997 translucent reddish. Pectoral and pelvic fins mainly translucent.
Allen’s Rainbowfish
Females slightly less intense with median fins mainly translucent
to bluish without any red. Besides the colour differences noted
Species Summary above, males are typically deeper bodied than females. In addition,
Chilatherina alleni is most similar to Chilatherina fasciata of the the second dorsal and anal fins short and blunt in females and
northern New Guinea mainland and Chilatherina pricei of Yapen somewhat elongated and pointed in males.
Island in Geelvink Bay. It differs greatly from these in colouration.
C. alleni having a dark mid-lateral stripe and reddish fins in males. There is a wide variation in colouration of this species depending
It further differs from C. fasciata in having a shorter blunter snout on habitat. One colour variation has a reddish back, red fins and
with the maxillary reaching to about the level of the anterior edge bright yellow stripe in the middle of the body.
of the eye (falling well short in C. fasciata). It further differs from
C. pricei in the modal counts of soft anal rays (usually 19–24 in C.
alleni vs. 24–27 in C. pricei), and in the number of cheek scales Distribution & Habitat
(16-18 in C. alleni vs. 19-23 C. pricei). C. alleni may reach a Chilatherina alleni were originally collected in 1994 from the
maximum size of 10 cm, but are usually less than 7 cm. Males are Aiborei (Aboge) River, situated in the Derewo River Basin,
usually much larger and deeper bodied than females. southeast of Cenderawasih Bay in northern West Papua. They
were again collected in 1998 during a Conservation International
Chilatherina alleni have the upper half of the body brownish survey from tributaries of the Wapoga River. These specimens
anteriorly becoming turquoise posteriorly, each horizontal scale have a slightly different colour pattern.
row is separated by narrow brown or dull orange stripe. Mid-
lateral band dark blue, occupying about two horizontal scales
rows, from upper rear corner of eye to base of caudal fin,
interrupted on its lower edge by about five, white indentations in Remarks
area just behind pectoral fin. Lower half of body mainly dark Named “alleni” in honour of Gerald R. Allen, in recognition
silver, except for intense white stripe with lower margin of dull of his outstanding contribution to ichthyology and his deep
orange occupying scale row immediately below mid-lateral band. commitment to the study and preservation of the aquatic
4–5 diffused charcoal coloured bars on lower side between level of fauna of New Guinea. Specimens originating from the type
pelvic fin base and fin origin. location near Siriwo Village were introduced into the European
hobby in 2009.

Johannes Graf
Gerald Allen

Chilatherina axelrodi
Allen, 1980
Axelrod’s Rainbowfish
Species Summary east and west in 1967, Vanimo became the capital of what was
Chilatherina axelrodi males have a body colour of bluish- then the West Sepik District and today is the Sandaun Province.
grey above a blackish midlateral line and silver-grey below. Sandaun Province is the north-westernmost province of Papua
The midlateral band is broken into a series of large blotches New Guinea. It covers an area of 36,300 km2.
and there are several dark vertical bars on the lower side of
the body. The dorsal, anal and pelvis fins are yellowish, C. axelrodi were found around sub-surface vegetation,
other fins translucent. Females are an overall silvery colour submerged logs and branches in a small, narrow slow flowing
and rather plain compared to the males. Males are more rainforest stream. The water at the collection site was slightly
brightly coloured, larger, and much deeper bodied than turbid and a temperature of 26°C and pH 7.8 were recorded.
females. Males may reach a maximum size of 10 cm, with Other rainbowfishes found in the stream included Chilatherina
females usually less than 8 cm SL. Spawning usually occurs crassispinosa and Melanotaenia affinis. Chilatherina fasciata
from October to January, with females producing between and Chilatherina lorentzi have also been collected from the
50 and 150 eggs, spawning over a period of several days. Paul River.
Eggs adhere to fine-leaved plants or among the roots of
floating vegetation which hatch around 7–10 days.
Remarks
A number of live specimens were collected by Gerald Allen,
Distribution & Habitat Brian Parkinson and Peter Neusinger in September 1979, but
Chilatherina axelrodi were first collected in 1979 from unfortunately they all died soon after arriving in Australia.
Yungkiri creek, a tributary of the Pual River (formerly However, Gerald Allen returned in 1982 and together with
Nemayer or Neumayer River), in the Bewani Mountains of Heiko Bleher they collected more live specimens, which were
Papua New Guinea. This location is about 40 kilometres later bred and distributed in the hobby. In 1983 further live
inland from the north coast town of Vanimo, which is close specimens were collected by Barry Crockford and returned to
to the West Papuan border. Vanimo is a relatively recent Australia. Although a rather attractive species, it has never
township; it was established as a patrol post and then achieved much popularity in the hobby, and could be considered
abandoned and reoccupied several times during the Australian rare. The species was named in honour of Herbert R. Axelrod who
administration. Only after the Sepik district was divided into provided funding for the first collecting expedition.

Neil Armstrong
Chilatherina bleheri Distribution & Habitat
Allen, 1985 Chilatherina bleheri have been collected from the vegetated
Bleher’s Rainbowfish shoreline and feeder streams of Lake Holmes (Danau Bira)
situated in the Mamberamo region of West Papua. Lake
Holmes is a complex of three interconnected lakes lying at
Species Summary an altitude of about 430 metres above sea level and set in
Chilatherina bleheri is a very attractive rainbowfish. They
the foothills of the van Wees Mountains, approximately 290
generally have a silvery or greenish body colour on the kilometres west of Jayapura, the capital city of West Papua.
upper back fading posteriorly to pastel shades of yellow to The lakes lie within a radius of 6-7 kilometres with the main
red. The scales on the front half of body, particularly on the lake having a length of approximately 4.5 kilometres and
dorsal region, have broad yellow-green margins; the first
maximum width of about 2 kilometres. The lakes are drained
dorsal fin charcoal grey; second dorsal fin grey suffused by a small stream, which flows into the Mamberamo River at a
with red; caudal and anal fins red; pelvic fins reddish point approximately 15 kilometres directly to the north. The
anteriorly with remainder white or translucent; pectoral fins lake and surrounding creeks are inhabited by 11 fish species,
translucent. The lower side of the body is white with a
including one other rainbowfish, Melanotaenia maylandi.
series of faint vertical dark markings. Females lack the vivid
red hues and are mainly silvery or bluish grading to grey or
greenish-brown. Males display a brilliant yellow-orange
stripe on the middle of the forehead during spawning. Males Remarks
are larger than females with older males developing a very Live specimens of this species were initially collected by
deep body. Males may reach a maximum size of 12 cm, but Gerald Allen and Heiko Bleher in 1982. When first discovered
females are usually less than 10 cm. C. bleheri are it was thought that they were just another colour variety of
essentially a carnivore, feeding on a variety of terrestrial Chilatherina fasciata. However, in 1985 they were described
and aquatic insects, insect larvae, and small aquatic by Gerald R. Allen as a new species and named in honour of
crustaceans. Aquatic algae and fallen plant pollens are also Heiko Bleher, a well-known fish collector. The two species
ingested. differ primarily with respect to size of scales and male
colouration. Chilatherina bleheri have smaller scales.

Bernard Delsarte
Neil Armstrong

Neil Armstrong
Chilatherina bulolo Ramu (Whege River) and Sepik River systems of north-eastern
Papua New Guinea. They have been collected from the Erap,
(Whitley, 1938) Snake, Bulolo, and Whege rivers. They are found mainly in
Bulolo Rainbowfish
mountain streams with rapid flow and coarse gravel bottoms,
in water temperatures between 24-28° Celsius and pH 7.5-8.5.
Centratherina bulolo Whitley, 1938
Chilatherina bulolo Allen, 1983
Remarks
Species Summary Live specimens were collected in 1978 and transported to
Chilatherina bulolo have an overall silvery body colour with a
Australia, but failed to become established in the hobby.
black streak on the upper and lower edges of the caudal fin. It
is very similar to Chilatherina crassispinosa, but has a wider
head, blunter head, larger eye, and shorter first dorsal fin. It
also tends to be more slender, but depth increases with age.
Males are usually much larger and deeper bodied than females.
Males may reach a maximum size of 10 cm, but females are
usually less than 8 cm. They are essentially a carnivore,
feeding on a variety of terrestrial and aquatic insects, insect
larvae, and small aquatic crustaceans. Algae, plant pollens, and
seeds are also ingested. Stomach contents of wild caught
specimens indicated a diet of small insects, particularly ants,
and algae that is grazed from rocks.

Chilatherina bulolo is so far only known from scattered
localities in the Markham (Erap Snake and Bulolo Rivers), Bulolo River

Neil Armstrong
Chilatherina campsi Central Dividing Range, which has acted as a most effective
(Whitley, 1956) geographical barrier to the spread of most rainbowfish
Highland Rainbowfish species northerly or southerly.
Anisocentrus campsi Whitley, 1956 This species was first collected in 1954 from a tributary of
Centratherina tenuis Nichols, 1956 the Jimmi River, situated approximately 420 km from the
mouth of the Sepik River via the Yuat River. They have
been collected from dispersed localities in the Markham
Species Summary (Oomsis Creek, Wampit River), Ramu, Sepik, and Purari
Chilatherina campsi is a small stream dwelling species and
Rivers (Lima River; Pima River; Wahgi River). Most
was first collected in 1954. Gilbert P. Whitley, an
collection sites have been in the northern drainage division,
ichthyologist at the Australian Museum, described them as
but they have also been collected from highland tributaries
Anisocentrus campsi in 1956. They were subsequently
of the Purari River that flows southwards into the Gulf of
reassigned to the Chilatherina genus where they remain
Papua, and from the Oomsis River near Lae.
today.
Within their distribution range C. campsi are generally found
Chilatherina campsi have a body colour of pale bluish-white
in mountainous or foothill streams. They are most abundant
with a silvery sheen; pale yellow to whitish longitudinal
in the smaller flowing tributaries, shallow bodies of water
stripes frequently bordering scale rows and a broad blue
shaded by rainforest trees where they find shelter among
mid-lateral stripe (most prominent on posterior part of
aquatic plants, roots, and fallen branches. Although situated
body); fins white, sometimes with yellow suffusion;
in rainforest habitat the streams are relatively open and
maximum size around 8–9 cm SL. Males are deeper bodied
exposed to sunlight, which is typical of the type of habitat
than females and their overall pattern is more intense,
where Chilatherina normally occurs. Depending on the
particularly the mid-lateral stripe. In addition the vertical
precise location, the water is generally soft, slightly turbid
fins of females are mainly translucent in contrast to the
with a temperature range of 21-26° Celsius and pH 7.6-7.8.
whitish fins of males. There were two different colour
Other rainbowfishes found co-habiting with Chilatherina
varieties available in the aquarium hobby, one with red fins,
campsi include Melanotaenia affinis, Melanotaenia
and one with blue fins. However, the origin of these different
pimaensis, and Glossolepis maculosus.
varieties is not known to me.
Remarks
Distribution & Habitat The first live specimens to enter the aquarium hobby were
Chilatherina campsi occurs in the central highlands of Papua
collected by Gerald Allen and Brian Parkinson from the
New Guinea, hence its common name ‘Highland
Wahgi River (Purari River) near Mt Hagan in 1979. Then in
Rainbowfish’. The genus Chilatherina is usually only found
the early 1980’s, additional specimens was collected by
in the northern areas of New Guinea but C. campsi have
Barry Crockford from the Oomsis River near Lae and a
been found in southern stream habitats. It is the only
small stream on the Highland Highway 105 km northwest of
member of the genus thus far found on both sides of the

Neil Armstrong
Lae, both foothill tributaries of the Markham River. Heiko Bleher also collected live specimens from a tributary of the middle
Ramu River in 1988. These collections formed the founding stock of current aquarium populations. C. campsi have never
been widely available and are seldom seen in the hobby these days. Only a handful of enthusiasts are still maintaining them.
Gary Lange

Gerald Allen
Mamberamo River
Chilatherina crassispinosa into the Neumayer River, both in Papua New Guinea, north of the
(Weber, 1913) Sepik. The range extends into northern West Papua where it is
Silver Rainbowfish known from several coastal streams just to the west of Jayapura
and from a few scattered locations in the Mamberamo system.
Rhombatractus crassispinosus Weber, 1913 This species was initially collected from the Tawarin River, West
Centratherina crassispinosa Regan, 1914 Papua during 1903. It is widely distributed in northern New
Chilatherina crassispinosa Regan, 1914 Guinea. It is found in the following rivers system: Begowre,
Buarin, Gogol, Mamberamo, Markham, Pual, Ramu, Sepik and
Sermowai. It also occurs in a number of smaller independent
Species Summary drainages along the northern coast.
Chilatherina crassispinosa has an overall silvery body, shading to
bluish dorsally and white ventrally. Fins translucent, except anal
Chilatherina crassispinosa are found in slow flowing, clear water,
and pelvis fins and base of second dorsal fin often yellowish in
streams and quiet pools, in water temperatures between 24-28°
males; dorsal and ventral edges of caudal fin with narrow black
Celsius and pH 7.5-8.5. These streams are usually situated in hilly
margin. Males have narrow orange stripes on the sides; one
(rainforest) terrain. The fish congregate in exposed sections, which
between each scale row and are generally deeper bodied than
receive full sunlit for most of the day. Other rainbowfishes
females. Males have more intense colouration, particularly with
sometimes found together with this species include Chilatherina
regards to the orange stripes and the yellow colour of the vertical
lorentzi, Chilatherina fasciata, and Melanotaenia affinis.
fins. C. crassispinosa are similar to Chilatherina bulolo, but have a
more pointed head, taller first dorsal fin, and a narrower space on
top of the head between the eyes. Maximum size of males to about
10 cm SL, females to about 8 cm. Remarks
This species was previously recorded from the Markham system of
Papua New Guinea by Allen and Cross (1982), but in a subsequent
paper by Allen (1983) the Markham population was shown to be a
Distribution & Habitat distinct species, Chilatherina bulolo. Live specimens were collected in
Known from foothill tributaries of the Torricelli Range on the
1980 and 1983, and transported to Australia. However, they were
northern side of the Sepik River Basin. They also occur in the
never popular or widely available and their status in the hobby today is
upper Ramu system and streams in the Bewani Mountains flowing
uncertain.

Neil Armstrong
Lake Wanam
Chilatherina fasciata While spawning the males colour becomes very intense and the
top of the head radiates a brilliant bronze to vermilion hue.
(Weber, 1913)
Females are basically silver to olive overall with clear fins.
Barred Rainbowfish
Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of Chilatherina
Rhombatractus fasciatus Weber, 1913
fasciata is their deep, laterally compressed body that increases
Chilatherina fasciata Regan, 1914
with age, particularly in males. Males may reach a maximum
size of 12 cm, but females are usually less than 10 cm.
Species Summary
As with many rainbowfishes, Chilatherina fasciata often display a
great variation in body colour and markings depending on Distribution & Habitat
location. Throughout New Guinea there are effective natural
Type-locality: Mouth of the Sermowai River, New Guinea.
barriers that isolated various populations, thus contributing to
Chilatherina fasciata is probably one of the most abundant and
the number of different colour variations.
widely distributed rainbowfishes in northern New Guinea. They
have been found in tributaries of the Markham, Ramu, Sepik,
Generally, they have a body colour of brown to bluish-green on
Neumeyer, Grimé and Mamberamo River systems of northern
the upper half, white to yellowish on the lower half with a
New Guinea. They have also been collected from the following
diffuse dark mid-lateral stripe. Scales of this region often
lakes: Sentani, Wanam and Nenggwambu (Kali Biru).
bordered with pale yellow. Males usually have several diffuse
blackish bars on the lower sides, above the front half of the
Chilatherina fasciata have been collected mainly in clear,
anal-fin base; fins dusky grey to yellowish.
slow-flowing rainforest streams, generally inhabiting deeper
pools that are exposed to sunlight for most of the day. These
Males are generally deeper bodied than females, this feature
streams usually have a substrate consisting mainly of gravel or
becoming more obvious with increased growth. In addition, the
sand and littered with leaves and other debris. The natural pH
posterior profile of the dorsal and anal fins is more pointed and
and temperature ranges have been reported as 6.2–8.1 and 27–
elongated in males. In contrast to males, which have longer
32° Celsius.
posterior dorsal rays, females have the longest rays at the
anterior part of the fin. Finally, mature males are more
Diet includes filamentous algae, small crustaceans, terrestrial
colourful than females often exhibiting reddish or yellowish
insects (particularly ants and tiny beetles), and aquatic insect
dorsal and anal fins.
larvae.

Buddy Jonkers
▲▼ Faowi Village, upper reaches of the Tariku River (Mamberamo system)
Gary Lange
Male (upper) Female (lower)

Neil Armstrong
▼▲ “Clearwater Creek” (Markham River)
Silke Prinage

Remarks
Pieter Nicolaas van Kampen first collected Chilatherina The nape region from the dorsal fin to the tip of the nose
fasciata in June 1910 in a stream near Njao, West Papua. Live becomes a flashing reddish-bronze colour. The colour in the
specimens were collected for the aquarium hobby by Barry lower part of the iris develops a beautiful blue-violet
Crockford and Gerald Allen during several trips to Papua New opalescence ringed by orange-gold. This rich gold is also
Guinea in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s. Around 1983, live brilliant on the central area of the gill plate. During spawning
specimens were also collected from the Jafuri River, an outlet of the central section of the caudal fin is much lighter than the
Lake Sentani which flows into the Pacific Ocean near the Papua blue of the outer lobes. The scales on the sides of the fish above
New Guinea border. In 1991, another live collection was made by the lateral line show some subtle violet hues in the mid-scale
Gilbert Maebe from the Jafuri River and taken back to Europe. region.
In 1981, Barry Crockford and Neil Travis collected specimens The female is much more slender than the male. It is silvery in
(Clearwater Creek) from a tributary of the Markham River, colour, with shorter and more rounded finnage. The female has
approximately 60 km east of Lae, PNG. The creek had a water a violet-blue reflective colour in the mid-lateral region. The
depth of about 50 cm. The water conditions reported were pH 7.5, base colour above the lateral line is a dull olive-green with dark
hardness 90 ppm and temperature 24°C. The creek was slow- scale outlines. A dark continuous stripe runs back from the eye
flowing with a very muddy substrate and vegetation lining the into the peduncle at the lateral line. The peduncle is very slim
shore. and shows only a narrow edge of olive above and below the
dark line. The lower part of the chest is a dull yellow with a
Males of this variety have an upper body colour of brilliant strong sprinkling of black speckles from the lower jaw back to
bronze while the lower half shows a silvery-white colouration the ventrals. The fins are all a dull olive-yellow which fade to
with a diffuse dark mid-lateral stripe. The lower half of the white toward the edges. The gill cover has a strong orange-
body has several diffused brownish-black vertical bars. These copper toning rather deeper in hue than the colour of the iris.
sometimes change to the same colour as the mid-lateral stripe. Several rather indistinct vertical bars occur on the lower sides
During spawning, the lower half of the males’ body deepens to of the female.
a golden-yellow colour (as shown in the accompanying photo)
and the dorsal region deepens to a burnished copper colour,
while the darker body markings intensify to near black. The
first two rays of the first dorsal and first ray of the second
dorsal change from their normal orange colour to a brilliant
vermilion.
Neil Armstrong
Mamberamo River

Gary Lange
Lake Sentani
Heiko Bleher has collected live specimens for the aquarium trade from various locations in New Guinea. The latest colour variant
was collect in 1999 from Lake Nenggwambu (Kali Biru) in West Papua. He collected only males and had to return a second time in
order to collect females. This variety has a broad orange stripe from the tip of its snout to the first dorsal fin. There is a vigorously
flowing outlet stream, but no apparent inlet, indicative of a subterranean connection with neighbouring lakes via the limestone
substratum. Water was relatively clear and maximum depth was estimated to be at least 10–15 metres, pH 7.8, and conductivity 60
µS/cm. The lake is surrounded by secondary forest and aquatic plants were abundant, but relatively few species were evident. Fishes
were most strongly congregated around the outlet, where vegetation was very dense. Glossolepis dorityi was also collected from this
location. There have also been a number of collections by individual aquarists from other various locations and these are frequently
available in the hobby.
Gary Lange
Lake Nenggwambu

Gerald Allen
Sermowai River
Chilatherina lorentzi Remarks

(Weber, 1908) This species is poorly known and live specimens so far
Lorentz's Rainbowfish have not been collected for the aquarium hobby.
Rhombatractus lorentzi Weber, 1908 In 2008, a number of surveys were conducted by a team from
Rhombosoma lorentzi Regan, 1914 the Manokwari University in cooperation with Conservation
Chilatherina lorentzi Regan, 1914 International around the Haya Village region (02º48.951’S
and 138º05.903’E) in the Mamberamo. Three species of
rainbowfishes were collected during these surveys which
Species Summary included Chilatherina fasciata, C. lorentzi and Glossolepis
Chilatherina lorentzi have a basic bluish body colour grading
multisquamata. G. multisquamata were found in the lake-
to silvery-blue ventrally and a broad darker blue midlateral
marsh habitats, C. fasciata were found in creeks near the
band, with clear to yellowish fins. They may attain a length of
village, and C. lorentzi was found in clear rocky streams
about 12 cm with a body depth of around 3–4 cm.
about 6 km from the village.

Type-locality: Tawarin River, northern New Guinea. Known
only from the Sermowai, Tawarin and Mamberamo Rivers on
the north coast of West Papua, and from Puive Creek, a
tributary of the Pual River, near Vanimo, Papua New Guinea in
1979. They were collected from slow-flowing stream that was
enclosed by dense rainforest. The bottom was covered entirely
with leaf litter. The fishes were confined in the deeper sections
of the stream in the vicinity of waterplants and debris.
Temperature 28° Celsius and pH 7.8.

Gerald Allen
Chilatherina pricei Distribution & Habitat
Allen and Renyaan, 1996 The Reifafeif River habitat is typical of numerous streams on
Price’s Rainbowfish Yapen Island, which no doubt are populated by this species.
Yapen Island is situated in Cenderawasih Bay (formerly Geelvink
Bay) off the northern coast of West Papua. It is a narrow, elongate
Species Summary (approximately 170 km long and up to 25 km wide) island with a
Chilatherina pricei is a small stream dwelling species, growing central spine of mountains which rise to a maximum elevation of
to a length of about 7 to 10 cm. They were described by Gerald 1500 metres, and was once part of the New Guinea mainland. It
R. Allen and Samuel J. Renyaan in 1996 on the basis of 23 has an area of approximately 2424 km2. The mountain range is
specimens collected in 1991 and 1995 from the Reifafeif River dissected by numerous independent drainage systems, such as the
near Warironi Village on Yapen Island, off the central north Reifafeif River. The streams rise in the steep mountains and
coast of West Papua. They are similar to C. fasciata from the plunge to a relatively narrow (3–5 km wide) coastal plain, which is
northern New Guinea mainland, but differ in colouration and the home of C. pricei and most other freshwater fishes on Yapen.
have a shorter, blunter snout with the maxillary reaching the The main channel of the Reifafeif River on the coastal plain is
level of the eye (falling well short of eye in C. fasciata). It is approximately 15–30 m wide and in non-flood periods averages
also similar to C. alleni from the Derewo and Wapoga river about 1–2 m in depth. Water temperatures and pH in July 1995
systems of West Papua, but lacks a prominent midlateral stripe ranged between 24.2°–26.4°C and 7.5–8.1. Progressing inland, the
and reddish fins (males), and differs in modal counts of soft river quickly narrows as it approaches the mountains and is
anal rays (usually 24–27 in C. pricei versus 19–24 in C. alleni), characterised by scenic rapids, waterfalls, and deep pools. C.
and number of cheek scales (usually 19–23 in C. pricei versus pricei is abundant in the main channel, usually over rock or
16–18 in C. alleni). boulder bottoms. It forms midwater aggregations that feed on
algae and small invertebrates, particularly insects. Although the
The body colour is overall silvery-grey to bluish; scales on back river flows through rainforest and gardens, it is generally open to
sometimes with golden or yellow margins, wider on upper and sunlight over the coastal plain. Melanotaenia japenensis is
lower edge of scale and forming a longitudinal yellow stripe sometimes found with C. pricei, but seems to be more common in
between each scale row. Scales on caudal peduncle sometimes smaller, shaded tributaries, rather than the main channel.
entirely yellow. About 5–10 dull grey to dark blue bars on lower
half of side between level of pelvic fin base and middle of anal fin;
some individuals have 2–6 small dark blue spots on mid-lateral Remarks
scale row or on scale row immediately above, on rear half of body. This species was named after David Price, in recognition of
Fins mainly translucent bluish, except dorsal and anal fins of his keen interest in the natural history of New Guinea. He
mature males often golden yellow. collected the type specimens of Chilatherina pricei.

Gerald Allen
Chilatherina sentaniensis near the Papua New Guinea border. The lake is divided into
three main sections with recorded depths of 7 to 52 metres.
(Weber, 1908) According to surveys in 1970-71, 1984 and 1987 the lake is
Sentani Rainbowfish
thermally unstratified, with surface temperatures of 29–32° and
pH 6.2–6.8. Rainbowfishes are generally found around the
Rhombatractus sentaniensis Weber, 1908
margins of the lake. Large numbers are found congregating
Chilatherina sentaniensis Regan, 1914
around submerged aquatic vegetation, fallen tree branches etc.
Species Summary Because of its proximity to the provincial capital Jayapura and
Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of the Chilatherina the large population around it, Sentani is no longer the pristine
genus is their deep, laterally compressed body that increases lake it once was. A survey by Samuel J. Renyaan in 1993
with age, particularly in males, and Chilatherina sentaniensis is recorded 33 species of fish, of which 13 were introduced.
no different. Their overall body colouration is silvery-blue or Surveys have shown an increase in introduced species but the
greenish on the upper back fading laterally to silverly orange. impact on the total fish population has not been documented.
They have a diffuse blue or green mid-lateral band and narrow Fish are extensively raised in ponds and cages around the
silver or light blue stripes between each horizontal scale rows. perimeter of the lake and the introduction of species
However, colour can be variable depending on captive (particularly carp and tilapia) has been both accidental and
conditions. Males are more brightly coloured, larger, and intentional.
deeper bodied than females. Males may reach a maximum size
of 12 cm, but females are usually less than 10 cm.
Remarks
Chilatherina sentaniensis was originally collected from Lake
Distribution & Habitat Sentani and the Sekanto River during the 1899–1900 Siboga
Chilatherina sentaniensis are endemic to Lake Sentani and its Expedition to the Dutch East Indies (West Papua). A large
tributaries streams. Lake Sentani is located some 10 kilometres collection of specimens were also obtained from the lake by
west of Jayapura at the NE extremity of West Papua. It is an Marinus Boeseman during a collecting expedition for the Leiden
irregularly shaped lake with approximate dimensions of 28 km Museum in 1954–1955.
(E-W) by 19 km (N-S) and a surface area of 104 km2. Its blue-
green waters are dotted with at least 16 small islands, and it is The lectotype of C. sentaniensis, preserved in the Amsterdam
surrounded by hillsides in the south and the Cyclops Mountains museum, shows a very long snout, which according to Gerald
in the north, which separate the lake from the Pacific Ocean. Allen, is an important distinguishing mark. In his 1982 book,
Lake Sentani is by far the largest of the West Papuan lakes and “Rainbowfishes of Australia and New Guinea” Allen showed C.
has a catchment area of about 600 km2. About 35 small rivers sentaniensis among the colour sketches, because he didn’t have any
flow into the lake, and there is one natural outlet in the south- photographs of live specimens.
eastern tip, via the Jafuri and Tami rivers to the Pacific Ocean

Photos: Christopher Mailliet
In 1982, live specimens of Chilatherina fasciata were collected This creek is nowadays heavily polluted by upstream mining
from the Jafuri River and during the 1980s and early 1990s they activities. In the last years, attempts to re-collect C. sentaniensis
were being distributed in the hobby as Chilatherina sentaniensis. from this creek have been unsuccessful. It hasn’t been found at
In his Field Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of New Guinea of any other location so far (J. Graf 2009, pers. comm.).
1991 Gerald Allen noted that probably all records of C. sentaniensis
in the aquarium literature related to C. fasciata varieties and that the
most recent collection of the true C. sentaniensis was made in 1954.
In yet another book, Rainbowfishes in Nature and in the
Aquarium, published in 1995, Gerald Allen showed a picture of a
live specimen, with the remarkably long snout, that was collected
in a small tributary stream flowing into the north-eastern end of
Lake Sentani in 1991. Several specimens were netted along with
Chilatherina fasciata and Glossolepis incisus. None of these
specimens however, were collected live for the aquarium hobby.
The “genuine” Chilatherina sentaniensis does however, exist in the

hobby and they have a much longer, more pointed head and usually
9–12 soft dorsal rays compared to 11–16 rays in Chilatherina
fasciata. Live specimens were collected from the lake in 1991 by
Charles Nishihira and distributed in the aquarium hobby. Specimens
were also collected from a small tributary stream in 2004 and 2005. Chilatherina sentaniensis: Dorsal spines: 5–7; Dorsal soft rays:
However, they have not been widely available and only a handful of 9–12; Anal spines: 1; Anal soft rays: 21–26. 22-27 scales in front
enthusiasts are maintaining them in captivity. of dorsal. 10–12 soft dorsal rays (Weber, 1922).
There is some concern that C. sentaniensis may not occur in Chilatherina fasciata: Dorsal spines: 5–8; Dorsal soft rays: 11–
Lake Sentani anymore, only in some of the feeder streams. The 16; Anal spines: 1; Anal soft rays: 21–28. 19–21 scales in front of
only currently known location is “Carwash Creek” which is dorsal. 13–16 soft dorsal rays (Weber, 1922)
crossed by the road from Sentani to Jayapura.

Buddy Jonkers
C. sentaniensis (male)
Buddy Jonkers
C. sentaniensis (female)
Gerald Allen
Grimé River
Glossolepis dorityi were evident. Fishes were most strongly congregated around
the outlet, where vegetation was very dense. G. dorityi was the
Allen, 2001 most abundant fish species and a second rainbowfish, C.
fasciata was also common. The body colouration of this C.
Species Summary fasciata variety is mostly an orange to mauve and shows a
Glossolepis dorityi males have a body colour that is generally golden luminescent nuptial stripe on their forehead which is
greenish with silvery reflections on the back, nape, and side of switched on and off during spawning.
head. They have a dull orange or bronze stripe between each
scale row of upper half of body; red-orange stripe between
each scale row of lower half of body, especially prominent Remarks
during courtship activities. Fins greenish to translucent, but Dan Dority and David Price collected Glossolepis dorityi in
with pinkish or red-orange hue on ventrals and basal half of April 2000. Heiko Bleher found this species in May 1999 in
anal and second dorsal. Female generally greenish with silvery Lake Nenggwambu, but was unable to collect any specimens.
reflections and lacking orange or red-orange stripes between However, in a nearby lake (Lake Jaigum) he collected specimens
scale rows. Males generally possess a deeper body and have of the same species. Unfortunately only two males survived the
elongated posterior rays on the dorsal and anal fins. Males journey back to Europe. He returned in November of the same
may reach a maximum size of 10 cm, but females are usually year - but once again was unsuccessful in collecting specimens.
less than 8 cm SL. This species is named “dorityi” in honour However, during his third journey, at the end of 2000, he
of Dan Dority for his efforts in collecting the type specimens. succeeded in catching six adult specimens. He also collected
more specimens from Lake Jaigum. He eventually returned to
Europe with four males and one female. Further live specimens
Distribution & Habitat were collected in 2008 by Dan Dority, Gary Lange and Johannes
Glossolepis dorityi is currently known only from the Grimé Graf. Specimens from both lakes are currently available in the
River region of northern West Papua. The area was formerly hobby.
known by the Dutch administrators as the Nimboran (Grimé)
Plain. It is located roughly 50 kilometres west of Lake Sentani. The rainbowfishes in Lake Nenggwambu are in serious danger
of extinction due to the introduction of predatory fishes such as
The type locality consists of a small round lake (Lake Channa striata and Cyprinus carpio. The formerly crystal-clear
Nenggwambu or Lake Kali Biru). There is a vigorously flowing water is now muddy and dark brown. Water plants (Ottelia sp.)
outlet stream, but no apparent inlet, indicative of a subterranean are completely gone. G. dorityi and C. fasciata are also heavily
connection with neighbouring lakes via the limestone substratum. infested with Lernaea sp. (anchor worms) due to the introduction
Water was relatively clear and maximum depth was estimated to of the exotic fish species. The population of G. dorityi in Lake
be at least 10–15 m. The lake is surrounded by secondary forest Jaigum is now thought to no longer exist in the lake (J. Graf
and aquatic plants were abundant, but relatively few species 2009, pers. comm.).

Gary Lange
Lake Jaigum
▼ Lake Nenggwambu
Gary Lange

Neil Armstrong
Glossolepis incisus
Weber, 1907
Salmon-Red Rainbowfish
Species Summary Distribution & Habitat

Female Glossolepis incisus have a yellowish olive body colour Glossolepis incisus are found only in Lake Sentani. Lake
with a golden iridescence to the scales, and clear fins. The males Sentani is located some 10 kilometres west of Jayapura at
on the other hand are brilliant, the entire body and fins are a bright the NE extremity of West Papua. It is an irregularly shaped
salmon-red colour. Some of the scales have a silvery sheen, which lake with approximate dimensions of 28 km (E-W) by 19
creates a most unusual effect over the red background colour. km (N-S) and a surface area of 104 km2. Its blue-green
Young fish are all rather dull in colour, being an overall olive waters are dotted with at least 16 small islands, and it is
greenish colour with a trace of silvery sheen. However, once the surrounded by hillsides in the south and the Cyclops
fish reach a length of 4 to 5 cm the males begin to colour up. Once Mountains in the north, which separate the lake from the
the colour change begins to occur it progresses quite rapidly. By Pacific Ocean. Lake Sentani is by far the largest of the West
the time the fish are 7 to 8 cm long the males should have their full Papuan lakes and has a catchment area of about 600 km2.
intense red colouration. Males are typically deeper bodied than About 35 small rivers flow into the lake, and there is one
females and have a high rounded back which gives them the natural outlet in the south-eastern tip, via the Jafuri and
appearance of having a relatively small head and disproportionately Tami rivers to the Pacific Ocean near the Papua New
large eyes. Males may reach a maximum size of 15 cm, but females Guinea border. The lake is divided into three main sections
are usually less than 12 cm. with recorded depths of 7 to 52 metres. According to
surveys in 1970-71, 1984 and 1987 the lake is thermally
Glossolepis differ from other melanotaeniids by a combination of unstratified, with surface temperatures of 29–32° and pH
characters which includes distinctly crenulate scale margins, a high gill 6.2–6.8. Rainbowfishes are generally found around the
raker count, spine at the beginning of the second dorsal fin taller than margins of the lake. Large numbers are found congregating
first spine of first dorsal fin, relatively elongate pectoral fins, a unique around submerged aquatic vegetation, fallen tree branches
premaxillary dentition and characteristic profile of the head, nape, and etc.
dorsal and anal fins.

Neil Armstrong
Male and Female
Remarks
Glossolepis incisus was originally collected from Lake Sentani during the 1899~1900 Siboga Expedition to the Dutch East
Indies (West Papua). The discovery and collection of rainbowfishes in remote places in New Guinea has always been very
difficult and it wasn’t until 1973 before live specimens of this species were collected. In 1973, A. Werner, Jr. of Munich, and
E. Frech of Memmingen, Germany collected live specimens during a collecting trip to Java, Celebes, and West Papua. They
took a number of colourful fishes back to Europe, including Glossolepis incisus. Werner and Frech are also credited with the
introduction of another beautiful and appealing rainbowfish to the aquarium hobby - Iriatherina werneri. Glossolepis incisus
came into the Australian hobby in 1977.
Comparison of certain characters for Glossolepis pseudoincisus and G. incisus

Character G. pseudoincisus G. incisus
Horizontal scale rows 12-16 16-20
Vertical scale rows 38-43 50-60
Predorsal scales 27-34 (x = 31, N = 39) 30-36 (x = 36, N = 13)
Preopercle scales 21-29 (x = 25, N = 39) 26-38 (x = 31, N = 13)
Predorsal-Preanal distance Predorsal > Preanal Predorsal < Preanal
Pectoral fin colour uniformly pale outer portion dusky brown
Pelvic fin colour mainly pale mainly dusky brown

Johannes Graf
Glossolepis kabia Distribution & Habitat
(Herre, 1935) Glossolepis kabia is found in the Sepik and Ramu river
Sepik Rainbowfish systems in New Guinea. They are found in floodplains and
swampy lagoons, lakes, and small tributary streams. It is the
Melanotaenia kabia Herre, 1935 only rainbowfish that is abundant in the extensive floodplain
Melanotaenia rosacea Herre, 1935 regions of the Sepik River. They are usually found where there
Lomanetia multisquamata Whitley, 1936 is an abundance of aquatic vegetation in moderate turbid to
Glossolepis multisquamatus Allen, 1980 clear, still to slow-flowing water. Young fish form aggregations
around submerged logs and branches or among reeds and other
shoreline vegetation.
Species Summary
Glossolepis kabia have an overall body colouration of greenish
The Sepik River (formerly known as the Kaiserin Augusta
or olive to silvery with a rosy glow across the sides. There is a
River) is the second largest river in Papua New Guinea (PNG).
series of narrow orange stripes between each scale row and the
The river is about 1100 kilometres long with a catchment area
fins are usually clear or greenish but sometimes nearly black.
of approximately 80,000 km2. It is the largest river system in
They may reach a maximum size of 12 cm, but are usually less
PNG in terms of catchment area, but has a lower discharge
than 10 cm. Most fish collected have been within the range 6-
than the Fly River. Biologically, the region holds some of the
10 cm. Adults become very deep bodied especially the males
most diverse and least described ecosystems on Earth, and is
(6-8 cm), although this difference is not obvious in young
probably the largest uncontaminated freshwater wetland
adults less than about 6 cm SL. The orange stripes on the sides
system in the Asia-Pacific region. There are no large mining
are brighter in mature males and their dorsal and anal fin
projects, no industrial plants and no large timber extraction
membranes often have a silvery to yellow sheen. Named kabia,
projects operating within the region and, compared to other
from kabi, the native name at Koragu.
areas of New Guinea, much of the area has a low rate of
population growth.
The original description described their living colours as dusky
silvery above, the lower half with alternate vertical stripes of
The Sepik begins in the Victor Emanuel Range in the central
golden orange or deep orange and silver or steely blue, with an
highlands. It leaves the mountains abruptly near Yapsei on the
orange band at the caudal base. The top of the snout and
border with West Papua where it becomes a strongly braided
interorbital are black, the opercles and preopercles silvery with
channel flowing in a north-westerly, then northerly direction.
yellow or golden. The fins are more or less dusky in some, in
Turning east it follows the great Central Depression, receiving
others the membranes of the dorsal and anal are orange, wholly
numerous tributaries draining from the Bewani and Torricelli
or only basally, the rays and outer part blackish.

Neil Armstrong
Mountains in the north and the Central Range in the south great central depression, where it receives numerous
before entering the Bismarck Sea. For most of its lower streams draining the Bismarck (south) and Finisterre and
course the river meanders through a wilderness of swamps Adelbert (north) ranges. For the last 100 km of its
and lagoons with large floating islands of vegetation. approximately 720-kilometre long course, it flows directly
north. This swampy portion receives the river's principal
The water temperature at lower elevations on the Sepik tributary, the Sogeram River. The Ramu enters the
River usually remains within the range 27–29°C. It is Bismarck Sea just 32 km southeast of the mouth of the
thought that average temperatures in the Sepik tributaries Sepik. The lower reaches of the Sepik and Ramu rivers are
stay relatively low at lower altitudes than in most equatorial now inter-connected by numerous channels that pass
regions. This is partly due to the unusual topography of the through an area of low-lying alluvium. The freshwater
basin in which lowland swamps are surrounded on most ichthyofaunas of the Sepik and Ramu basins are very
sides by relatively steep mountains resulting in cooler water similar, although there is a modest degree of species
being transported rapidly into the lowlands. Secondly, the endemicity in both regions.
degree of riparian shade covering feeder streams and rivers
is pronounced in the Sepik in comparison with many other
regions which have lost much of their vegetative cover Biology
through human activity. Surface water temperature Glossolepis kabia generally become sexually mature at
commonly varies between 28°C and 35°C, and the bottom about 6 cm (females) and 7 cm (males). Individuals with
waters between 24.8°C and 30°C. Conductivity levels in the either ripe or spent gonads are rarely found below this size,
Sepik are high (110–250 µS/cm) although this is most likely which is relatively large compared with most rainbowfishes.
related to hardness and dissolved organic matter, rather than Males and females in spawning condition have been found
to nutrients. The Sepik water chemistry is dominated by throughout the wet and dry seasons indicating that Glossolepis
calcium and bicarbonate ions. In the Middle Sepik water kabia breed all year round. However, fish in spawning
conditions were reported as conductivity 103–125 µS/cm condition was significantly lower in the dry season in both
and total hardness 45–56 mg CaCO3; slightly acidic pH and sexes which suggests a reduced reproductive rate at that
low alkalinity. Seasonal of the lakes have different water time. The dry season is defined as May to October and the
chemistry. wet season as November to April.
Formerly called the Ottilien River, the Ramu is one of the The reproductive capacity of Glossolepis kabia is considered to
longest rivers in Papua New Guinea, rising in the southeast be high compared with most other Sepik River fish species
on the Kratke Range and flowing northwest through the spawning in freshwater. Fecundity in Glossolepis kabia is

perhaps twice that of equivalent sized, stream dwelling, Heiko Bleher had collected this form a couple of times and
Melanotaenia fluviatilis. One factor increasing fecundity in reported that in his opinion they are quite different from the
Glossolepis kabia is egg size which is much lower than reported Sepik/Ramu form. However, the specimens collected from the
for other rainbowfish species. Most rainbowfishes have egg Mamberamo River are the true G. multisquamata.
diameters of greater than 1.0 mm and up to 2.0 mm. The eggs
of Glossolepis kabia (0.69 ± 0.052 mm) are, therefore, between The Mamberamo River specimens are quite different, but the
about 4% and 35% of the size of eggs from other species on a most obvious difference is they have quite large anal fins,
volume basis. Reduced egg size results in a much higher which are reminiscent of G. wanamensis. They also have a
fecundity than occurs in stream dwelling rainbowfish species. really bright red eye too which seems somewhat unique in
rainbows (P. J. Unmack 2009, pers. comm.). These species
The diet of Glossolepis kabia appears similar to observations were bred and distributed in Australia under the common name
on other species of rainbowfish and the species exhibits little of “Red-eyed Tiger Rainbowfish”. In Europe, they were
feeding specialisation within this group. A similar diet has been generally known as Glossolepis sp. (Mamberamo). The fish
recorded for four other species of rainbowfishes which inhabit from the Mamberamo River system are G. multisquamata
the Sepik River streams. This generalised feeding habit is also while those from the Sepik-Ramu River system are considered
confirmed for several Australian rainbowfishes and one species as G. kabia.
from the Fly River in southern Papua New Guinea. They are
carnivorous, feeding predominantly on a wide variety of small Additional live specimens of G. Kabia were collected by Kent
invertebrates taken mainly from mid-water or from the water Webster in 2002 from Paro Village in the middle Sepik River
surface. The percentage of insect larvae and insects from region and introduced to the aquarium hobby.
terrestrial sources increase slightly in the wet season, with
reductions in the percentage of these and slight increases in the
percentage of crustaceans, detritus and ‘other material’ in the
dry season. Food intake increases during the wet season and
decreases during the dry season.
Remarks
Glossolepis kabia was originally collected during the Crane
Pacific Expedition in May, 1929. The Crane Pacific Expedition
was sponsored by Cornelius Crane for the Field Museum in
Chicago, USA. The expedition left Boston on November 16,
1928, in the yacht Illyria and spent January to May 1929
visiting a variety of countries and island groups in the Pacific
Sepik River Habitat
region, including the Marquesas, Tahiti, Fiji, Vanuatu (then the
New Hebrides), New Britain and New Guinea. Their longest
stay was in northern Papua New Guinea, where they sailed up
the Sepik River and stopped at several villages and mission
stations, then continued on up the May River, visiting two or
three more villages. On their return, they look a short detour to
the Keram River then revisited a few settlements on the Sepik.
Very few fish were obtained but many of those collected were
new. Among the fish collected were some rainbowfishes, later
described by Albert W. Herre as Melanotaenia kabia, M. rosacea,
and Rhombosoma sepikensis. The type specimens of Glossolepis
kabia were collected from the Sepik River at Nyaurangai,
about 300 kilometres from the sea. Additional specimens were
also collected at Koragu and the Kerame River.
In 1979, Gerald Allen collected a number of live rainbowfishes

while collecting in the Sepik-Ramu River region, and brought
them back to Australia where they were subsequently bred and
distributed in the hobby. He later identified them as Glossolepis
multisquamatus. Heiko Bleher also collected live specimens
from the same area and another collection near the Ramu River
and took them back to Europe. However, it is thought that none
of these fish still remain in captivity.
In 1992, Heiko Bleher collected a number of Glossolepis

specimens from the Mamberamo River area in West Papua. It
was unclear whether these specimens represented an undescribed
species or perhaps just a colour variation of G. multisquamata.

Jim Tait
Glossolepis kabia [Ramu River]
Gary Lange
Glossolepis kabia (Paro Village) [Sepik River]

Photos: Gerald Allen
Glossolepis leggetti
Allen and Renyaan, 1998
Leggett's Rainbowfish
Species Summary
Glossolepis leggetti was described from 79 specimens
collected in 1998. The males have a body colouration that is
iridescent green on the back, dull orange to whitish on the
breast and lower sides. A diffused blue midlateral band, its
colouration most intense posteriorly and bordered
immediately below by narrower stripe of light metallic blue.
Sides with scattered dark blur flecks or narrow bars. Fins
generally translucent although dorsal and anal may be Distribution & Habitat
bluish, particularly in adult males. Females are basically the Glossolepis leggetti is currently known only from the
same colour, but less ornate with a narrow midlateral stripe Wapoga River system of northern New Guinea. They were
and with the dark flecks and narrow bars on the side found in relatively clear, quiet pools of the Tiawiwa River, a
considerably reduced. May reach a maximum size of 10 cm, major tributary of the Wapoga, in the vicinity of Siewa
but usually less than 8 cm SL. airstrip. They were found together in the Tiawiwa River
with Chilatherina alleni and Melanotaenia rubripinnis, but
Glossolepis leggetti is most closely related to Glossolepis unlike these species which are most abundant in shallow
kabia from the Ramu, Sepik, and Mamberamo river systems relatively rapid sections, it favours deeper pools, with
of northern New Guinea. The two species are similar in minimal flow.
general appearance and coloration, although Glossolepis
kabia usually lacks scattered dark markings on the side of Remarks
the body, which are typical of G. leggetti. Moreover, G. Glossolepis leggetti was named ‘leggetti’ in honour of Ray
leggetti usually has a higher number of soft dorsal rays and Leggett of Brisbane, Queensland in recognition of his
fewer predorsal scales (18–23 versus 24–31). In addition, contributions to the knowledge of freshwater fishes of the
males (in excess of 50 mm SL) of G. leggetti are generally Australian-New Guinea region. This species is not currently
more slender than those of G. kabia. available in the aquarium hobby.

Neil Armstrong
Glossolepis maculosus Oomsis River about 22 km west of Lae, Papua New Guinea.
He collected a small number of live specimens and returned to
Allen, 1981 Australia. He later sent a coloured drawing of the fish to Gerry
Spotted Rainbowfish
Allen at the Western Australian Museum in Perth who
confirmed that he had collected a new species of rainbowfish.
Species Summary A year later Gerry Allen returned to this location with Barry
Glossolepis maculosus males have an overall body colour of and collected several more live fish, which were later bred and
greenish-bronze with faint pale-blue reflective scales and a distributed in the Australian hobby. Some years later Heiko
series of dark spots or blotches along the lateral line. These Bleher collected a small number of live specimens from the
may number from 4 to 10 but can vary considerably. Each Ramu River valley and introduced them to the European
individual has its own pattern of distinctive spots along the hobby. They have been found cohabiting with Glossolepis
sides. Even the left and right sides of each individual can be kabia, Melanotaenia affinis, and Chilatherina campsi.
differently marked. Below the lateral line the body colour is
whitish anteriorly and yellowish posteriorly. Fins are bluey- Glossolepis maculosus are a stream dwelling species and
green with a slight hint of orange and black margins. The inhabit slow-flowing streams, swamps, and quiet backwaters.
colouration of the female is drab compared to the male, but Occurs most frequently in relatively still, clear water, in water
they still show distinct spots, but otherwise are pale olive with temperatures between 18–28° Celsius. Water conditions
a silvery belly. Mature, older females often show colouration recorded at one collecting site were temperature 25° Celsius,
similar to subordinate males, but are usually easily identified pH 7.8 and hardness 80 ppm. They are usually found along
by a shallower body/chest depth and smaller, more rounded fin grassy banks, or around sub-surface vegetation, submerged
edges. Mature males are usually much larger and deeper logs, and branches.
bodied than females and have a higher first dorsal fin, which
overlaps the origin of the second dorsal fin when depressed. Remarks
Glossolepis maculosus may reach a maximum size of 8 cm, but Glossolepis maculosus have never been widely available
usually less than 6 cm. and even today could still be considered uncommon. Only a
handful of enthusiasts are maintaining them in captivity.
Due to the small number of founding stock collected, the
Distribution & Habitat colouration of specimens in captivity has changed over the
Glossolepis maculosus are so far only known from a few years. Nevertheless, they are still a very attractive species
localities in the Markham, Ramu and Sepik river systems of and if someone is willing to spend some time with them,
northern Papua New Guinea. Initially discovered and collected they could end up with a beautiful aquarium fish.
by Barry Crockford during 1979, in a small tributary of the

Gunther Schmida
Lake Kli
Glossolepis multisquamata system in West Papua. They were originally collected from the
Idenburg River (= Taritatu River) in the Mamberamo region by
(Weber and de Beaufort, 1922) the Dutch zoologist and explorer W. C. van Heurn in 1920.
Mamberamo Rainbowfish
They were also collected from the Doorman River, a major
tributary of the Taritatu.
Melanotaenia multisquamata Weber & de Beaufort, 1922
Glossolepis multisquamatus Allen, 1980
The Mamberamo region is not well-studied but possesses a
Glossolepis multisquamata Eschmeyer, 1998
wealth of biodiversity. The first scientific fish collections from
the Mamberamo were made by van Heurn in 1920-21. These
Species Summary collections were mainly described by Weber and de Beaufort
Glossolepis multisquamata have an overall body colouration of (1911–1962). There have been some other expeditions; 1938–
olive-green to silvery with a rosy glow across the sides. There is 1939 (Archbold expedition) and Gerald Allen did some
a series of narrow orange-red lines between each scale row and surveys in this area. Several locations within the Mamberamo
the fins are usually clear, greenish-yellow with a hint of red, or catchment, including Danau Biru, Obogwi, Faui, Kordesi,
sometimes nearly black. The orange-red lines on the sides are Dabra, Nevere, and Senggi were surveyed by Gerald Allen
much brighter in mature males giving the body an overall between 1982 and 1991.
reddish colour. Males also have a bright red eye. They may
reach a maximum size of 14 cm, but are usually around 10–12 The Mamberamo River (also called Tarikaikea) is the largest in
cm. Most fish collected have been within the range 6–10 cm. northern West Papua, draining a catchment that encompasses
Adults become very deep bodied especially the males (6–8 cm), all northward flowing streams descending from the New
although this difference is not obvious in young adults less than Guinea central mountains between the Papua New Guinea
about 6 cm SL. border and approximately 137° west longitude. The source of
the river is formed from the confluences of its upper tributaries,
the Tariku, Van Daalen and Taritatu Rivers. The Tariku River
Distribution & Habitat (previously known as the Rouffaer River) in the west flows
Glossolepis multisquamata is currently found in lakes, slow- eastward and the Taritatu River (previously known as the
flowing streams and backwaters of the Mamberamo River Idenburg River) in the east flows roughly westward. They meet

Neil Armstrong
Mamberamo River “Red-eyed Tiger Rainbowfish”
in the Meervlakte Basin to form the main Mamberamo River. Heiko Bleher had collected this form a couple of times and
Extensive inland swamps surround the Taritatu and Tariku reported that in his opinion they were quite different from
rivers in the central depression of the Lakes-Plains province. the Sepik/Ramu form (H. Bleher pers. comm.). These species
Beyond the confluence of Tariku and Taritatu, the Mamberamo were bred and distributed in Australia under the common name
flows abruptly northwards 175 km through the Van Rees of “Red-eyed Tiger Rainbowfish”. In Europe, they were
Range to reach the lowland marshes of its broad river delta on generally known as Glossolepis sp. (Mamberamo).
the coast at Cape D'Urville on the northeast margin of
Cenderawasih Bay. The Mamberamo River has a total length Around 1993, Heiko Bleher collected another rainbowfish
of about 1000 km; the Taritatu is about 467 km long; the from Lake Kli in the Mamberamo valley. It is generally known
Tariku 327 km; and the Mamberamo itself is about 283 km in the hobby as Glossolepis sp. (Lake Kli) or as the Fringefin
long. Rainbowfish. Since then there has been a number of
collections by individual aquarists and some of these forms
are currently available in the hobby.
Remarks
Gerald Allen collected a number of live rainbowfishes in 1979, As it turns out, the specimens from the Mamberamo region are
while collecting in the Sepik-Ramu River region, and brought the true Glossolepis multisquamata while those from the
them back to Australia where they were subsequently bred and Sepik-Ramu River system are considered to be Glossolepis
distributed in the hobby. He later identified them as Glossolepis kabia. The Mamberamo River specimens are quite different,
multisquamatus. Heiko Bleher also collected live specimens but the most obvious difference is they have quite large anal
from the same area and another collection near the Ramu River fins, which are reminiscent of Glossolepis wanamensis. They
and took them back to Europe. However, it is thought that none also have a really bright red eye which seems somewhat unique
of these fish still remain in captivity. in rainbows (P. J. Unmack 2009, pers. comm.).
Heiko Bleher also collected a number of Glossolepis specimens Additional live specimens were collected and introduced
from the Mamberamo region in 1992. It was unclear whether into the aquarium hobby in 2009.
these specimens represented an undescribed species or perhaps
just a colour variation of G. multisquamata.

Johannes Graf
Specimen collected from Pagai in the upper Taritatu River (Mamberamo)
Christophe Mailliet
Lake Kli “Fringefin Rainbowfish”

Johannes Graf
Glossolepis pseudoincisus G. pseudoincisus is most closely related to G. incisus. They
differ from the other members of the genus by possessing more
Allen and Cross, 1980 gill rakers on the first arch (26–32 vs. 19–23) and by having
Tami River Rainbowfish
more pronounced crenulations on the scale margins. These
species differ from one another on the basis of the characters
Species Summary presented in Fig. 1.
From October 1954 through to May 1955 Marinus Boeseman
took part in a collecting expedition for the Rijksmuseum van
Natuurlijke Historie to Netherlands New Guinea (West Papua). Distribution & Habitat
His task was to provide a thorough knowledge of the fish fauna Specimens of G. pseudoincisus were collected by Boeseman in
by intensively surveying as many rivers and lakes as was November, 1954 in an ox-bow lake of the Tami River, about
possible. This task was taken to heart and in a relatively short 30 kilometres to the east of Lake Sentani. They are also known
period many localities were visited, resulting in a rich from Lake Ifaten, Lake Iwom and Lake Yaniruk. The species
collection for the museum in Leiden. Among the places he was named ‘pseudoincisus’ with references to its similar
visited was Lake Sentani, Tami River, Biak Island, Lake appearance and geographic proximity to G. incisus.
Jamoer (Yamur), Wissel Lakes, Ajamaroe (Ayamaru) Lakes,
Lake Aytinjo, Merauke and the Digul River. This collection
included many rainbowfishes, but a thorough study of this
material or descriptions of any new species was never made by Remarks
Boeseman. Gerald Allen and Heiko Bleher went looking for this species in
1982, but were not able to find it. However, in January 2001,
As part of his preparation for the revision of the rainbowfish Heiko collected some Glossolepis species from Lake Ifaten, an
family, Gerald Allen studied the Boeseman collection of 1954– isolated crater lake situated in the mountains near Lake Sentani
55 during 1975 and 1977. He discovered no less than four new in West Papua. Lake Ifaten is about 300 metres above sea
rainbowfish species, which he described in 1980 together with level. The lake has a diameter of around 250 metres. Water
Norbert Cross. These species were Melanotaenia boesemani, temperature 28°C, pH 9.0.
M. ajamaruensis, M. japenensis and Glossolepis pseudoincisus.

Distribution map of known locations of Glossolepis pseudoincisus [Johannes Graf]
Fig. 1
Comparison of certain characters for Glossolepis pseudoincisus and G. incisus

Character G. pseudoincisus G. incisus
Horizontal scale rows 12-16 16-20
Vertical scale rows 38-43 50-60
Predorsal scales 27-34 (x = 31, N = 39) 30-36 (x = 36, N = 13)
Preopercle scales 21-29 (x = 25, N = 39) 26-38 (x = 31, N = 13)
Predorsal-Preanal distance Predorsal > Preanal Predorsal < Preanal
Pectoral fin colour uniformly pale outer portion dusky brown
Pelvic fin colour mainly pale mainly dusky brown

Photos: Buddy Jonkers
Only five specimens (4 males/1 female) survived
the long journey back to Europe. The fish look
similar to G. incisus, but the scales are different
(they’re smaller and differently aligned).
The Lake Ifaten rainbowfish is not as big as G.

incisus; the body shape is more compact; the red
coloration is more intense and the fin marking and
shape is more pronounced. Also the Lake Ifaten
rainbowfish shows colour after three month of age
(G. incisus needs nearly a year before they show
proper colours). At the age of four months and
with a body size of hardly more than 4 cm, they
showed the full colour (H. Bleher, pers. comm.).
The Lake Ifaten Rainbowfish has a very typical

Glossolepis head. Very prominent at an age of one
year, are the marks on the gill plate. A unique
pattern of red lines that - so it appears - are
drifting criss-cross. The females of the Lake Ifaten
Rainbowfish are differently coloured. They have
strong horizontal zigzagging yellow stripe
colouration across the whole body. They also
remain small - up to 6 cm total length.

Photos: Arsène Schneider
▲▼ Glossolepis pseudoincisus (Lake Yaniruk)
Silke Prinage
Christopher Mailliet
Glossolepis ramuensis
Allen, 1985
Ramu Rainbowfish
Species Summary
Glossolepis ramuensis was described on the basis of a
single male specimen, found in October 1983 in a tributary
of the Ramu River, about three kilometres south of Walium
Village in northern Papua New Guinea. Further specimens
were collected in 1987. Males are greenish-brown to
purplish on the back and white or mauve on the lower half.
There are several narrow orange horizontal lines on the
sides; those on the middle above and below the midlateral
band are the most vivid. Mature males are usually much G. ramuensis inhabit small freshwater streams flowing through
larger and deeper bodied than females and have a higher rainforest. The streams generally have clear water, a gravel
first dorsal fin, which overlaps the origin of the second bottom, and very few aquatic plants. Temperature and pH
dorsal fin when depressed. Similar to G. maculosus, young ranges from 26–29° Celsius and pH 7.4–7.9. It is sometimes
G. ramuensis also show a pattern of small spots on the found together with Chilatherina campsi and Melanotaenia
sides, which disappears with ageing. G. ramuensis may affinis.
reach a maximum size of 10 cm, but are usually less than 8
cm. Spawning occurs from October to December, with
females producing between 50–100 eggs. Remarks
Live specimens were collected for the aquarium hobby from
the Gogol River in 1988 by Heiko Bleher. Glossolepis
Distribution & Habitat ramuensis have never been widely available and are still
Known only from the Ramu Valley and tributaries of the considered as uncommon. Only a handful of enthusiasts are
Gogol River near Madang, Papua New Guinea. maintaining them in captivity.

Johannes Graf
Denise Bowen
Gogol River

Neil Armstrong
Glossolepis wanamensis The temperature and pH recorded at the lake was 28°
Celsius and pH 7.0–7.8. Lake Wanum is a freshwater lake
Allen and Kailola, 1979 centred on 6° 38’S and 146° 47’E, and located in the
Lake Wanam Rainbowfish
vicinity of Mount Ngaroneno, at the southern margin of the
lower Markham Valley, near Oomsis, Morobe Province
about 25 km inland from the Huon Gulf. It has an irregular
Species Summary outline and, with a maximum width of about 3 km, is the
Generally, the body colour of adult male Glossolepis largest of a number of lakes and swamps in the vicinity.
wanamensis is an overall greenish colour with a rosy flush
on the breast. The anterior scale rows below the lateral line As there is no permanent stream inflow into the lake much
are marked with narrow orange lines becoming green or of its water is derived by precipitation directly onto the lake
bluish towards the tail. The upper half of the body often surface. The lake has a maximum depth of around 19
shows a metallic green colouration. The anal fin of the male metres, and is subject to seasonal fluctuations in level. The
is very large and elongated reaching a depth of nearly 3 cm. only outflow of the lake is a small channel in the extreme
Females are generally a dull greenish colour, have shorter south-west corner of the basin that runs into Oomsis Creek.
fins and rather drab compared to the males. Males are easily This flows only intermittently and often dries out
distinguished from females by their brighter colours and the completely in the dry season when the level of the lake
extremely large anal fin. Males may reach a maximum size becomes lower. This channel also serves as an inflow when
of 10 cm, but females are usually less than 8 cm. With a the creek is in flood. Oomsis Creek is the only permanent
body depth of 4–5 cm, adults become very deep bodied watercourse in this locality but it too may cease flowing
especially the males. under seasonal conditions of sustained dry weather.
Distribution & Habitat Remarks

Glossolepis wanamensis has only been found in Lake Lake Wanum is home to two rainbowfishes, Glossolepis
Wanam. They were collected in shallow, clear, sunlit water wanamensis and Chilatherina fasciata. G. wanamensis was
around sub-surface vegetation, submerged logs, and first collected by C. Ellway in 1975 but it wasn’t until 1979
branches, or among reeds and other shoreline vegetation. that they were scientifically described. This followed their

(Female)
(Male)
Photos: Leo O’Reilly

collection by Gerald Allen and Brian Parkinson in October
Leo O’Reilly
1978. Brian Parkinson had previously collected specimens
there and sent them to Patricia Kailola, then working for the
Fisheries Department at Port Moresby. Fifty-five specimens of
Glossolepis wanamensis and four specimens of Chilatherina
fasciata were collected. After just two days there were only
five survivors and of these only two made it back to Australia.
Barry Crockford brought more live specimens to Australia in
1980. Five survived, which included 2 females. A year later
further live specimens were collected. The fish collected on
these two trips formed the breeding stock of all Glossolepis
wanamensis in Australia to the present day. Water conditions
at the time were reported as pH 7.6, temperature 28ºC and
hardness 80 ppm.
In 1992, Heiko Bleher collected live specimens from the lake

and introduced them to the European hobby. He again
collected in 1994 and reported that “An exhaustive search
produced just one small group of rainbowfishes, adults 2-3 It was thought that during a severe El Niño drought in 1997,
years old, seven males and a single elderly female. No when water levels fell by 11.2 metres, it caused a massive fish
juveniles, no eggs. The water was murky from surface to kill in the lake. Apparently dead fish were floating everywhere
substrate, with tilapias as far as the eye could see.” He returned and thick on the shoreline. G. wanamensis are known to
in 1995 and noted that Tilapia infestation of the Lake had withstand high temperatures and perhaps this event allowed the
increased even further and only two very old male specimens population to recover temporarily. However this fluctuation in
were collected. He reported in Aqua Geõgraphia (1998), that population numbers did highlight the vulnerability of this
Glossolepis wanamensis was becoming extinct in the Lake. It species and it was decided to establish a separate breeding
was thought that the introduction of carp, tilapia, and gambusia population at the Rainforest Habitat in Lae.
may have caused this drastic and worrying reduction in
numbers. Oreochromis mossambica were introduced into the About eighty G. wanamensis were collected from Lake Wanum.
lake by the Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries Oomsis Creek was also surveyed and about twenty Chilatherina
reportedly during 1966, and their increasing population may campsi were collected. Both collections were taken back to the
have made some impact on the lake’s ecosystem. Rainforest Habitat. G. wanamensis did not travel well and
some losses occurred. The fish were placed into a tank and
During the 1998 ANGFA Convention in Brisbane, discussions treated with medication. C. campsi travelled better and most of
were held with Heiko Bleher about the situation at Lake these were released directly into the ponds at the Rainforest
Wanum and it was decided that further survey work would Habitat. The following day the fish seemed to have improved,
need to be undertaken. It was felt that the endemic Lake but more losses occurred (mostly females). About ten G.
Wanum rainbowfish was in such low numbers as to cause wanamensis were released into a pond in the Butterfly House
concern for its future in the wild. Matt Vincent and Gary Slater and these improved dramatically so it was decided to select the
from the Melbourne Zoo travelled to PNG to discuss the best and fittest females from the tank and place these in that
problem with Peter Clarke, Director of the Rainforest Habitat pond. It appeared at the time that the pond fish were surviving
in Lae. These discussions led to the setting up of a tripartite and that a breeding colony would be achieved.
agreement between ANGFA, Melbourne Zoo and the
Rainforest Habitat. These three bodies formed the Lake The Rainforest Habitat began operations in 1994 on a ten-
Wanum Management Project on 21 December 1998. hectare section of the University of Technology campus in Lae,
Papua New Guinea. The Rainforest Habitat and its sister
An extensive survey of Lake Wanum was undertaken in June company the Insect Farming and Trading Agency are both
of 1999. The results of this survey can be found in Fishes of operated by the University of Technology as self-funding
Sahul 13(3): 621-629. This survey found that Glossolepis community development initiatives. Today the Rainforest
wanamensis were in reasonably large numbers in the lake, but Habitat is maintaining populations of three rainbowfish
that the Chilatherina fasciata found in the lake on previous species: Glossolepis wanamensis, Melanotaenia affinis and
collecting trips had all but disappeared. Despite extensive Chilatherina campsi.
sampling of areas known to contain hundreds of specimens in
the past, not a single fish was collected. However, among all The current situation in Lake Wanum and its rainbowfish
the G. wanamensis collected only two juvenile specimens were inhabitants is unknown. Very little information on the lake and
noted. The remainder of the G. wanamensis were approximately the health of its ecosystem is available. However, small captive
two years of age. The survey team noted small groups of fry but populations of G. wanamensis and C. fasciata from Lake
was concerned by the low numbers within these groups Wanum still exist in Australia and internationally.
(approx 20 specimens).

Dave Wilson
Mirrngatja [Arafura Swamp, Northern Territory]
Iriatherina werneri Iriatherina werneri may grow to a maximum size of 5 cm, but
are more commonly seen at around 3–4 cm. Mature males have
Meinken, 1974 a first dorsal fin that is fan shaped, while the second dorsal fin
Threadfin Rainbowfish
has exceptionally long filaments. The anal fin is similarly
extended. This elegant finnage is used in a remarkably
Species Summary vivacious display for females and rival males. The body is
In 1973, two visiting German aquarists collected some small slender, laterally compressed and general metallic silver with
freshwater fishes in a rice paddy field on the outskirts of the town slightly visible dark vertical bars. The colours of the dorsal, anal
of Merauke in New Guinea. They were transported back to and pelvic fins are black with a reddish-tan wash. The tail fin is
Europe and a number of them were given to Herman Meinken, a deeply forked, transparent, and edged in a rustic red colouration.
well known aquarist and ichthyologist, who realised that they were
an undescribed species. In 1974, Meinken published the scientific There are also small differences in fin shape and colouration of
description of the fish in the German aquarium magazine Das male specimens from different locations. Some males have a
Aquarium (Aqua Terra) and they were named Iriatherina werneri narrow and high sail-like first dorsal fin, while this fin is lower
after one of the collectors, Arthur Werner. They are commonly and broader in other males. Specimens from the Cadell River in
known as the ‘Threadfin’ or ‘Featherfin’ Rainbowfish. In Australia the Northern Territory often have a more lyre-tail shaped tail
the ‘Standard Names of Australian Fishes’ published by the fin, and the fins may be darker and longer. Females however,
CSIRO lists them as ‘Threadfin Rainbowfish’. pale in comparison to the males, although their tail fins are
adorned with a pinkish margin and the edges of the pelvic and
When Iriatherina werneri were first released to the aquarium trade anal fins are edged with black.
in Europe only males were sold to the unsuspecting aquarium
public. This of course meant that all attempts to breed this new The colouration of the fish in their natural habitat is usually
species failed. Then in 1978, more of these delightful little jewels much more intense than specimens maintained in the
were found in swamplands of the Jardine River in Cape York confines of an aquarium. Specimens found in New Guinea
Peninsula. Their discovery in Australia opened up the trade in the are usually darker than the Australian variety. A yellow
species with both males and females being freely available, much finned variety has been collected from a tributary of the
to the delight of aquarium hobbyists. Embley River in northern Queensland.

Dave Wilson
Cadell River [Blyth River, Northern Territory]
Cadell River Billabong

Neil Armstrong
▲▼ Myall Creek [Embley River, Queensland]
Graeme Finsen
Preliminary genetic studies (P.J. Unmack 2009, pers. comm.) size and dainty feeding habits put them at a disadvantage in
have revealed significant genetic variation between the an aquarium with most other types of tropical fishes. This is
geographically distinct populations of Iriatherina werneri that probably why they are not readily available in aquarium
occur in north Queensland and the Northern Territory that stores and are mostly maintained by rainbowfish enthusiasts.
warrant taxonomical separation at the species level. Ongoing Nevertheless, they can be kept in a mixed community aquarium
studies looking at the New Guinea populations may also containing other small native species such as Pseudomugil
indicate a third species. gertrudae. A breeding tank can be easily set up and the fish
induced to spawn throughout the year.
Distribution & Habitat In their natural environment they feed mainly on large
In New Guinea, Iriatherina werneri have been collected quantities of unicellular, planktonic algae and diatoms.
from several coastal rivers between the Merauke and the Fly However, in captivity they seem to thrive on live brine shrimp
Rivers. In the Fly River they have been collected in swampy nauplii, daphnia, copepods, mosquito larvae, and worms such
lagoons along the mainstream of the river more than 500 km as grindal and microworm. The challenge of attacking larger
upstream from its mouth. In 1975 they were collected from live foods is usually declined. Floating dry foods, such as small
Lake Bosset. Then in 2005, they were collected in 2 sites, bite-sized pellets or flake foods are acceptable as their dorsally
Lake Bosset and Lake Kala. In Australia, the Jardine River projected jaws are designed for surface feeding.
swamps were believed to be the only place where they could
be found. However, in 1985 (Hansen, 1987) they were found I first obtain this species in 1982. They were part of a
in the Edward River catchment on the western side of Cape collection of fishes from the Jardine River. No information was
York Peninsula. More recent surveys have found that they given regarding the water conditions of the collecting site. I set
have a much wider distribution in a number of rivers both on them up in a 55 litre breeding aquarium with subgravel filtration
the western and eastern sides of Cape York Peninsula. They containing aged tap water with a pH 7.6 and a hardness of 140
have also been collected from the Arafura Swamps and a ppm. Temperature varied between 24–27°C, a woollen spawning
number of streams in the Northern Territory. mop was added to complete the set-up. The spawning mop was
checked daily and when eggs were found the mop was
Iriatherina werneri are generally found in clear, slow flowing removed to a hatching tray and replaced with another. Getting
streams, grassy wetland swamps and lagoons that have them to spawn and hatch was the easy part, raising the fry was
abundant vegetation. They are most commonly found along another story. The fry were fed infusoria and commercial fine
the heavily vegetated margins of lagoons and small streams powdered food. Mortalities were high; in fact it took almost
at depths of 0.5 to 1.25 metres, and usually in open water not two months before I was successful in raising any offspring.
far from clumps of vegetation. Small schools of females and
juveniles can be seen moving slowly through the water while High mortality rates can often occur, especially during the
the more mature males display around them. A temperature early feeding stages. The main reason for this is that the
range of 22° to 30°C and pH values of 5.2–7.5 have been developing larvae are very small, extremely fragile, and
recorded in their natural habitats. generally not physiologically fully developed. For example,
their small mouth size is a limiting factor in proper feed
selection and use during the early first-feeding period.
Keeping & Caring However, mortality can be the result of several factors
Very little is known about the natural life history and ecology including inferior water conditions and improper hatching
of the Iriatherina werneri in the wild. Most information is conditions. I found old acidic water (water that is less
mainly based on aquarium observations. They have been a frequently changed) to be detrimental to their long-term health.
popular aquarium fish with Australian native fish enthusiasts Good aquarium conditions with regular partial water changes
for many years and are easy to maintain under standard are the most important requirement for successful maintenance
aquarium conditions. Although they are a fish that requires a and breeding.
little more attention than most other rainbowfishes. They
should not be kept in aquaria less than 60 cm (55 litres) and In their natural environment spawning usually occurs during
are best kept in groups of 5 or more individuals. They can be the warmer period of the year (Spring-Summer) when water
maintained and bred in water conditions that are suitable for temperatures are around 24–32°C. Spawning in captivity
most aquarium species. Best results will be achieved if can be attempted in a number of ways. They can be placed
maintained at a temperature range of 23–28°C; pH 6.0–7.0; in a specially set up breeding aquarium with a one male;
and water hardness of 10–70 ppm (mg/L). I did however, two females combination. A bunch of aquatic moss or
maintain this species for 16 years and successfully spawned spawning mop is placed in the tank, on which the fish will
and raised numerous generations under the following water readily spawn. The spawning medium, with attached eggs, can
conditions: Temperature 24–31°C, pH 5.9–8.2, Hardness then be removed each day, and place in a special hatching
100–220 ppm, Alkalinity 25–100 ppm and conductivity 390– container. Alternatively, in a permanent aquarium environment
820 µS/cm. purposely set up for breeding I. werneri, a self-sustaining
population can be maintained. In fact, this is probably the most
Iriatherina werneri is one of the most peaceful of all reliable method of breeding for the general hobbyist. Such an
aquarium fishes, almost to the point of exclusion as a potential aquarium need not be larger than 50 litres, although a
“community” tank fish. Their timidity, gentle manner, small 90x45x45 cm aquarium tastefully decorated with river stones,

Neil Armstrong
Jardine River (Queensland)
Leo O'Reilly
I. werneri lagoon habitat [Wenlock River, Queensland]

driftwood overgrown with aquatic mosses and some floating The requirement for successfully raising Iriatherina werneri is
duckweed or water sprite can be very attractive. An aquarium the implementation of a suitable feeding regimen for the larvae.
designed accordingly and containing a school of displaying The major difficulty for the aquarist is providing organisms
Iriatherina werneri, is a sight not easily forgotten. appropriate to the size of the larvae at the first feeding stage
and then supplying the large numbers of feed organisms
Iriatherina werneri will normally eat their own larvae (fry) if necessary to maintain them. The preferred size of prey for
they are given the opportunity, but what generally will happen larval fish increases as mouth size and feeding competency
is that in a well-planted aquarium some of the fry will survive increase and different types of live foods have to be cultured
because the adults cannot get to them. Once they get to a for the different stages in the larval development. For example,
certain size you will see them coming out of the aquatic moss different species of microalgae (phytoplankton) range from 2 to
and start swimming with the adults. They (fry) know when 20 µm; rotifers from 50 to 200 µm, and brine shrimp nauplii
they can safely come out. What happens is you end up with a 400 to 800 µm. Apart from these main groups, a few other live
lot of fry at different growth stages. This is also good because feeds are used on a more limited scale including microworm
as the fry grow they need larger food and seeing that you are (Panagrellus redivivus), vinegar eels (Turbatrix aceti), Moina
feeding the adults you don’t need to know when you need to and Daphnia spp. Brine shrimp nauplii are used primarily
feed them larger food as the food is already there. In a because brineshrimp eggs are easy to acquire and hatch.
permanently established aquarium some of the fry will find
sufficient edible particles or infusorians to survive. You will Apart from live foods you can also successfully raise the larvae
often see newly hatched larvae clinging to and obviously using one or more of the commercially available fry foods. I
feeding from algae and other material growing on the sides of have found OSI ‘Micro-Food’ an excellent first food for
the aquarium. Iriatherina werneri larvae. Just use it dry and sprinkle it over
the surface of the water. Other products such as ‘Sera Micron’
I found that any of the aquatic mosses or similar plants are also suitable as a first food. As the larvae grow it is
provides a very fine cover and plenty of it. Normal aquatic important to increase the size of the food until they are large
plants do not always provide the hiding places. You need enough to take brine shrimp nauplii and microworm. When
the “fern or moss” type plants. Aquatic mosses are also weaning fish to a new food, introduce 10% of the new food
good where you don't have overhead lights as they seem to daily while reducing the same percentage of the initial food
grow without bright lighting. After a while the moss usually until 100% of the new food is accepted. Commence feeding
takes over the whole tank and you have to start removing adult foods as soon as the juveniles are big enough to eat it and
some of it. A floating type plant that has a lot of fine hairy feed them often (at least twice daily). However, care should be
roots would probable also be suitable. The fry are very taken not to overfeed.
small and remain at the water surface so the aquatic mosses
need to be close to the surface of the water. In a The growth rate of the Iriatherina werneri is generally slow,
permanently established aquarium some of the fry will find with little variation until around 14 days. After that time
sufficient edible particles or infusorians to survive. You will growth rates increased. Feeding live foods generally results
often see the newly hatched larvae clinging to and in higher growth rates. At 14–21 days post hatching the fry
obviously feeding from algae and other material on the should be around 14–15 mm in size. It should be noted that
sides of the aquarium. the hatching of eggs might vary, resulting in the presence of
larvae at different stages of development. As the larvae
In an aquarium when they are maintained in a small group the increased in age, the variation in length between individuals
males will regularly display to each other and to females. The also increased. If you wish to raise an entire spawning, you
male appears to prefer a site under a floating plant where he may have to sort the growing fish by size, as the larger ones
extends his first dorsal fin like a sail, the second dorsal and anal will eat their smaller siblings or repress their growth rate. If
fins are then “flicked” in rapid movement up and down, you have a batch that differs greatly in size, you will often
enticing the female to his side. Incidentally, Pseudomugil find that the smaller ones are females. Size grading
gertrudae from the Jardine River also exhibits this flicking separates the faster and slower growing fish. When these
motion of the fins, whereas the east coast populations displays smaller fish are transferred to another tank, their growth rate
in similar fashion as rainbowfishes (fins held erect). The is no longer negatively impacted by the faster growing
Jardine species of Pseudomugil gertrudae also have larger individuals. They should increase their growth rates to
finnage than most of the east coast populations and exhibit compensate for the initial retarded growth rates that developed
different colours. During this procedure the colour of the body during the nursery phase.
and fins intensifies. If the female is responsive, she will look
for a suitable site for egg laying. Once the female remains in The continued growth and development of the fish will vary
the same spot, the male will follow and together they will swim from one hobbyist to another and is largely conditional
among the spawning medium and leave behind a small cluster upon aquarium conditions such as temperature, water
of eggs. Spawning will often continue throughout the day. quality, and feeding regime.
Females produce a small number of eggs each day for several
days. Eggs adhere to fine-leaved plants or among the roots of
floating vegetation. Any of the aquatic mosses are a suitable
spawning medium for egg laying. Depending on water
temperature, eggs will hatch in 7 to 10 days.

Kiunga ballochi—Neil Armstrong
Kiunga ballochi Kiunga bleheri

Allen, 1983 Allen, 2004
Kiunga Blue Eye Bleher’s Blue Eye
Species Summary Species Summary

Kiunga ballochi have a mainly transparent body with a silvery Gerald Allen described this species in 2004. On first glance
coloured stomach and opercula. The scales are thinly outlined their general appearance looks similar to Kiunga ballochi.
with pepper-like melanophores. The midlateral line, ventral However, the morphological differences, nevertheless, are
edge of caudal peduncle, and bases of dorsal, caudal, and anal also obvious. It differs from Kiunga ballochi, also from the
fins have dense concentrations of melanophores. The dorsal fin Kiunga area, on the basis of its much shorter second dorsal
spines are translucent yellow; the second dorsal, caudal, and and anal fins, significant modal difference in the number of
anal fins have bold black borders and yellow submarginal second dorsal fin rays, 6 versus 5 transverse scale rows on
bands. The remaining portions of these fins are transparent the body, and in usually having most of the second dorsal
except the dorsal and anal fins that have narrow strips of and anal fin rays unbranched. Body colour is general semi-
yellow basally and the anterior half of the anal fin has mainly transparent with the second dorsal fin faintly yellowish on
yellow membranes. The pectoral fins are transparent. All fins outer portion with irregular black margin. Maximum size
with soft rays are faintly outlined with black. They have a about 2.8 cm.
moderately deep body for a blue-eye. Maximum size to about
3 cm SL.
Specimens of Kiunga bleheri have been collected in clear,
Distribution & Habitat shallow rainforest streams along the Kiunga-Konkonda
Kiunga ballochi were initially collected by Gerald Allen and Road, approximately 12 km west of Kiunga, Papua New
John Paska in 1982 from small tributaries of the Ok Smak Guinea. However, the full extent of their distribution range is
River, about 40 kilometres north of Kiunga on Tabubil Road, unknown.
Papua New Guinea. They were found in several small shallow
tributary streams flowing through dense rainforest with Kiunga bleheri were reportedly first collected by Heiko Bleher
occasional sunlit clearings. A temperature of 24–25° Celsius in 1991 from Tare Creek. Unfortunately on that occasion the
and a pH of 7.8 were recorded at the collecting site. However, live specimens were lost by the airline. On a second attempt
the full extent of their distribution range is unknown. in 1993 he caught just three individuals and they didn’t
breed. Then in 2003 he managed to catch a larger number in
the same stream and these were successfully transported to
Europe and eventually released into the aquarium hobby.
Remarks Additional specimens were collected in 2003 by Heiko
Kiunga ballochi was named in honour of Dr. David Balloch, a
Bleher. Water parameters recorded in 2003 were: pH 5.9;
biologist with the Ok Tedi Mining Company. A few live
conductivity 29 µS/cm; temperature 27°C.
specimens were brought back to Australia by Barry Crockford,
but they were all destroyed in a tragic house fire in February
Live specimens of this species were collected by Charles
1983. Heiko Bleher visited this area in 1993 and despite
Nishihira in 1994 and released into the aquarium hobby. In
sampling 37 streams along the entire stretch of road; he was
2007 Mark Allen and Philip Atio also collected this species.
unable to find any specimens. In 2007 Mark Allen and Philip
However, today there are no live specimens in captivity.
Atio collected this species in streams along the Tabubil-
Kiunga Road. However, they are not currently available in
the hobby.

Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia affinis The overall colour pattern of males is more intense, particularly
the orange stripes and dark mid-lateral stripe. The vertical fins
(Weber, 1908) of females are either translucent or only faintly yellow
New Guinea Rainbowfish
compared to the bright yellow-orange of males.
Rhombatractus affinis Weber, 1908
This species often exhibits geographic colour pattern variation.
Rhombosoma sepikensis Herre, 1935
Generally this is related to the amount or intensity of orange or
Rhombosoma affinis Whitley, 1938
reddish striping on the sides, width and intensity of the dark
Melanotaenia affinis Allen, 1980
mid-lateral stripe and intensity of yellow or orange colouration
in the vertical fins. There may also be morphological
variations, for example in relation to body depth and shape of
Species Summary the snout. Two populations in particular are noteworthy
Melanotaenia affinis are an attractive species that are found because of these features; one from the highland tributaries in
only in the northern regions of New Guinea. As with many the vicinity of Baiyer River and the other from lowland
rainbowfishes, their colouration is variable depending on tributaries near Pagwi. The Baiyer River population is
location and water conditions. They generally have a body characterised by a relatively slender body and tends to have a
colouration of olive to bronzy-yellow dorsally grading to white higher soft dorsal ray count than specimens from other
ventrally; a blue to blackish stripe from the snout to caudal fin localities (17–20 vs. 13–16). The fish from streams near Pagwi
base, often faint or absent in the pectoral fin region and differs by having a more pointed snout and a mid-lateral stripe
becoming more intense and broader on the caudal peduncle that is more uniform in width (i.e., not broadly expanded
where it is bordered by orange or reddish stripes (at least in posteriorly) and bordered by brilliant reddish stripes.
males). The sides often have a series of narrow orange stripes
between each scale row; fins whitish-translucent to yellowish; Males and females generally mature before the end of their first
anal fin and frequently soft dorsal fin of mature males bright year or at a standard length of 5–6 cm. M. affinis are carnivorous,
yellow-orange. Maximum size about 12–15 cm with a body feeding on a variety of small invertebrates taken from mid-water
depth of around 3–4 cm. Males are deeper bodied than females or from the surface. Gut content included crustaceans, insect
and have pointed posterior tips of the dorsal and anal fins. larvae, and terrestrial insects such as ants and small beetles.
These features become more obvious with increased growth.

Hans Booij
“Pagwi” Variety
Distribution & Habitat live specimens were collected near Lae by Barry Crockford
Melanotaenia affinis are widely distributed in northern New and Gerald Allen in the late 1970’s and subsequently
Guinea (north of the central dividing range). The range extends reintroduced to the hobby in Australia. Three main varieties
from the Oomsis River near Lae, Papua New Guinea westward have been maintained in the hobby. The ‘standard’ coloured
into West Papua to at least the vicinity of Nabira. It is the most variety is widespread in a number of locations and is
common rainbowfish in tributary streams of the Markham, indistinguishable in colour pattern. Live specimens of this
Ramu and Sepik Rivers of Papua New Guinea. Found in some variety were collected and transported back to Australia by
mountainous headwater streams of the Sepik in the Western Barry Crockford in the late 1970’s.
Highlands, such as in the Baiyer River, and also recorded from
the Taritatu River (Mamberamo system) in West Papua. The ‘Pagwi’ variety, known only from small tributaries of the
Sepik River near Pagwi Village have an olive-greenish upper
They are found most frequently in rainforest streams, in body colour and white below. The mid-lateral line is blue,
water temperatures between 18–28° Celsius. They are prominent and has bright red-orange upper and lower margins
mainly found around sub-surface vegetation, submerged on the rear half of the body. There is also a broad pale yellow
logs, or branches in small tributary streams but can also anterior scale row just below the mid-lateral band. Live
occur in lakes, swamps, and lagoons often together with specimens of this variety were collected and transported back
Chilatherina and Glossolepis species. Their natural to Australia by David Coates and Gerry Allen in 1982.
environment is subjected to seasonal variations with water
temperature, pH, and hardness levels varying considerably. Another, the ‘Bluewater Creek’ variety was collected from a
They are usually found in clear water, but sometimes in stream near Madang, Papua New Guinea by Gerald Allen in
turbid conditions. 1978. The upper body is greenish-blue with silvery reflections
and the lower body white. The mid-lateral band is blue-black
having a broad white margin on the lower edge, which is
Remarks separated from the lower side by a diffused bluish-black stripe.
Melanotaenia affinis were one of the earlier New Guinea Live specimens of this variety were collected by Heiko Bleher
rainbowfishes to be introduced to the aquarium hobby. They in 1988 and taken back to Europe.
first appeared in the Australian hobby around 1959. Further

Norbert Grunwald
“Lae” Variety
Madang habitat
Laurent Pouyaud
Melanotaenia ajamaruensis ovate and laterally compressed. Mature males have a higher
first dorsal fin, which overlaps the origin of the second
Allen & Cross, 1980 dorsal fin when depressed. They grow to a length of around
Ajamaru Rainbowfish
11 cm; males are usually deeper bodied than females. They
were named ‘ajamaruensis’ with reference to the Ajamaru
Species Summary Lakes, the type locality and only known collection site for
From October 1954 through to May 1955 Marinus Boeseman this species at that time (see remarks).
took part in a collecting expedition for the Rijksmuseum van
Natuurlijke Historie to Netherlands New Guinea (West In 1980 Allen & Cross described M. ajamaruensis as a
Papua). Among the places he visited was Lake Sentani, species of Melanotaenia with the following combination of
Tami River, Biak Island, Lake Jamoer (Yamur), Wissel characters: dorsal rays IV to VI, 15 to 19; anal rays I, 21 to
Lakes, Ajamaru Lakes, Lake Ajtinjo, Merauke and the Digul 27; pectoral rays 13 to 15; horizontal scale rows 7 or 8;
River. This collection included many rainbowfishes, but a vertical scale rows 34 to 37; predorsal scales 13 to 16
thorough study of the collection or description of the fishes preopercle scales 9 to 16; colour generally reddish-brown on
was never made by Boeseman. back and anterior half of body grading to yellow or tan
posteriorly with series of red-brown horizontal stripes on
As part of his preparation for the revision of the rainbowfish side; in life ground colour metallic blue to yellowish or green
family, Gerald Allen studied the Boeseman collection of with yellow longitudinal stripes.
1954–55 during 1975 and 1977. He discovered no less than
four new rainbowfish species, which he described in 1980 M. boesemani is readily separable from M. ajamaruensis on
together with Norbert Cross. These species were Melanotaenia the basis of soft ray counts for the second dorsal and anal
boesemani, M. ajamaruensis, M. japenensis and Glossolepis fins. The former species has 10 to 14 (usually 12 or 13)
pseudoincisus. dorsal rays and 17 to 23 (usually 18 to 21) anal rays
compared with 15 to 19 (usually 15 to 17) and 21 to 27
From field notes it was stated that Melanotaenia ajamaruensis (usually 22 to 24) for M. ajamaruensis. Although these
have a metallic blue to yellowish or green with orange and species possess a similar colouration and general shape, the
yellow longitudinal stripes and dark scale edges. The body is stripes on the sides tend to be more pronounced in M.

ajamaruensis, particularly the mid-lateral one and the stripe In 2007, a number of surveys were conducted by the Papuan
just below it. M. ajamaruensis further differs from M. National Marine and Fisheries Research, the Academy of
boesemani by being more slender, and by having the first Fishery Sorong, and the Institut de recherche pour le
dorsal fin origin in front (by about one half eye diameter) of développement (IRD) Jakarta in five bioregions of West
the anal fin origin compared to the approximately even Papua. During the collecting trip to the Sorong region they
position of these fins in M. boesemani. collected approximately 352 rainbowfishes, and among them
were a number of specimens that were considered to fit the
type specimens of M. ajamaruensis as described by Allen &
Distribution & Habitat Cross in 1980.
M. ajamaruensis is a lake and stream dwelling rainbowfish
found in relatively clear alkaline water, with abundant They were collected in an upstream section of a small river
aquatic vegetation. Museum specimens were collected in near Lake Ajamaru. This river is an old outlet to the western
March 1955 by Marinus Boeseman and his companions in side of the lake, but does not flow into the lake. Instead it
the Ajamaru Lakes, a complex of lakes on the Ajamaru flows into a subterraneous zone. There is no connection
River in the centre of the Vogelkop Peninsula at the western between the lake and the river and M. boesemani wasn’t
extremity of New Guinea. The Ajamaru Lakes region is found to occur in the river. This is currently the only known
located about 120 km east-southeast of Sorong, at the location of M. ajamaruensis today and it is thought that they
headwaters of the Ajamaru River in a mountainous region no longer exist in Lake Ajamaru. The colouration of M.
of the Vogelkop Peninsula, West Papua. The region contains ajamaruensis can be much more intense than that shown in
a number of small freshwater lakes and associated marshes. the accompanying photograph; displaying a brilliant red to
The largest lake, Lake Ajamaru drains east via the other two red-orange colour (L. Pouyaud 2009, pers. comm.).
lakes (Lake Hain and Lake Ajtinjo) into an upper tributary
of the Kais River that eventually flows into the Ceram Sea Melanotaenia ajamaruensis are currently not available in the
to the south. aquarium hobby.
Two species of rainbowfishes have been reported from

these lakes: Melanotaenia ajamaruensis and Melanotaenia Note: The interesting thing about M. ajamaruensis is their
boesemani. It is possible that M. ajamaruensis inhabit other remarkable similarity with M. boesemani. Since its introduction
areas on the Vogelkop Peninsula, but most of the region remains to the aquarium hobby, M. boesemani has steadily increased
unsampled. in popularity and today, it could be considered the most
popular rainbowfish in the hobby. By 1989 Ajamaru villagers
Lake Ajamaru has an area of approximately 22 km2 and is were catching so many live fish for the aquarium trade the
located in a rather flat terrain, at about 250 metres altitude. species was on the brink of becoming endangered. An
The lake has variable depths with clear water and abundant estimated 60,000 male rainbows were captured each month
vegetation. In the wetter months (April-June) the lake can for shipment to Jakarta exporters. Eventually the Indonesian
rise by up to 5 metres from its dry season level; it never Government placed some controls on the activity (Polhemus
dries out completely, but the shoreline recedes several et al. 2004).
hundred metres. It has a muddy bottom, and the sediments
of the shores are reportedly white, either sand or kaolin Is it possible that specimens of M. ajamaruensis may have
clay. The lakes and streams have a pH of 6.4–7.8 (de Vries, been mixed in with some of the early collections of M.
1962) and temperate 26–27° Celsius. Heiko Bleher reported boesemani from Lake Ajamaru—or perhaps M. ajamaruensis
the water conditions as pH 9.0, hardness 5° dGH, and never occurred in Lake Ajamaru in the first place?
conductivity 145 mS/cm. When Marinus Boeseman collected
his specimens, he reported a pH of 6.4–6.5.
Remarks
In November 1982, Gerry Allen had the opportunity to
collect live specimens during a visit to the remote Vogelkop
Peninsula in West Papua. Heiko Bleher, a well-known
aquarium fish collector, had accompanied Gerry Allen on
the trip and was able to transport a number of live
specimens captured during the expedition back to Europe,
whereupon they were subsequently bred and distributed in
the aquarium hobby as M. boesemani. At the time it was
thought that females of M. boesemani were M. ajamaruensis.
The natural colours of M. ajamaruensis at the time remained

unknown. The type specimens preserved in the Leiden
museum were the only ones that had so far been collected.

Gerald Allen
Melanotaenia ammeri posterior-most portion of the fin, in contrast to that of females,
which are situated in the anterior half of fin. In addition, the
Allen, Unmack and Hadiaty, 2008 depressed first dorsal fin of adult males extends to the base of
Ammer’s Rainbowfish
the second or third soft ray of the second dorsal fin, compared
with the spine of first ray in females. This species was named
Species Summary “ammeri” in honour of Max Ammer of Sorong, West Papua.
The male colouration of Melanotaenia ammeri is generally
bluish on the upper body with a series of alternating mauve to
blue-grey and pale yellow stripes corresponding with each of Distribution & Habitat
the horizontal scale rows on the side of the body. The Melanotaenia ammeri is currently known only from the type
midlateral stripe, at the level of the upper pectoral-fin base is locality; a small creek flowing into the northern part of Arguni
usually much darker than the others. The blue stripes below Bay near Gusimawa Village. It no doubt occurs in nearby
become progressively more inconspicuous and forming streams, but the exact limits of distribution remain to be
interrupted dotted lines. A broad, horizontally bluish streak determined. The type locality consisted of a narrow (2–3 metre
immediately above the abdomen. The upper portion of the wide), relatively shallow (to about 0.5 metre) stream with
head is blue or greyish, while the lower half is silvery white. gradual gradients flowing through second growth forest, about
The dorsal, anal, pelvic and caudal fins are pale yellow. The one kilometre upstream from the sea. The type specimens were
pectoral fins translucent with a white base. The colour pattern collected over sand and gravel bottoms with substantial leaf
of the females are similar to that of the males except the blue litter and dead tree branches.
and yellow hues of the body stripes are generally less vivid and
the median fins are mainly translucent, only slightly yellow.
The distinctive pattern of alternating mauve to blue-grey and
yellow stripes is unique among species of Melanotaenia. Remarks
Melanotaenia ammeri was collected from a small creek near
Males are generally deeper bodied than females and have a Gusimawa Arguni Bay, West Papua by G. R. Allen and M.
more elongate, pointed shape posteriorly on the soft dorsal fin. Ammer in 2008. This species is not currently available in the
The longest soft dorsal-fin rays of males are located in the aquarium hobby.

Gerald Allen
Melanotaenia angfa
Allen, 1990
ANGFA Rainbowfish
Species Summary Remarks

Melanotaenia angfa are bright yellow (including fins) with This species was discovered by Gerald Allen in 1989 during a
a narrow midlateral band, which is interrupted along its conversation survey of Bintuni Bay and named ‘angfa’ in
length by narrow yellow streaks. They grow to a length of honour of the Australia New Guinea Fishes Association. Live
around 13-cm, males are usually deeper bodied than specimens were collected by Heiko Bleher in 1999 and have
females. been distributed in the aquarium hobby.

Melanotaenia angfa have only been collected from two small
creeks in the Yakati River system of West Papua. The Yakati
River is located in the narrow isthmus connecting the
Vogelkop Peninsula and the remainder of West Papua. Both
streams are characterised by slow to rapid-flowing water with
rock or sand bottom and minimal aquatic vegetation.
The region contains a number of river systems that empty

into Bintuni Bay and include the Wasian, Muturi, Bokor,
Tirasai, Sumber, Kodai, Rarjoi, Kamisayo, Tatawori,
Sorobaba, Yakati, Yensei, Sobrawara and Naramasa Rivers.
Most of these rivers are fast-flowing during the wet season,
particularly in the upper part of the rivers, sometimes
causing flooding. During the wet season the colour of the
water turns brown from soil erosion. Some rivers always
have flowing water, while others are dry and only flow
during the wet season.

Neil Armstrong
Melanotaenia arfakensis
Allen, 1990
Arfak Rainbowfish
Species Summary Melanotaenia arfakensis is a stream dwelling rainbowfish

Melanotaenia arfakensis have a basic body colour that is mainly found around sub-surface vegetation, submerged
mauve with silvery reflections. There is a bluish midlateral logs, or branches in small tributary streams, but can also
band, about one scale wide, and a narrow yellow-orange stripe occur in swamps and lagoons. Their natural environment is
between each horizontal scale row on the sides of the body. subjected to seasonal variations.
Fins are translucent with a bluish to mauve shading. The
second dorsal fin has a sub-marginal band and narrow white
margins. The caudal fin has black upper and lower margins. Remarks
Males may reach a maximum size of 10 cm, but females are Live specimens of Melanotaenia arfakensis were collected by
usually less than 8 cm. Males are more brightly coloured, Heiko Bleher in 1990 and introduced to the aquarium hobby.
larger, and deeper bodied than females.
In 2007 surveys were conducted by the Papuan National
Marine and Fisheries Research, the Academy of Fishery
Distribution & Habitat Sorong, and the Institute of Research for Development of
Melanotaenia arfakensis were originally collected by Gerald France in the Arfak Mountains (Manokwari) region in West
Allen in 1989 from the Prafi River, about 20–30 kilometres Papua. M. arfakensis were collected from the Prafi River.
west of Manokwari, West Papua. This area is bordered on the Additional rainbowfishes were collected from the Ati (Ani)
western side by the Arfak Mountains. The mountains are a River that were very different from M. arfakensis. Also in
water catchment area for several river systems. The Arfak area the Kebar River, another different rainbowfish species than
is important historically and scientifically for being the site of those found in the Ati River were collected. This species
the first extensive zoological expedition to West Papua led by was also believed to be a new species and not M. arfakensis.
d'Albertis and Beccari in 1872–73. However, none were kept alive for breeding purpose.

Dave Wilson
Fish River [Daly River, Northern Territory]
Melanotaenia australis particularly the fins and intensity of the mid-lateral stripe, is
highly variable depending on their geographic locality. This is
(Castelnau, 1875) mainly due to a rapid speciation in the rainbowfish group and is
Western Rainbowfish
further enhanced by the degree of random morphological
variation occurring among the various populations. Colouration
Neoatherina australis Castelnau, 1875
generally consists of 1–2 broad, dark mid-lateral stripes and a
Melanotaenia solata Taylor, 1964
series of narrow reddish stripes corresponding with each scale
Nematocentris australis Allen, 1975
row. Fins range from nearly colourless to deep red, or clear with
Melanotaenia splendida australis Allen, 1980
red or green flecks. Gerry Allen notes that the real trademark of
Melanotaenia australis Allen, Midgley & Allen, 2002
this species is the zigzagging blackish lines on the lower sides,
just above the anal fins. The black mid-lateral line may be very
Species Summary prominent or scarcely apparent. Males are easily distinguished
Melanotaenia australis was first described by Castelnau as from females by their brighter colours and longer and more
Neoatherina australis in 1875. The original type specimens elongated dorsal fin rays. Fish from the Drysdale River of
were collected from Weeli Wolli Creek, Hammersley Range, Western Australia are generally smaller in statue and possess a
and Millstream homestead in Western Australia. In earlier days distinctive double mid-lateral black stripe.
they were commonly known as the ‘Westralian Sunfish’. In
1964 another species of rainbowfish collected from the
Northern Territory was named Melanotaenia solata. After Distribution & Habitat
Gerald Allen’s review of the rainbowfish family in 1980, these
Melanotaenia australis have a restricted disjunct distribution in
two species were considered as one and he placed them in the
northern Western Australia and the Northern Territory. They
large “splendida” group as a sub-species, and named them
are widespread throughout the Pilbara region of Western
Melanotaenia splendida australis, but genetic studies indicate
Australia between the Ashburton and DeGrey Rivers and in the
they are clearly a distinct species.
Kimberley region in the extreme northern part of Western
Australia between the Fitzroy River and the Northern Territory
Melanotaenia australis can grow to a length of around 10 cm,
border. They also occur in streams of the north-western sector
but are more common at 8 cm or less. Males are usually much
in the Timor Sea drainage of the Northern Territory, just east of
larger and deeper bodied than females. Their colouration,
Darwin.

Allan Travers
Ashburton River (Western Australia)
Alan Travers
Weeli Wolli Creek (Western Australia)

Gunther Schmida
Drysdale River (Western Australia)
Dave Wilson
Douglas River (Northern Territory)

Melanotaenia australis is a stream dwelling rainbowfish mainly to colour pattern, morphometrics and meristics. Melanotaenia
found around sub-surface vegetation, submerged logs, or branches solata have been reported from several localities east of Darwin,
in small tributary streams, but can also occur in swamps and including the upper South Alligator River and Yirrkala, Groote
lagoons. They are most commonly found in backwaters or along Eylandt, and Bickerton Island. William R. Taylor described
the shoreline where there is minimal flow and grassy them as a species of Melanotaenia with a rather slender,
vegetation. Their natural environment is subjected to seasonal compressed body; with complete dentition, with poorest
variations with water temperature 22–28°C, pH 6.5–8.0, and developed in upper jaw; with a rather faint brown lateral body
hardness levels varying considerably. There is often a large band and with numerous, characteristic, golden yellow life
fluctuation in water conditions between the dry and wet stripes through brown band as well as along the body. Large
seasons. adults with diffuse dark band and about ten brilliant golden
longitudinal stripes on each side; basal half of caudal fin bright
yellow; bronze bar behind eye crossing preopercle and
Remarks diffusing downward on opercle; belly and bases of second
M. australis show considerable variation in morphology dorsal and anal fin pinkish; the inter-radial membranes paler
across its known distribution and genetic studies suggest that outward; inter-radial membranes of first dorsal fin red. In
there maybe more than one species in the “australis” specimens from Yirrkala, the dorsal and anal fins red; caudal
complex. Genetic studies in 2000 (McGuigan, et al.) found fin yellowish orange; pelvic fins deep red; lower side bluish
that M. australis is represented by two distinct lineages. silvery; scale centres on side generally golden bronze; they
These lineages are geographically restricted to Western form about five longitudinal rows, the lowermost of which is
Australia and the Northern Territory. The difference between approximately on a level with the ventral surface of the caudal
the two groups could indicate the presence of two distinct peduncle.
species. If this is true, then the name Melanotaenia solata
(Taylor 1964) could be applied to the Northern Territory More recent studies (Phillips, 2004) have shown that there is also a
populations following redescription. The study suggested very large genetic difference between the Pilbara and east
that irrespective of the situation in the Northern Territory, Kimberley populations of M. australis. These studies provide
West Australian populations of M. australis should be support for the separation of M. australis into two species: a
accorded species status. The research did not support the southern one from the Pilbara area and the remaining northern
inclusion of either group within Melanotaenia splendida. populations. Pilbara populations are quite distinct and Allen (1995)
noted that Pilbara populations lacked the mid lateral band that is
Allen (1980) considered that Melanotaenia solata (Taylor 1964) prominent in many other M. australis populations.
fell within the range of Melanotaenia splendida australis with regard
Neil Armstrong
Oakover River (Western Australia)

Dave Wilson
Dave Wilson
Male ▲ Female ▼ Waterbag Creek [Victoria River, Northern Territory]
Melanotaenia batanta
Batanta Rainbowfish
Species Summary
Melanotaenia batanta was described from 12 specimens
collected at Batanta Island in 1998. They have an overall blue
body colouration with darker scale margins. Lower half of
body whitish to silvery with a triangular grey area on the lower
side, above the pelvic fins. Narrow orange stripes are visible
between each horizontal scale row on the upper two-thirds of side. Distribution & Habitat
A dark blotch consisting of a concentration of melanophores Known only from Batanta Island in the Raja Ampat Islands
immediately behind eye on uppermost part of operculum. Fins lying immediately west of the Vogelkop Peninsula, West
mainly translucent except dorsal, anal, and caudal, frequently with Papua. Batanta Island is home to three separate species of
bluish tint. There is little difference between male and female, an rainbowfishes. M. batanta were collected from Warmon
unusual feature for rainbowfishes. Unlike most Melanotaenia Creek, on the northern side of the island. The rainbowfish
there is a lack of pronounced sexual dimorphism. Males, in was restricted to a very small portion of this stream,
particular, lack the pronounced elongation of the posterior essentially a 400 metre stretch bounded by brackish
dorsal and anal fin rays, but rather the anterior or middle rays mangrove habitat and a 10 metre high waterfall upstream.
tend to be longest. Moreover, they have poorly developed
palatine teeth or lack them entirely. Males may reach a Remarks
maximum size of 10 cm, but females are usually less than 8 cm. This species was named batanta, with reference to the type
locality. No live specimens have so far been collected for the
M. batanta is most closely related to M. fredericki, but there is aquarium hobby. This species should not be confused with
a modal difference in number of dorsal fin rays and it possesses another rainbowfish distributed in the hobby as the “Batanta
fewer cheek scales (11–13 vs. 17–20). Island Rainbowfish” (Melanotaenia synergos).

Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia boesemani Distribution & Habitat
Allen and Cross, 1980 Melanotaenia boesemani have been found in Lake Ajamaru and a
Boeseman’s Rainbowfish few surrounding tributaries. They also occurs in Lake Ajtinjo,
Lake Hain and Lake Uter. The lakes are located about 120 km
east-southeast of Sorong, at the headwaters of the Ajamaru River
Species Summary in a mountainous region of the Vogelkop Peninsula, West Papua.
The colour pattern of male Melanotaenia boesemani is The largest lake, Lake Ajamaru drains east via the other lakes into
completely different from most other rainbowfishes and show a an upper tributary of the Kais River that eventually flows into the
half-and-half colouration when fully matured. The head and Ceram Sea to the south. The lakes are positioned centrally on the
front portion of the body are a brilliant bluish-grey, sometimes Ajamaru Plateau which extends for 20–30 km to the south and
almost blackish, with the fins and posterior half of the body south-west of the lakes before giving way to a broad zone of relict
largely bright orange-red. Between these two areas, or roughly alluvial landforms dissected by wide flooded river valleys.
just behind the pectoral fin, there are alternating light and dark
vertical bars. Their wild colouration can fade somewhat in Lake Ajamaru has an area of approximately 22 km2 and is
captivity, possibly due to something lacking in the diet, or from located in a rather flat terrain, at about 250 metres altitude. The
the nature of captivity itself. They may reach a maximum size lake has variable depths with clear water and abundant
of 12 cm, but are usually less than 10 cm. vegetation. In the wetter months (April-June) the lake can rise
by up to 5 metres from its dry season level; it never dries out
Males are easily distinguished from females by their different completely, but the shoreline recedes several hundred metres. It
colour and longer and more elongated dorsal fin rays, and are has a muddy bottom, and the sediments of the shores are
usually much deeper bodied than females. Females display a broad reportedly white, either sand or kaolin clay. The lakes and
dark mid-lateral stripe accompanied by a series of narrow yellow streams have a pH of 6.4–7.8 (de Vries, 1962) and temperate
or reddish-orange longitudinal stripes corresponding with each 26–27° Celsius. Heiko Bleher reported the water conditions as
scale row that deepen or lighten according to mood. Mature, older pH 9.0, hardness 5° dGH, and conductivity 145 mS/cm. When
females often show colouration similar to subordinate males, but Marinus Boeseman collected his specimens, he reported a pH
are usually easily identified by a shallower body/chest depth and of 6.4–6.5.
smaller, more rounded fin edges.

Photos: Joël Félix
▼ Male ▲ Female (Ajtinjo Lake )
In August 1959, G. A. Reeskamp surveyed the lakes with the reported), but these disappeared or became very scarce after the
objective of determining the potential fisheries of the lakes. He introduction of Cyprinus carpio. As a result, one small species
reported that the lakes were shallow and interconnected by of fish local known as ‘bobok’ was reported to have become
channels that might perhaps be better termed as “broads”. The extinct because of the disappearance of its habitat (the
three lakes average approximately 7 feet. (2.13m) in depth and submerged macrophytes). Heiko Bleher reported that the lake
drain in an easterly direction into the Kais River. During the is almost filled with aquatic plants. Mainly Vallisneria,
rainy season the water level rises to approximately 9 feet. Ceratophyllum and Najas species.
(2.74m) and at the dry season large areas of these broads
become dry. The greatest depth was found close to the southern Boeseman described Lake Ajtinjo as “... a widened river, flowing
margin of the lakes where a basin about 60 feet. (18.28m) southeast, with a length of 4 km and strongly varying width with a
diameter was discovered with a depth of approximately 20 feet. maximum of about 350 m. At the north-western, end the principal
(6.09m). The outstanding characteristic of the lakes was the river widens to become a lake which consists of two parts
clearness of the water. Owing to the clarity of the water there is separated by considerable rapids and small cataracts; at the
complete light penetration to the bottom with the resultant south-eastern end the lake abruptly stops, but a subterranean
abundant bottom flora of aquatic plants. Samples of the connection with the Kais River is supposed to exist here. The
waterplants were stiff to the touch, indicating a high lime mountains at most places closely surround the lake which has
content. The pH of the water was recorded as 7.8. Fish in these steep and rocky shores, almost perpendicular at some places but
lakes appeared to be extremely scarce in relation to the large elsewhere allowing some wider marshy banks. The water is clear,
area of available water. In the shallow creeks along the pH about 6.5, flowing rather strongly only at the narrower parts of
margins, however, one obtains an impression of the fairly rich the lake, including the upper reaches. The bottom is rocky, at most
fauna but in the open water few fish may be seen and in places covered with sand, stones or large rocks, but muddy at
general the fish appear to remain in the shallow margins of the some places. Both the aquatic and terrestrial vegetation are dense,
lakes where food such as water insects, snails, fish fry, etc., are at least where the stony substratum allows growth.”
more plentiful.
The Ajamaru lakes only support a small number of fishes and Remarks
most of these are of very small size and diversity. The Dutch M. boesemani were originally collected from Ajtinjo Lake by
introduced some larger fish species, such as Cyprinus carpio Sten Bergman during the Swedish New Guinea Expedition 1948-
and labyrinth fishes into the lakes in the mid-1930s to provide 1949. Specimens are maintained in the Swedish Museum of
new sources of animal protein. As early as 1938, Trichogaster Natural History. From October 1954 through to May 1955
pectoralis, Helostoma temminckii and Cyprinus carpio were Marinus Boeseman took part in a collecting expedition for the
introduced into Lake Ayamaru to supply the requirements of a ‘Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie’ to Netherlands New
Dutch military post in that area. The two first-mentioned Guinea (West Papua) with L.D. Brongersma and L.B. Holthuis.
species are still found there as a result of a highly successful His task was to provide a thorough knowledge of the fish fauna by
acclimatisation. Cyprinus carpio was introduced to the lake in intensively surveying as many rivers and lakes as possible in
1938, 1951 and 1969. Gambusia (affinis) was introduced in western New Guinea.
1959 for malaria control.
This task was taken to heart and in a relatively short period
Reeskamp reported that “the local natives benefited by the many localities were visited, resulting in a rich collection
somewhat improved stocks of fish in the lake since the native for the museum in Leiden. Among the places he visited was
species were apparently seriously depleted many year ago. Lake Sentani, Tami River, Biak Island, Lake Jamoer
Generally speaking, the methods of fishing are very primitive (Yamur), Wissel Lakes, Ajamaroe (Ajamaru) Lake, Lake
and there is considerable destruction of fish by poisons, locally Ajtinjo (Aytinjo), Merauke and the Digul River. This
known as “akar kajoe” or “akar boreh”, derived from the Derris collection included many rainbowfishes, but a thorough
(Derris elliptica). This system of fish poisoning seems to be study of this material or description of these species was
increasing and must no doubt have disastrous results on the never made by Boeseman.
existing stocks and will inhibit any development unless it can
be fully prevented. Very large numbers of fry are killed by the
Hans Booij
poison and it is certainly in the interests of the natives

themselves that this practice should be prohibited.” Reeskamp
also recommended that plant-eating fish should be introduced
into the lakes to utilise the vast quantities of submerged aquatic
vegetation.
Melanotaenia ajamaruensis, Melanotaenia boesemani, and

Pseudomugil reticulatus have been reported from the lakes and
surrounding streams.
The waterplant Ceratophyllum demersum has been recorded

from the lake and Eichhornia crassipes was introduced in
1980s, but it covered only a small part of the lake. Formerly
there were two species of submerged macrophyte (species not

As part of his preparation for the revision of the rainbowfish In November 1982, Gerry Allen had the opportunity to collect live
family, Gerald Allen studied the Dutch collection of 1954–55 specimens during a visit to the remote Vogelkop Peninsula. Heiko
during 1975 and 1977. He discovered no less than four new Bleher had accompanied him on the trip and was able to transport
rainbowfish species, which he described in 1980 together with a number of live specimens captured during the expedition back to
Norbert Cross. These species were Melanotaenia boesemani, M. Europe, whereupon they were subsequently bred and distributed in
ajamaruensis, M. japenensis and Glossolepis pseudoincisus. M. the aquarium hobby. In 1998, Heiko Bleher collected more live
boesemani and M. ajamaruensis were collected in March 1955 specimens of M. boesemani from Ajtinjo Lake and they too,
by Boeseman and his companions in the Ajamaru Lakes, a have been distributed in the aquarium hobby.
complex of lakes on the Ajamaru River in the centre of the
Vogelkop Peninsula. Specimens of M. boesemani was also found Since its introduction to the aquarium hobby, M. boesemani
in Lake Ajtinjo, 25 kilometres to the southeast of Ajamaru village has steadily increased in popularity and today, it could be
and from ‘Djitmau’, about 3 km south of the Ajamaru Lakes. The considered the most popular rainbowfish in the hobby. By
specimens preserved in alcohol still showed the unusual colour 1989 Ajamaru villagers were catching so many live fish for the
pattern. aquarium trade the species was on the brink of becoming
endangered. An estimated 60,000 male rainbows were captured
each month for shipment to Jakarta exporters. Eventually the
Gilbert Maebe
Indonesian Government placed some controls on the activity
(Polhemus et al. 2004).
Other Notes
Marine and Fisheries Research, the Academy of Fishery
Sorong, and the Institute of Research for Development of
France in five regions of West Papua. Fifteen species of
rainbowfishes were collected during these expeditions. During
the collecting trip to the Sorong region they collected 352
rainbowfishes, and among them were a number of undescribed
species. M. boesemani were collected from Lake Ajamaru,
Lake Ajtinjo and Lake Uter.
Lake Uter was inhabited by thousands of M. boesemani. They

also sighted Tilapia and Goldfish. Based on their observations,
the specimens caught in the upstream Lake Uter were attacked
by bacteria and fungi and were suffering from malnutrition.
According to the local villagers the rainbowfishes started
showing disease after the introduction of the goldfish and
Tilapia a few years before. The M. boesemani specimens
collected from Lake Ajamaru had bright yellow posterior,
whereas specimens from Lake Uter had a body colour of sky-
blue and orange posterior.
M. boesemani was named in honour of Dr. Marinus Boeseman,

the collector of the type specimens. According to labels
accompanying the type specimens the native name for this
species is ‘sekiak’ and ‘ikan rascado’. Marinus Boeseman was
born on June 22, 1916 in Enkhuizen, a small port on the
Zuiderzee in Holland. After the untimely death of his father,
Marinus, aged 11, his two elder sisters and his mother moved
to Oegstgeest, a neighbour town of Leiden where he continued
his primary and secondary education. In 1935 he entered
M. boesemani is readily separable from M. ajamaruensis on Leiden University to study biology. On November 1, 1947 he
the basis of soft ray counts for the second dorsal and anal fins. was appointed curator of fishes at the Rijksmuseum van
The former species has 10 to 14 (usually 12 or 13) dorsal rays Natuurlijke Historie in Leiden, and held that position until his
and 17 to 23 (usually 18 to 21) anal rays compared with 15 to retirement on 30 June 1981. He died on July 14, 2006 at the
19 (usually 15 to 17) and 21 to 27 (usually 22 to 24) for M. age of 90
ajamaruensis. Although these species possess a similar
colouration and general shape, the stripes on the sides tend to
be more pronounced in M. ajamaruensis, particularly the mid-
lateral one and the stripe just below it.

Gerald Allen
Melanotaenia caerulea Distribution & Habitat
Allen, 1996 Melanotaenia caerulea was collected in Papua New Guinea at
Blue Rainbowfish several sites in the lower and middle Kikori drainage system,
spanning a distance of approximately 125 km. They inhabit
small tributary streams flowing through rainforest, except at
Species Summary one location where it was collected in a small tidal creek-fed
Melanotaenia caerulea have a body colour of bright iridescent
pond in open sunlight. The Kikori River rises in the central
blue on the sides and back, becoming whitish or pinkish
mountains of southwestern Papua New Guinea and flows
ventrally. There is a faint dark blue midlateral band on the
southward for nearly 250 km before forming a major delta at
posterior half of body, about one scale row wide. Each
the head of the Gulf of Papua. The river mouth is situated
horizontal scale row on blue portion of body is separated by
about 340 km northwest of Port Moresby, and approximately
narrow pinkish-orange stripe. There is a short brown stripe
140 km northeast of the Fly River entrance.
about pupil width from the rear of the eye to the area just above
the pectoral fin, frequently continuing as a pair of narrow
The water quality of the mainstream rivers of the Tagari-Hegigio
brown stripes on the upper and lower edge of the midlateral
and Lake Kutubu-Digimu-Mubi sub-basins are typical of other
band, and linking posteriorly with the dark blue midlateral
mainstream rivers in Papua New Guinea that are near neutral to
band mentioned above. Fins are bluish to translucent, anterior
mildly alkaline (pH 7.4–8.2) and calcium-bicarbonate dominated.
edge of first dorsal fin and outer portions of second dorsal and
These properties are indicative of water draining a limestone
anal fins sometimes reddish or dusky blackish in males. Pelvis
catchment area. The lower calcium concentration, alkalinity and
fins mainly grey to reddish, but sometimes slightly dusky grey
hardness of the Ai'io River, which drains to the upper Hegigio
to reddish. Pectoral fins translucent. Males may reach a
River, probably reflect the predominantly volcanic and
maximum size of 8 cm, but females are usually less than 6 cm.
sedimentary terrain at this location. Water hardness in all rivers
Males are generally deeper bodied and have more elongated,
except the Ai'io River (31 mg/L CaCO3) is moderate (60–119 mg/
somewhat pointed shape posteriorly on the soft dorsal and anal
L CaCO3) to hard (120–179 mg/L CaCO3). Conductivity values
fin rays. Females have smaller rounded dorsal and anal fins.
are generally similar in all streams, with median values ranging
between 167 and 267 µS/cm.
Melanotaenia caerulea belongs to the “maccullochi” group of
rainbowfishes, and appears to be most closely related to M.
ogilbyi. It differs from other members of the group in having a Remarks
largely blue colouration, and is separated from M. ogilbyi by Melanotaenia caerulea was named caerulea (Latin: blue) with
significant modal differences in the number of soft dorsal, anal, reference to the characteristic colour pattern. This species is not
and pectoral rays. currently available in the aquarium hobby.

Neil Armstrong
Melanotaenia catherinae
(de Beaufort, 1910) Upper jaw prominent. Mouth opening reaching to vertical
Waigeo Rainbowfish through front border of eye. Conical teeth in several rows in the
jaws, extending to the outside of the lips, which are thickened,
Rhombatractus catherinae de Beaufort, 1910 especially in their anterior part. A patch of teeth on the vomer
Melanotaenia catherinae Allen, 1980 and perhaps a few on the hinderpart of the palatines, none on
tongue. Two rows of scales on suborbital part of cheeks.
Species Summary Operculum with large scales, excepting the superior ones,
Melanotaenia catherinae are bluish to purplish brown on the which are small. Dorsal separated by 16 scales from occiput.
back and white on the lower side with a blue midlateral band Spine of first dorsal scarcely longer than that of second dorsal,
up to 2½ scales wide. Dorsal and anal fins bluish with a shorter than postorbital part of head and much shorter than that
maroon-red wash on the margins. They may reach a maximum of anal, which is about equal to eye. Origin of anal opposite to
size of 10 cm, but usually less than 8 cm. They are closely that of first dorsal. Length of base of anal longer than distance
related to Melanotaenia synergos, which is found on Batanta between origin of first dorsal and end of second dorsal.
Island. The two species share similar meristic and morphological Pectorals longer than head without snout. Scales nearly
features. However, they differ in modal counts for pectoral-fin smooth, with indication of crenulations. Caudal peduncle
rays and lateral scales. They also exhibit slight colour pattern longer than high in small specimens, in large specimens
differences related to the width of the dark midlateral stripe, considerably higher than long. In life, the colour of the lateral
which is generally narrower in M. synergos, covering one and a band is dark-blue and the scales have wine-red margins, which
half scale rows for most of its length versus 2 to 3 scale rows form about 8 longitudinal stripes. Proximal part of anal and
for M. catherinae. Moreover, the midlateral stripe of second dorsal wine-red.
Melanotaenia synergos is nearly covered entirely by the
pectoral fin, whereas it is broadly exposed (at least one scale
row) above the pectoral fin of Melanotaenia catherinae. Distribution & Habitat
Analysis of genetic relationships indicates a close relationship The type-locality was a brook flowing into the Rabiai River, on
between the two species. Waigiou (Waigeo) Island. However, they have been collected
from several streams including the Rabiai River, Wai Semie and
the Wai Meniel. Melanotaenia catherinae is so far found only on
Original Description Waigeo and Batanta Islands in the Raja Ampat Group lying
Dorsal profile nearly straight, sloping down from dorsal to snout, a immediately west of the Vogelkop Peninsula, West Papua. The
little more convex in large specimens. Ventral profile strongly Raja Ampat Islands are a group of islands comprising Waigeo,
convex in large specimens. Height in smaller specimens (to 100 Batanta, Salawati and Misool located to the west of Sorong, on the
mm.) 2.5−3.2, 3−3.75 in length with caudal, in specimens above northwest tip of the mainland of New Guinea. The Raja Ampat
100 mm. 2.2−2.5, 2.7─3 in length with caudal. Head 3.2−3.7, Islands are situated immediately west of the New Guinea
4−4.5 in length with caudal. Eye 3−3.8, about 1.5 in interorbital mainland, between 0°20' and 2°15' S latitude, and 129°35' and
space, which is about equal to postorbital part of head. Snout rather 131°20' E longitude. The Archipelago and surrounding seas
obtuse, 2.6−3 in head and only a little longer than eye. occupy approximately 40,000 km².

Gary Lange
Gerald Allen
A number of rainbowfishes have been collected from several other
islands off the coast of New Guinea. Melanotaenia misoolensis
from Misool and Melanotaenia japenensis from Japen, which are
endemic to these islands off the north coast. The Aru Islands off
the south coast are inhabited by Melanotaenia goldiei (trifasciata)
and M. splendida rubrostriata, both of which are widely
distributed on the southern New Guinea mainland. All of these
insular areas were formerly connected to the New Guinea land
mass and are presently separated by shallow (less than 50 fathoms)
seas.
Remarks
The first aquarium specimens were imported to Germany by
Heiko Bleher in 1992, where they were bred and distributed
internationally.
Raja Ampat Island Group

Melanotaenia corona
Allen, 1982
Corona Rainbowfish

Melanotaenia corona was described on the basis of two Known only from the upper Sermowai River on the north
specimens collected in 1911 from the Sermowai River, near coast of West Papua, about 75 kilometres west of Jayapura.
Walckenaer Bay, northern New Guinea, about 2°47'S, 140° They were collected by Knud Gjellerup in 1911. Four other
00'E. It differs from other members of the genus in the shape of species of rainbowfishes were collected by Gjellerup from
the dorsal and anal fin outline and colour pattern. The body is the Sermowai River: Chilatherina crassispinosa, Chilatherina
laterally compressed and elongated. Two dorsal fins, very close fasciata, Chilatherina lorentzi and Melanotaenia affinis.
together, the first much smaller than the second. May reach a However, it is not known if they share the same habitat with
maximum size of 12 cm, but usually less than 10 cm. The Melanotaenia corona.
second dorsal and anal fins are unusually tall compared with
other members of the genus. The longest rays are situated in
the middle part of these fins, a feature that is typical of some Remarks
Glossolepis. Live colours unknown. The only two known specimens must have escaped Weber and de
Beaufort’s attention. The holotype is preserved in Amsterdam, the
Melanotaenia corona is easily distinguished from other member’s only paratype was sent to the Western Australian Museum in
of the genus on the basis of colour pattern, particularly the Perth.
combination of the four broad dark stripes on the back and the
very dark coloration of the dorsal and anal fins. Moreover, it is Today Melanotaenia corona is still awaiting rediscovery.
the only member of the genus in which the longest soft rays of The specific name is Latin, meaning rim, or border, alluding
the dorsal and anal fin are located in the middle part of these to the distinctive white margin on the dorsal fins. This
fins, a character which is also present in the genus species is not currently available in the aquarium hobby.
Glossolepis.

Gunther Schmida
Christmas Creek [Logan River, Queensland]
Melanotaenia duboulayi drainage systems of northern New South Wales and southern
(Castelnau, 1878) Queensland, and Melanotaenia fluviatilis from the inland Murray-
Crimsonspotted Rainbowfish Darling River system.
Atherinichthys duboulayi Castelnau, 1878 M. duboulayi can reach a maximum size of 12 cm SL, but are
Aristeus lineatus Macleay, 1881 usually less than 10 cm. They have a slender and compressed
Aristeus perporosus De Vis, 1884 body shape with depth increasing with age. Two dorsal fins,
Rhombatractus lineatus Gill, 1894 very close together, the first much smaller than the second.
Rhombatractus perporosus Ogilby, 1896 They exhibit considerable colour variations over their wide
Chirostoma duboulayi Waite, 1904 geographical range. Generally, the body is silvery-blue or
Melanotaenia nigrans Regan, 1914 green ranging through deep bluish or yellow tones. The scale
Melanotaenia nigrans Jordan & Hubbs, 1919 rows are marked with narrow yellow lines and overlaid with
Melanotaenia splendida fluviatilis Allen & Cross, 1982 orange to brilliant red. A prominent spot of crimson red is seen
Melanotaenia duboulayi Crowley, Ivantsoff & Allen, 1986 on the operculum, the fin colours are variable from clear,
yellowish to red, with red flecks and dark margins. These dark
Species Summary margins become intensely black in males during spawning
activities. The larger males are easily distinguished from
Melanotaenia duboulayi were initially collected in the 1870’s
females by their brighter colours and can usually be identified
from the Richmond River in northern New South Wales by a man
from the elongation of posterior rays in the second dorsal and
named Duboulay (du Boulay). They were later scientifically
anal fins. Females have rounded dorsal and anal fins, which are
described as Atherinichthys duboulayi by Castelnau in 1878. They
smaller and lack the dark edges.
were also later known as Nematocentris fluviatilis and Melanotaenia
fluviatilis. Following a review of the rainbowfish group by Allen
M. duboulayi are not easily distinguished from M. fluviatilis.
in 1980, they were reclassified as Melanotaenia splendida
Principal variations are body depth, fin counts, and colour pattern.
fluviatilis. Their current scientific name follows from a study of
In addition, there are clear differences in egg characteristics and
its early life-history stages by Crowley, et al., 1986. This study
larval development. M. fluviatilis often have a broader head and
resulted in Melanotaenia splendida fluviatilis being separated
blunter snout compared to M. duboulayi.
into two species, Melanotaenia duboulayi from the eastern coastal

Leo O’Reilly
Christmas Creek [Logan River, Queensland]
Alan Travers
Richmond River (New South Wales)

Gunther Schmida
Obi Obi Creek [Mary River, Queensland]
Gunther Schmida
Kangaroo Creek [Tin Can Bay, Queensland]

Gunther Schmida
Albert River (Queensland)
Gunther Schmida
Richmond River (New South Wales)

Gunther Schmida
Gin Gin Creek [Kolan River, Queensland]
Gunther Schmida
Miriam Vale (Queensland)

Melanotaenia duboulayi inhabits the coastal drainages east M. duboulayi is the original “Australian Rainbowfish” and
of the Great Dividing Range from the Hastings River, New were being maintained in the aquarium hobby around the
South Wales, approximately 400 km north of Sydney to turn of the twentieth century. M. duboulayi were commonly
Baffle Creek, Queensland. They are a subtropical species known as the ‘Crimson-spotted Sunfish’ and mistakenly
found in relatively still, clear water, in water temperatures identified as Melanotaenia nigrans. Amandus Rudel was a
between 16–28° Celsius. Habitat includes freshwater rivers, founding member of the Aquarium & Terrarium Society of
streams, billabongs, reservoirs, swamps, and lagoons with Queensland, and in 1927 he introduced the Australian
dense aquatic vegetation. Their natural environment is rainbowfish to the international aquarium hobby when he
subjected to seasonal variations with water temperature, pH sent specimens of M. duboulayi by steamship to Germany.
(5.4–7.8), and hardness levels varying considerably. Speaking of Melanotaenia duboulayi, Amandus said, “I was
astonished at the beauty of this fish the first time I saw it.
Melanotaenia splendida occupies the east coast drainages of Like a living rainbow, there is no other fish which can
Queensland north of the Burnett River region in the south, compare with its beauty. Naturally it has been my favourite
to Scrubby Creek, just south of the Lockhart River in the ever since.”
north. The exact species boundaries are unknown and it may
be that these two species live sympatrically in some It is believed that from this initial shipment M. duboulayi
locations. were introduced to the organised aquarium hobby
throughout Europe, and then to North America. They are
Melanotaenia duboulayi are usually found in open water probably the species upon which today’s common name
areas and around sub-surface vegetation, submerged logs, or “Rainbowfish” is based. In 1930 a number of M. duboulayi
branches in mid to lower depths. They usually spend most were collected in the Mississippi River. This was one of the
of their time in the open water areas where they form small earliest accounts of an introduced ornamental fish found in
groups, with one or two fish breaking away to explore the USA.
occasionally. The behaviour between the sexes also appears
to vary with females forming the basis of the group while Rainbowfish found in US waters...
the males cruise in search of spawning or feeding Three specimens of Melanotaenia nigrans were collected
opportunities. In sunny conditions groups of juveniles with a small seine from the edge of a sandbar of the
occurred near the water surface feeding on floating material Mississippi River, Randolph County, in July 1930. It was
at the surface, but larger fish tended to occur at the bottom supposed that these fish were escapes from a tropical fish
near submerged vegetation, often utilizing the aquatic plants establishment in the St. Louis area, about 40 miles
as a refuge and food source. In the middle of the day, upstream. However, an aquarium release cannot be ruled
juveniles and small fish seemed to show behavioural out. The record of O'Donnell (1935) represents one of the
thermoregulation at the surface in the warmest site. Under earliest accounts of an introduced ornamental fish taken in
cloudy conditions, however, fish of all sizes preferred U.S. open waters. Specimens were identified by Carl Hubbs.
deeper water. There are no known voucher specimens.
These fish would undoubtedly be Melanotaenia duboulayi!

Biology
Most information on rainbowfish biology is mainly based
on aquarium observations. Spawning occurs from ▼Melanotaenia duboulayi distribution
September to December before the onset of summer rains.
Spawning occurs during the early morning or evening just
before dark. Each female lays several eggs a day, which are
fertilised by the male. Eggs adhere to fine-leaved foliage
plants or among the roots of floating vegetation by several
long, thin filaments originating at one point on the egg
membrane. The water hardened eggs have a diameter of
0.98–1.8 mm and hatch after 5–9 days after fertilisation at
water temperatures between 24 and 29°C. At hatching,
larvae 2.5 to 4.2 mm in length have a reduced but still
present yolk-sac. The newly hatched larvae congregate near
the water's surface within a few hours and begin feeding
within 12 hours. At 32 days after hatching, the mean larval
length is about 14–15 mm and at 72 days 21–25 mm.
Juvenile fish grow quickly and reach maturity in the year
following hatching. Sexual maturity occurs at about 4–5 cm
for both sexes. Strong sexual dimorphism is present in the
species with males typically being larger and brighter in
colouration.

Gunther Schmida
Lake Eacham
Melanotaenia eachamensis
Allen and Cross, 1982
Lake Eacham Rainbowfish

Melanotaenia eachamensis is a small species, slender and Melanotaenia eachamensis were initially found in Lake
compressed but depth increasing with age. Two dorsal fins, Eacham, a 43 ha crater lake located on the Atherton Tablelands
very close together, the first much smaller than the second. about 40 km south-west of the north Queensland town of
May reach a maximum size of 8 cm SL, but usually less than 6 Cairns. The lake has a northeast-southwest length of around 1.5
cm. Males can be distinguished from females on the basis of km and 1 km wide. Water in the lake is supplied entirely from the
differences in colouration and shape of the dorsal, anal and catchment area within the crater rim. The water of the lake is
ventral fins. The original males collected from Lake Eacham neutral with a low level of dissolved salts. The lake is permanent
had an overall bronze body colouration. The first dorsal fin was and deep, and fluctuates seasonally with a maximum depth of 65.5
jet black while the second dorsal and anal fins had a maroon m during the wet season.
red colouration. Females are rather plain compared with males
and have smaller more rounded dorsal and anal fins. Gerald
Allen and Norbert Cross described the new species on the basis of Remarks
differences in colour and body shape from surrounding populations Melanotaenia eachamensis is without doubt the most well-
of Melanotaenia splendida splendida. known Australian rainbowfish. This is not because it is the
most desirable species to keep but because it was believed to
This species was formally described in 1982. A survey of Lake be the first Australian freshwater fish species to ever become
Eacham in 1978 revealed the existence of a rainbowfish along extinct. It was one of the most widely publicised examples of
with a hardyhead (Craterocephalus stercusmuscarum) and a the impact of translocated fishes.
gudgeon (Mogurnda mogurnda). This survey and subsequent
collection resulted in the rainbowfish being described as a new
species and was thought to be endemic to the lake.

The “eachamensis” Story Small freshwater fish species had been reported from Lake
Eacham as early as 1925. The first report of rainbowfishes in Lake
Eacham, however, was in 1965 by members of the Townsville
Melanotaenia eachamensis were initially collected from Aquarium Society. They were generally considered not to be as
Lake Eacham, a crater lake located on the Atherton brightly coloured as other rainbowfishes from the coastal regions.
Tablelands about 40 km south-west of Cairns in northern They were never collected however, (well, not officially anyway),
Queensland. The lake has a northeast-southwest length of and there is no record of them having being maintained in the
around 1.5 km and 1 km wide. Water in the lake is supplied hobby in those early years. Allen and Cross’s description of the
entirely from the catchment area within the crater rim. The Lake Eacham rainbowfish helped to stimulate interest in keeping
water of the lake is neutral with a low level of dissolved the fish and fortunately a few specimens were collected for the
salts, with water temperatures between 18–28°C. The lake is aquarium hobby in 1980 and 1982 before they disappeared from
permanent and deep, and fluctuates seasonally with a the lake and were still being maintain by some hobbyists,
maximum depth of 65.5 metres during the wet season. otherwise this fish would have been lost forever.
There are a number of volcanic crater lakes or lake remnants Surveys of Lake Eacham in 1973, 1974 and 1978 revealed the
located on the Atherton Tablelands including Lynch’s Crater, existence of a rainbowfish along with a hardyhead (Craterocephalus
Strenekoff’s Crater, Mobo Crater, Bromfield Swamp, Lake stercusmuscarum) and a gudgeon (Mogurnda mogurnda). M.
Barrine, Lake Eacham and Lake Euramoo. Three of these eachamensis were abundant within the lake at the time, but during
volcanic lakes (Eacham, Barrine and Euramoo) occur within surveys in 1983, 1984 and 1985 four native fish species
close proximity of each other. Lake Euramoo has a (Amniataba percoides, Glossamia aprion, Nematalosa erebi and
relatively small catchment area of about 4500 m2 with no Toxotes chatareus) were found in the lake. All these fish were
inflow or outflow channels. The lake has a water depth presumed to have been translocated to the lake by person or
averaging around 20 metres in the northern end and 16 persons unknown.
metres in the southern end, though there are seasonal
fluctuations in water depth of between 2 and 3 metres. Lake In 1987, Barlow et al. surveyed the lake but failed to locate any
Barrine is on average 67 metres deep. It is about 1 km in rainbowfishes, although the four introduced species were
diameter, has a shoreline of almost 4.5 km and is the largest plentiful. Apart from the complete absence of M. eachamensis,
of the natural volcanic lakes in the area. the survey also failed to locate any gudgeons or any specimens
of the native crayfish (Cherax cairnsensis), which had been
The surrounding area of both Lake Eacham and Lake very abundant in the lake in the early 1980’s. Thus, two of the
Barrine contain creeks that flow into Tinaroo Dam (Barron three fishes (and potentially a crayfish as well) naturally
River) but are not associated with the lakes themselves. occurring in the lake disappeared during the same period that
Both of these lakes are very close to the impoundment area four translocated native fishes established breeding populations
of Tinaroo Dam into which Wright Creek and Congoo there. The decline of the rainbowfishes in the lake must have
Creek flow. Lake Barrine has flood-flow connections to been very dramatic, as I visited Lake Eacham in early 1984 and
Toohey Creek, an upper tributary of the Mulgrave River. large numbers of rainbowfishes were still visible, particularly
around the floating pontoon that was accessible from the shore.
M. eachamensis is a small rainbowfish species. They may
reach a maximum size of 8 cm SL, but are usually less than As a result of the 1987 survey, M. eachamensis was declared
6 cm. They have a slender and compressed body with depth “extinct in the wild” (some remained in captivity) at the 1987
increasing with age. M. eachamensis is not an overly Australian Society for Fish Biology Conference. Thus, within a
attractive species but it does have its own distinctive colour few years of its formal recognition, the Lake Eacham rainbowfish
and characteristics. They can be very colourful when kept in was regarded as the first freshwater fish in Australia to have
a suitable captive environment. The original males collected become extinct since European settlement.
from Lake Eacham had an overall bronze body colouration.
The first dorsal fin was jet black while the second dorsal This extinction was attributed to a harmful interaction with the
and anal fins had a maroon red colouration. Males can be translocated species, in particular predation by the mouth
distinguished from females on the basis of differences in almighty (Glossamia aprion). Although other rainbowfish
colouration and shape of the dorsal, anal and ventral fins. species coexist with the translocated species elsewhere in
Females are rather plain compared with the males and have northern Australia, it was assumed that being isolated from
smaller more rounded dorsal and anal fins. predators, M. eachamensis was unable to survive.
Gerald Allen collected the Lake Eacham rainbowfish in 1978 and In addition to the above translocations, Lates calcarifer were
they were described as M. eachamensis in 1982, although it was collected there in 1990–1991. Hephaestus fuliginosus and M.
considered to be closely related to the widespread Melanotaenia splendida have also been translocated there and are still present.
splendida. Allen and Cross described the new species on the basis Ironically, M. splendida are now present in large numbers and
of differences in colour and body shape from surrounding another species, believed to be an exotic has also been observed.
populations of M. splendida. In his original description of M. All these fish species have been stocked into the lake unofficially.
eachamensis, Allen points out this very close relationship, and The natural condition of the lake has also declined and sadly it is
makes clear that it is defined as being separate only because it falls no longer the pristine lake it once was.
outside the range of parameters for M. splendida on several
counts.

Wright Creek
Lake Euramoo
Alan Travers Neil Armstrong

Lake Barrine
Lake Euramoo
Allan Travers Allan Travers

Immediately after the “extinct-in-the-wild” announcement in specimens confirmed M. eachamensis as a separate species
1987, members of the Australia New Guinea Fishes Association distinguishable from M. splendida from surrounding areas.
(ANGFA) at their first national conference in Sydney Furthermore, it was concluded that both Lake Euramoo and
undertook a survey of members throughout Australia, which Dirran Creek, and possibly Charappa Creek (an upland
revealed the existence of a number of small captive populations tributary of the South Johnstone River) exhibited a ‘pure’
of M. eachamensis. These stocks were designated as the lineage with M. eachamensis. Lake and stream populations
‘Bowman’ and ‘Tappin’ populations. ANGFA instigated a were also genetically distinct and these differences were
captive-breeding program known as “Project Eachamensis” to retained in captive bred populations. Following on from there,
stimulate and actively encouraged the establishment of new a flurry of scientific work was undertaken that resulted in a better
captive populations. Within two years, numerous ‘Bowman’ understanding of this species complex and the distribution of the
and ‘Tappin’ populations were established in the Australian scattered populations. As well, fascinating behavioural research
hobby. In addition, eggs were sent to North America and revealed that the long isolation of some of these populations
Europe where populations were established, and the species robbed them of protective predator avoidance responses and
was considered secure in captivity. this led to accelerated losses and their ultimate rapid extinction
by translocated (but still native) predators.
Much finger pointing followed as to who was responsible for
the demise of the Lake Eacham rainbowfish until public Lake Barrine also contained rainbowfishes of uncertain
embarrassment got the better of all and government funding was identity, although these were listed as M. splendida at the time.
found to investigate the genetic distinctiveness of M. However, in a brief survey of Lake Barrine in 1991 numerous
eachamensis and to evaluate the genetic composition of Glossamia aprion were found, but no rainbowfish. As Lake
existing captive stocks with a view to re-establishing the Barrine has a flood-flow connection to the upper Mulgrave
rainbowfish back into its natural habitat. Not only was this the River via Toohey Creek, the rainbowfish in Lake Barrine may
first reported extinction of a native fish but Lake Eacham is have been the common M. splendida or if the waterfalls in the
situated in a National Park under control of the Queensland upper Mulgrave River and Toohey Creek prevented colonisation
National Parks administration and also in a World Heritage by M. splendida, they may have been another form of rainbowfish.
area under the control of the Wet Tropics Management Rainbowfish from Lake Euramoo were analysed as part of the
Authority. genetic studies of the Lake Eacham rainbowfish (Zhu et al.
1998, McGuigan et al. 2000). However, no specimens from
A number of young M. eachamensis were supplied to the Lake Barrine were included in the study as the researchers
Walkamin Research Station (inland from Cairns) to establish a could not locate any there. A number of predatory native fishes
research and breeding stock. A similar number of specimens have also been translocated into Lake Barrine. Incidentally,
were supplied to Sydney’s Taronga Park Zoo Aquarium for translocated native predators also now occur in Dirran Creek.
display, to heighten public awareness, and for breeding stock;
however, owing to a mycobacteria disease outbreak this group In 1983, I obtained wild-caught specimens of another
all died several years later. rainbowfish of uncertain identity from Mobo Crater. Mobo
Crater is located between Lake Euramoo and Lake Barrine.
At Walkamin Research Station a breeding pond was set aside This fish was being distributed within the rainbowfish hobby as
and within 18 months several thousand rainbow fish had been M. eachamensis (Mobo Crater) as late as 1999, but the original
produced. In November 1989, 3,000 M. eachamensis bred wild-caught fish looked nothing like the Lake Eacham
from captive stocks were released into the lake but none could rainbowfish. This form however, now seems to have
be located in surveys just three months later and throughout disappeared from the aquarium hobby in Australia. Limited
1990. As this reintroduction attempt was unsuccessful, and the stocks are available in Europe.
removal of the translocated fishes from Lake Eacham were
considered unlikely, there were no further attempts to restore As a representative of ANGFA, I attended a ‘Lake Eacham
M. eachamensis to the lake. Rainbowfish Workshop’ in Cairns during September 1995.
This workshop was attended by representatives from Walkamin
In the meantime, while this fascinating chronicle of events was Research Station, Queensland Fisheries Management Authority,
evolving, ANGFA member, David Liddle was exploring a University of Queensland, Queensland Department of
number of streams on the Atherton Tablelands looking for Environment & Heritage, Queensland Department of Primary
rainbowfishes and discovered an “eachamensis” look-alike in Industries, Wet Tropics Management Authority, James Cook
Dirran Creek (an upland tributary of the North Johnstone University, Sydney’s Taronga Zoo, and the Australia New Guinea
River), located about 22 km south of Lake Eacham. Another Fishes Association. At this workshop, a number of problems
unusual rainbowfish species was also found in Lake Euramoo, had to be taken into account before developing a conservation
a crater lake situated about 14 km north of Lake Eacham. strategy for M. eachamensis. However, while it was considered
desirable that the Lake Eacham Rainbowfish be returned to the
In 1991, Crowley and Ivantsoff conducted an electrophoretic lake, the eradication of the translocated fishes from Lake
analysis of a number of the captive-bred Lake Eacham Eacham was considered unlikely to be achievable, economical
rainbowfishes and reported that they could not distinguish or sustainable using existing technology. It was also recommended
electrophoretically between M. eachamensis and M. splendida. that the conservation status of M. eachamensis be downgraded
However, studies by Moritz et al. (1995) reported contrasting from “extinct-in-the-wild” to vulnerable under the Nature
conclusions. mtDNA analyses of rainbowfish collections from Conservation Act 1992.
catchments adjacent to Lake Eacham and captive bred

Gunther Schmida
Dirran Creek (North Johnstone River)
Gunther Schmida
Walkamin (Captive bred form)
Using an analysis of morphological and meristic characters, Rainbowfishes are notoriously easy to hybridise in an aquarium
Pusey et al. (1997) believed M. eachamensis to be even more and although there is not a lot of evidence of this in the wild, it
widespread, occurring in many upland and several lowland may have more to do with the fact that it just hasn’t been recorded,
tributaries and reaches of the North and South Johnstone rather than it not actually occurring. Male rainbowfishes in
Rivers; in upland tributaries of the Herbert River; upper Tully captivity are not very choosy when it comes to spawning with
River and the upper Daintree River. Subsequent genetic work females even if the females are a “different” species.
(Zhu et al. 1998, McGuigan 2000, McGuigan et al. 2000,
Hurwood and Hughes 2001) suggested that at least some of In general, rainbowfishes evolve into different species and
these occurrences are not M. eachamensis but either unusual subspecies after becoming geographically isolated from others,
variants of M. splendida, M. utcheensis or populations displaying adapting to their different environments, and changing over time
alleles (one member of a pair or series of genes that occupy a through the process of natural selection. Geographic populations of
specific position on a specific chromosome) of more than one rainbowfishes have been isolated from each other for perhaps
species. thousands of years. They have gradually evolved physical changes
that reflect that adaptation. However, despite the research that has
Rainbowfishes from Utchee Creek, a tributary of the South been undertaken to date, the specific status and distribution of M.
Johnson River, had long been recognised by rainbowfish enthusiasts eachamensis still remains unclear.
as being different, although scientifically known as M.
splendida. The above mentioned research found that most of
the specimens studied from this stream were phenotypically Remarks
indistinguishable from M. eachamensis. However, additional I obtained about twelve wild-caught specimens of M. eachamensis
research indicated that the ‘Utchee Creek’ variety was indeed a in May 1982. These were placed in a single species aquarium, and
distinct species, and they were formally described as in September 1982 they were spawned. During 1983–84, I
Melanotaenia utcheensis, with populations known from distributed large numbers of tank-raised young adults to interested
Utchee, Fisher, Rankin and Short Creeks in the North and aquarists as well as some retail and wholesale outlets. However,
South Johnstone catchments (McGuigan 2001). like many other rainbowfish keepers, in those early years, the
advent of the more colourful New Guinea rainbowfish found their
Genetic analysis also revealed M. eachamensis occurred in way into my aquariums and my stock of M. eachamensis slowly
Bromfield Swamp in the North Johnstone River headwaters faded away. In 1987, following their reported extinction-in-the-
(McGuigan 2000). Bromfield Swamp occupies a partially wild I once again obtained stock from the original collector, who
breached crater and is very shallow. Bromfield Swamp is an still had some specimens from the 1982 collection, and was once
explosion crater, from which water drains from an outlet on the again spawning this remarkable fish. I continued to maintain a
east side. The swamp, which is 500 metres in diameter is small captive population until February 2000.
approximately 45 metres below the rim of the crater, and was
once surrounded by tropical rainforest. Despite the research that has been undertaken to date however, it is
my opinion that these “genetic” look-a-likes of M. eachamensis
Zhu et al. (1998) also found populations that contained a don’t physically look like the original fish collected from Lake
mixture of alleles from M. eachamensis and M. splendida, in Eacham and maintained by myself for many years. While I would
other locations such as an irrigation channel from Tinaroo Dam agree that the fish from Dirran Creek are very similar, the rest of
(Walkamin “eachamensis”), Streets Creek (Kuranda Reds), the so-called “Melanotaenia eachamensis” look nothing like the
upper Barron, and other tributaries of the North and South original Lake Eacham Rainbowfish.
Johnstone Rivers such as Williams Creek and Ithaca Creek.
The finding of fish with M. eachamensis alleles in irrigation I also have doubts about the validity of some of the “M.
channels of Tinaroo Dam would probably represent a translocation eachamensis” being maintained in the Australian hobby today.
of these species to the upper Barron River catchment. The unusual The problem is that many of these “look-a-likes” have and are
distribution of M. eachamensis alleles demonstrated by Zhu et being distributed and bred under the umbrella name
al. (1998) may also suggest that it was translocated to other “eachamensis” and present captive stocks do not look like the
locations, and raises the possibility that even Lake Eacham original fish. I suspect that there are very few genuine
may not have been their original habitat. descendants of the original “Lake Eacham” rainbowfish still in
existence. There may be some original stock in Europe and
On the Atherton Tablelands there are apparently at least three North America if they haven’t been contaminated with the
species of rainbowfish (M. splendida, M. eachamensis and M. “look-a-likes” as they have in the Australian hobby.
utcheensis) which all live within close proximity of one
another. It has been suggested that M. utcheensis and M. Another problem with rainbowfishes kept in captivity is that
eachamensis were the original inhabitants of the region and M. instead of natural selection, selection is done by the aquarist;
splendida may have invaded relatively recently. It has been because only a relatively small number of fish can be kept, the
suggested that the dispersal of rainbowfishes between the aquarist tends to select for those which grow best and look best
various river systems on the Atherton Tablelands had occurred under aquarium conditions. In the long term, the fish being
due to rearrangements of the streams (e.g., river capture) at kept may be genetically a long way from the original wild fish,
some stage in the past. The species boundaries of all three and may even look very different. It’s possible that the Lake
species are not well defined and recent evidence suggests that Eacham form of M. eachamensis is no longer a viable
at least some populations have hybridised in the streams of the population.
Cairns-Atherton region.

Rainbowfishes occupy such a wide variety of habitats that we
Photos: Allan Travers

couldn’t reasonably expect evolution to have resulted in a neat,
uncomplicated, uniform species. I like to think that rainbowfishes
exist in nature as unique populations irrespective of the name
they carry. Many things in nature cannot be rigidly and
accurately categorised and the Lake Eacham population is
worthy of our attention and preservation. Whether or not these
“look-a-likes” are truly M. eachamensis, emphasis should be
placed on retaining the known pure populations of the Lake
Eacham Rainbowfish and protecting these from interbreeding
with the related species. Therefore, specific names based on the
locality where each is found should be used by rainbowfish
enthusiasts to identify each form. Where populations need to be
identified, they should be sold and distributed by inclusion of a
form or population identifier in brackets following the species
name e.g., Melanotaenia eachamensis (Dirran Creek).
Despite the above developments, captive breeding programs

can and do have an important impact on the conservation of
threatened species, and the preservation of their natural
habitats. Such programs must, however, be part of a well
coordinated approach involving all interested groups. I guess
we can all learn a lesson from this and that is not to translocate
any fish from one habitat to another and not to release any
unwanted aquarium fish into a natural environment. If you
have aquarium fish that you no longer require then please
return them to the shop where you purchased them or dispose
of them humanly.
Lake Eacham Habitats

Neil Armstrong
Edith River [Daly River, Northern Territory]
Melanotaenia exquisita exquisite fishes were discovered in the King George River in
the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Then in 1997,
Allen, 1978 another population was discovered in Bindoola Creek, a small
Exquisite Rainbowfish
stream that flows into the Pentecost River in the Cambridge
Gulf in the far north-eastern Western Australia. Since then a
Species Summary number of populations have been found.
Melanotaenia exquisita have a slender and compressed body.
Two dorsal fins, very close together, the first much smaller Preliminary genetic studies of Melanotaenia exquisita from
than the second. Mature males have a higher first dorsal fin, Bindoola Creek have shown some clear differences from other
which overlaps the origin of the second dorsal fin when known populations. Further genetic and morphological studies
depressed. Females have smaller rounded dorsal and anal fins. may justify its recognition as a distinct species.
May reach a maximum size of 9 cm, but usually less than 8
cm. Adults are olive on the back and silvery white on the lower Melanotaenia exquisita typically inhabit small, clear, swift-
half. There is a pair of prominent stripes running along the flowing streams, often congregating in rock pools at the base of
middle of the side with a red stripe just below. A pair of dark small waterfalls such as Jim Jim Falls in the South Alligator
zigzag stripes is situated between the red stripe and base of the system and Seventeen Mile Falls in the Katherine system (plus
anal fin. The dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are edged with red, the King George Falls in Western Australia). They also occur
frequently with small black spots. Males are relatively slender in the still waters of Lake Malkyullumbo at the base of Edith
compared to that of most other rainbowfishes. Falls.

Melanotaenia exquisita was originally collected in 1977 by Another rainbowfish species known in the hobby as
Gerald Allen and Geoff Evans from the Edith River about 1 “Waterfall Creek Exquisita” comes from above the Gunlom
km upstream from Lake Malkyullumbo, Northern Territory. At Falls (also known as UDP Falls or Waterfall Creek Falls) in
the time Melanotaenia exquisita were believed to occur only in Kakadu National Park. Gunlom Falls is a waterfall on
the Northern Territory. However, in 1986 more of these Waterfall Creek about 200 km east-southeast of Darwin in

Dave Wilson
Dave Wilson
“Sleisbeck” ▲ male ▼ female [South Alligator River, Northern Territory]
Dave Wilson
Mary River (Northern Territory)
Franz-Peter Mullenholz
Bindoola Creek [Pentecost River, Western Australia]
Dave Wilson
▼▲Waterfall Creek [South Alligator River, Northern Territory]
Dave Wilson
the Northern Territory. Waterfall Creek flows
Alan Travers
into the South Alligator River. Permission to
collect specimens from this site for whatever
purpose is almost impossible to get. However,
there are a number of captive populations in
existence. They differ from Melanotaenia
exquisita by having a deeper body and totally
different colour. The males show a charcoal
black chequer-board pattern over the body with
red edging on the dorsal and anal fins. When
spawning the nape band is a bright orange-red
colour.
Genetic studies (P. J. Unmack 2009, pers.

comm.) suggest that the “Waterfall Creek
Exquisita” are an introgressed (e.g. hybridised)
population of M. exquisita and M. nigrans.
Introgression, which seems to be common
among some sympatric rainbowfishes in their
natural environment, as suggested above, frequently
blurs the differentiations of rainbowfishes we
recognise as species or populations. Although
technically a ‘hybrid’, this process may contribute
to a continuum in speciation and genetic diversity.
This may be important to the species’ ability to
adapt to changing environmental conditions
over time. Some populations may become
better adapted than others; some may become
extinct. However, it is a good idea not to
maintain the different varieties together in the
same aquarium.
Waterfall Creek [South Alligator River]
Edith River [Daly River, Northern Territory]

Gunther Schmida
Goulburn River (Victoria)
Melanotaenia fluviatilis duboulayi. Principal variations are body depth, fin counts, and
colour pattern. In addition, there are clear differences in egg
(Castelnau, 1878)
characteristics and larval development. Southern populations often
Murray River Rainbowfish
have a broader head and blunter snout compared to fish from the
northern part of the range.
Aristeus fluviatilis Castelnau, 1878
Rhombatractus fluviatilis Gill, 1894
Melanotaenia fluviatilis is a small species with a maximum
Melanotaenia neglecta Rendahl, 1922
size of 10 cm, but more commonly less than 8 cm. Males are
Nematocentris fluviatilis Whitley, 1957
usually much larger and deeper bodied than females. They
Melanotaenia splendida fluviatilis Allen, 1980
have two dorsal fins, very close together, the first much smaller
Melanotaenia fluviatilis Crowley, Ivantsoff & Allen, 1986.
than the second. Mature males can usually be identified from
the elongation of posterior rays in the second dorsal and anal
fins and are more brightly coloured. Females have smaller
Species Summary rounded dorsal and anal fins.
Melanotaenia fluviatilis were initially collected during the
1870s from the Murrumbidgee River in New South Wales and As with most rainbowfishes, the colour is variable
scientifically described as Aristeus fluviatilis by Castelnau in depending on location and water conditions. The basic
1878. Until 1986 this species was considered the same as colour is olive, brownish, or slightly turquoise on the back
Melanotaenia duboulayi (both were known as Melanotaenia and upper side grading to white on the lower half. A thin
fluviatilis). Following a review of the rainbowfish family in reddish stripe is situated between each horizontal scale row,
1980, they were renamed Melanotaenia splendida fluviatilis. particularly in mature males. There is sometimes a blackish,
However, a study of its early life-history stages resulted in mid-lateral stripe. Fins are clear to reddish, sometimes with
Melanotaenia splendida fluviatilis being separated into two faint spotting. Males may have blackish margins on the
species, Melanotaenia duboulayi from the eastern coastal drainage dorsal, anal, and anterior margin of the pelvic fins,
systems of northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, especially during courtship and spawning. Prior to spawning
and Melanotaenia fluviatilis from the inland Murray-Darling River the male's colour intensifies becoming emerald green, the
system. They are not easily distinguished from Melanotaenia throat orange and the tailfin red.

Leo O’Reilly
Gowrie Creek [Condamine River, Queensland]
Gunter Schmida
Murray River (Berry, South Australia)
Goulburn River (Victoria)
Murray River (New South Wales)

Distribution & Habitat aquatic vegetation, in water temperatures between 18–28° Celsius.
Melanotaenia fluviatilis is the most southerly ranging rainbowfish in They are usually found along grassy banks, or around sub-surface
Australia and is the only species adapted to low winter temperature vegetation, submerged logs and branches.
(normally around 10 to 15°C). Melanotaenia fluviatilis possess a range
of temperature and salinity tolerances. However, there is some Biology
evidence that numbers are seriously reduced during winter periods, Not a lot is known about the biology of Melanotaenia
when water temperatures drop below 10°C. Southern populations fluviatilis in their natural habitat. Spawning usually occurs
can survive a few days at 7°C, but are susceptible to bacterial and from October to January as water temperatures rise. Females
protozoan infection at these temperatures. Their distribution covers produce between 100 and 150 eggs, spawning a number of
the Murray-Darling River system in Queensland, New South times daily for several days. Spawning occurs during the
Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. However, specimens early morning or evening just before dark. Each female lays
collected from the Warrego, Paroo and upper Darling Rivers (and several eggs a day, which are fertilised by the male. Eggs
other streams between those tributaries) have been identified as are spherical and colourless and adhere to fine-leaved
Melanotaenia splendida subsp. tatei based on unpublished allozyme foliage plants or among the roots of floating vegetation by
and mitochondrial DNA data (P. J. Unmack pers. comm.). several thin filaments originating at one point on the egg
membrane. The water hardened eggs have a diameter of
Melanotaenia fluviatilis have been found in the middle and lower 0.98–1.08 mm and hatch in 5–9 days after fertilisation at
sections of the Murray, Murrumbidgee and Macquarie Rivers, and water temperatures between 24 and 29°C. At hatching,
in several tributaries of the Darling River. They are considered larvae 2.5 to 4.2 mm in length have a reduced but still
common and abundant in the Broken River and near Mildura in present yolk-sac. The yolk sac is fully absorbed within 3–5
Victoria, around the Murray-Darling confluence, and in parts of days after hatching.
the Goulburn River in Victoria. This species is also present in the
middle to upper parts of the Gwydir River near Bingara, the The newly hatched larvae remain in the upper 1-cm water layer
Namoi River around the Peel River, Caroll Gap-Somerton on the within a few hours and begin feeding within 24 hours. The swim
Dumaresq River, and the Bogan River near Bogan Gate. It is bladder inflates within 10 hours of hatching. During the next 12
moderately common in some areas of its distribution range. days there are few changes in larval morphology. The swim
However, Victorian and South Australian populations seem to be bladder gradually elongates to become cylindrical. At 32 days after
decreasing in number. This is not surprising; as the Murray River hatching, the length of the larval is about 13–15 mm and at 72
is the most used and abused river system in Australia. days 21–25 mm. Growth rates vary greatly with differences in
temperature, feeding rate and densities. Juvenile fish grow quickly
Melanotaenia fluviatilis inhabit rivers, streams, billabongs, and reach maturity in the year following hatching. Sexual maturity
drainage ditches, reservoirs, overflows, swamps, and ponds with occurs at about 4–5 cm for both sexes. Strong sexual dimorphism
dense aquatic vegetation. Their natural environment is subjected to is present in the species with males typically being larger and
seasonal variations with water temperature, pH, and hardness brighter in colouration. Melanotaenia fluviatilis is essentially
levels varying considerably. They occupy a diverse variety of carnivorous, feeding on both aquatic invertebrates associated with
habitats, occurring in almost every kind of freshwater habitat, from its weedy habitat and terrestrial arthropods which may fall onto or
slow-moving streams, swamps, lakes and clear flowing rivers. alight on the water's surface; however, it is also known to consume
However, they prefer slow-flowing or still clear water with dense algae and fallen plant pollens.
Leo O’Reilly
Gowrie Creek [Condamine River, Queensland]

Melanotaenia fredericki
(Fowler, 1939)
Sorong Rainbowfish
Charisella fredericki Fowler, 1939 Juvenile Specimen

Melanotaenia fredericki Allen, 1990
Fowler’s Charisella fredericki, as it was originally named,
Species Summary as a synonym of Melanotaenia goldiei. However, adult
The basic body colour of Melanotaenia fredericki is mauve specimens collected in 1989 confirmed their validity as a
with blue reflective scales above the midlateral band. They have distinct species.
broad yellow shading immediately below the midlateral band
on the middle of the body (most prominent in juveniles).
Mature fish sometimes show the yellow colouration only on the Distribution & Habitat
scale edges. The fins are mainly translucent, but the dorsal, anal M. fredericki is currently found only in a few small creeks
and caudal may have a hint of yellow or red. Males may reach a in the vicinity of Sorong at the western end of the Vogelkop
maximum size of 12 cm, but females usually less than 10 cm. Peninsula, West Papua. They have been collected from clear
Males are more brightly coloured, larger, and deeper bodied slow flowing streams in closed canopy rainforest – pH 6.5–7.5;
than females. Temperature 24–28°C, usually around sub-surface vegetation,
submerged logs, or branches.
M. fredericki was described in 1939 by Henry W. Fowler on
the basis of very young specimens (22–28 mm) found in the
vicinity of Sainkedoek, on the Vogelkop Peninsula. They Remarks
were collected during the Denison-Crockett South Pacific A number of live specimens were collected by Heiko Bleher
Expedition in 1938 from a stream in the Wa(r) Samson River in 1992 and distributed in the aquarium hobby. Other live
drainage. However, in his book “Rainbowfishes of Australia specimens have been collected from the Warsamson River in
and New Guinea” in 1982, Gerald Allen wasn’t certain the Sorong region and are currently being distributed in the
whether M. fredericki represented a valid species. He placed ornamental fish trade as M. fredericki.

Neil Armstrong
Melanotaenia goldiei
(Macleay, 1883)
Goldie River Rainbowfish
Aristeus goldiei Macleay, 1883

Nematocentris novae-guineae Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886
Rhombosoma goldiei Ogilby, 1896
Rhombatractus goldiei Ogilby, 1896
Rhombatractus novae-guineae Ogilby, 1896
Melanotaenia dumasi Weber, 1908
Rhombatractus kochii Weber, 1908
Palmer River habitat, PNG
Rhombatractus weberi Regan, 1908
Rhombatractus senckenbergianus Weber, 1911
Rhombosoma novae-guineae Regan, 1914
Rhombosoma goldiei Regan, 1914 Distribution & Habitat
Rhombosoma novae-guineae Regan, 1914 M. goldiei were initially collected from the Goldie River, a
Rhombatractus archboldi Nichols & Raven, 1934 major tributary of the Laloki River in southern New Guinea,
Anisocentrus dumasi Munro, 1958 near Port Moresby in the 1880’s. The Laloki River and its
Melanotaenia goldiei Allen, 1991 major tributaries, the Brown and Goldie Rivers, arise in the
lush foothills of the Owen Stanley Ranges in the Central
District of Papua New Guinea.
Species Summary M. goldiei is one of the most widely distributed rainbowfishes
Melanotaenia goldiei have a distinctive coppery coloured
in southern New Guinea, ranging from Lake Yamur (West
sheen on the upper half of the body with a creamy white colour
Papua) eastward to the Port Moresby region. They are very
on the lower half. The mid-lateral stripe is discontinuous, dark
abundant and one of the most common rainbowfish throughout
blue or blackish, and about 2 scale rows wide. There is a
the region. They have also been found on the Aru Islands.
narrow copper or orange-coloured stripe between each scale
Other river systems where M. goldiei has been collected
row on the upper half of the body. Males may reach a
include the Fly, Kemp Welsh, Lakekamu, Lorentz, Ok Tedi,
maximum size of 10 cm, but females are usually less than 8
Palmer, Oriomo and Sapoi Rivers as well as the Timika region
cm.
in West Papua. In 2005, M. goldiei were collected in 17 sites in
the Fly River catchment - Elevala River, Ok Tedi, upper Fly
River, Ok Mart and Ok Menga.

M. goldiei are found in a wide ranges of habitats, including Another collection was made by Heiko Bleher around the late
swamps, backwaters, small creeks, and large rivers. They are 1980s, and these were introduced to the European hobby. They
most abundant in deep pools behind fallen logs or buttress roots are known as the “Tapini” variety. These were collected from
of large trees, where they form loose midwater aggregation. the Loloipa River, which is an upper tributary of the Angabanga
They occur most frequently around sub-surface vegetation, River which flows to the sea near Bereina, Papua New Guinea.
submerged logs, or branches in small tributary streams. Typical
habitat consists of small, clear; slow-flowing creeks in closed Allen (1982) suggested that M. goldiei and M. trifasciata from
canopy forest over relatively flat terrain. These creeks typically northern Australia originated from one and the same ancestral
have mud or gravel bottoms and littered with leaves and log species. In the time when New Guinea and Australia were
debris. Their natural environment is subjected to seasonal connected by land, this species must have lived in the area
variations with water temperature, pH, and hardness levels where now the Arafura Sea is. After the rising of the sea levels
varying considerably, and they adapt to the particular water the separated populations have become the two species we
conditions and the seasonal changes when they occur. They know today. However, recent genetic studies (P. J. Unmack
have been found in company with Melanotaenia ogilbyi, 2009, pers. comm.) now suggest that the populations from the
Melanotaenia papuae, Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata Fly River may actually be Melanotaenia trifasciata.
and Melanotaenia sylvatica. Temperature and pH recorded
24.6 –33.0°C; pH 7.0–7.8. For much of the past three million years, Australia and New
Guinea were a single land mass, with a wide plain across what
is now the Arafura Sea. The only high ground on the plain
Remarks were low hills that are now islands fringing the Kimberley
M. goldiei was one of the first New Guinea rainbowfishes to coast and Arnhem Land, the islands in Torres Strait and the
enter the aquarium hobby. They were being maintained in the low hills that fronted the north-western coastline of the Arafura
Australian hobby as early as 1958 and perhaps even earlier. Just plain (now the Aru Islands of Indonesia).
how many separate collections have occurred over the years is
not known, but I know of at least 3 during the early 1970’s. The Aru Islands (also known as Aroe Islands or Kepulauan
What eventually happened to the fish from these importations Aru) lie on the western edge of the shallow seas of Torres
has been lost in the pages of aquarium history. One collection Strait, around 7°S and 134°E, and is part of the Maluku
that has been documented was made by Gerald Allen in 1978. province of eastern Indonesia, which lies directly south of the
However, as the number of new species arrived from New Vogelkop Peninsula, West Papua. New Guinea is some 150
Guinea, M. goldiei fell out of favour with hobbyists and most of km to the north across a shallow sea; central Arnhem Land in
the captive stock disappeared. Australia is some 550 km to the south.
Gunther Schmida
Goldie River [Laloki River, PNG]

Christophe Mailliet
“Tapini” (Loloipa River)
Goldie River (PNG)
Alan Travers
Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia gracilis only been collected at two Carson River tributary sites and at a
single tributary site within the Morgan River. At this site it was
Allen, 1978
however very abundant, with 265 individuals captured. They
Slender Rainbowfish
are generally found congregating around submerged aquatic
vegetation, fallen tree branches etc., in clear, slow-flowing
Species Summary tributary streams.
Melanotaenia gracilis were first discovered in 1975 by Barry
Hutchins from the Western Australian Museum. They have a The following creeks and rivers flow into the King Edward
rather more slender body than most other rainbowfishes and River: Hair Creek, Drum Creek, Mainroads Creek,
laterally compressed. The lower half of the body has a wash of Noolawayoo Creek, Coondillah Creek, Carson River and
bright iridescent lavender. Fins are transparent or slightly pink Parndia Creek. The Carson River (155 km) is a major tributary
with a bright red border on the dorsal and anal fins, and red tips of the King Edward River. The following creeks and rivers
on the caudal lobes. Closely related to Melanotaenia nigrans, flow into the Carson River: Morgan River, Laurie Creek,
apparently having evolved from a common ancestor. The mid- Swider Creek and Pronga-Marie Creek. The Morgan River
lateral stripe of Melanotaenia gracilis is not as well defined as (103 km) merges with the Carson River. The Morgan River
that of Melanotaenia nigrans. Mature males are usually much flows through Wollangooyoo Pool on its way to joining the
larger and deeper bodied than females. Males may reach a Carson River. The following creeks flow into the Morgan
maximum size of 10 cm, but are usually less than 8 cm. River: Palmoondoora Creek, Loonjool Creek, Gnamoongie
Creek, Pangoor Creek and Changoola Creek.

The overall distribution of Melanotaenia gracilis is highly Remarks
restricted, with it known only to occur in the King Edward and The first live specimens to be successfully established in the
Drysdale River systems. Most collections have taken place in aquarium hobby were collected in 1986 by Ray Leggett and
the Drysdale River. They have been collected from the Carson Graham Heidke. Since then there have been numerous
River and Morgan Rivers (tributaries of the King Edward collections and they are now reasonably well established.
River), about 140 km west northwest of Wyndham in the
Kimberley region of northern Western Australia. They have

Allen Travers
Carson River (Western Australia)
Franz-Peter Mullenholz
Drysdale River (Western Australia)
Neil Armstrong
(Wild-caught Specimen)
Melanotaenia herbertaxelrodi the middle portion of the first dorsal fin is much longer in
Allen, 1981 males and the posterior outline of the second dorsal fin is
Lake Tebera Rainbowfish more pointed than in females, although this difference is not
nearly as apparent as in many other members of the
Species Summary Melanotaenia genus.
Melanotaenia herbertaxelrodi belongs to a group of
rainbowfish species, which inhabits the Highland drainage
systems of the Kikori and Purari Rivers. This group contains Distribution & Habitat
two other species, M. monticola and M. lacustris. Gerald M. herbertaxelrodi was collected by Gerald Allen and Brian
Allen believes that the three species are probably derivatives Parkinson in September 1980 from a small clear water
of the same ancestral stock as M. goldiei, which ranges stream about 4 km east of Lake Tebera. Lake Tebera, about
widely in the lowland and foothill areas of southern New 410 kilometres northwest of Port Moresby, is situated in the
Guinea. M. herbertaxelrodi is most closely related to M. rugged Central Highlands of Papua New Guinea and is part
monticola from the upper Purari System near Mendi, about of the Purari River System. Lake Tebera is composed of
200 km upstream from the Lake Tebera Basin. Males are numerous interconnecting ponds, swamps and springs that
mainly bright yellow (sometimes greenish) with a blue- occupy a basin that is about 10 kilometres long and 2
black, mid-lateral line. The dorsal, anal, and caudal fins can kilometres wide. M. herbertaxelrodi are usually found
be red or yellow. During spawning the male has an intense around the shoreline margin in tall grasses or sub-surface
blue or white stripe from the first dorsal fin extending down vegetation.
over the nape to the tip of the snout, while the whole head
can become almost black. The rest of the body is bright The search for M. herbertaxelrodi came about after Patricia
yellow with reddish fins. Kailola, then curator of the Kanudi Fisheries Research Lab
in Port Moresby, sent a photo to Gerald Allen of an unusual
M. herbertaxelrodi may reach a maximum size of 12 cm, rainbowfish collected by Grant West at Lake Tebera.
but usually less than 10 cm. Males are typically deeper Although the specimens in the photo were dead and faded,
bodied than females and develop a high forehead and an Gerald Allen recognised that it was clearly a new species.
angulated breast profile with increased growth. The body After collecting specimens for proper identification, he later
begins to deepen in males after a length of 45–50 mm SL is named them M. herbertaxelrodi in honour of Herbert R.
attained or at about the onset of sexual maturity. In addition, Axelrod who funded the collecting expedition.

(Wild-caught Specimens)
Remarks
The first live specimens to enter the aquarium hobby were
collected by Gerald Allen in 1980 and were brought back
into Australia where they were later bred and distributed in
the hobby.

Photos: Silke Prinage
Melanotaenia herbertaxelrodi ▲male ▼ female
Gerald Allen
Hoa Creek (Vogelkop Peninsula)
Melanotaenia irianjaya Habitats consist of rainforest streams ranging from slightly

turbid and slow flowing over flat terrain to clear,
Allen, 1985 moderately fast flowing through hills. Temperature and pH
Irian Jaya Rainbowfish
values range from 27–28°C and 7.3–7.8 respectively. The
fish are found in areas with relatively few aquatic plants,
Species Summary over gravel or sand bottoms, often in the vicinity of
Melanotaenia irianjaya have an overall mauve colouration with submerged logs.
silvery reflections. There is a broad, bluish midlateral band,
which is most prominent on the rear half of the body. The
dorsal and anal fins are reddish with narrow white margins. The Remarks
caudal fin is reddish and has distinctive black upper and lower M. irianjaya have been available into the aquarium hobby
margins. This species is unusual in having the middle rays of since 1983. In 2007, a number of collecting surveys were
the dorsal and anal fins longer than the other rays; a feature conducted by the Papuan National Marine and Fisheries
generally associated with the genus Glossolepis. Males may Research, the Academy of Fishery Sorong, and the Institut
reach a maximum size of 12 cm, but females are usually less de recherche pour le développement (IRD) Jakarta in a
than 10 cm. Unlike most rainbowfishes, males of this species number of regions in West Papua. In the Bintuni Bay region
lack the pronounced elongation of the posterior dorsal and anal they collected 332 rainbowfish specimens. Among them
fin rays. Males are more brightly coloured, larger, and deeper were specimens of M. irianjaya, which were taken back to
bodied than females. Jakarta and the Sorong Fisheries Academy for breeding
purposes.
Melanotaenia irianjaya are found primarily in river systems
that drain into Bintuni Bay, in the southern Vogelkop
Peninsular region. In 1982, they were collected by G. Allen
and W. Tins from a tributary of the Kamundan River at
Senopi Village on the north side of Bintuni Bay, and also by
G. Allen and H. Bleher near the village of Fruata on the
Bomberai Peninsula. In 2007 live specimens were collected
from the Bintuni East River and the Tisbo River.

▲ Male ▼ Female

Melanotaenia iris Distribution & Habitat
Allen, 1987 Inhabits the upper tributaries of the Strickland River system
Strickland Rainbowfish in southwestern Papua New Guinea. The Strickland River is
a major tributary of the Fly River.
Species Summary
Melanotaenia iris is most closely related to M. goldiei, a
widely distributed species in southern New Guinea, but Remarks
differs in colour pattern and having more soft rays in the Known only from five specimens collected by David Gwyther
second dorsal fin (17 to 20 vs. 12 to 17, usually 14 to 16) and in 1984 from the Logatyu River, a mountain tributary of the
more scales covering the suboperculum-preoperculum (about Strickland River near Wankipe, Papua New Guinea. Presently
30 to 40 vs. 15 to 25. The nature of the midlateral stripe also unknown in the aquarium hobby. The species was named iris
differs between the two species. It is continuous and (Latin: goddess of the rainbow) with reference to the common
uniformly broad along the middle of the side in M. iris, but in appellation for the family to which it belongs.
M. goldiei it is generally absent or very faint anteriorly over a
space covering about 8–10 scales, the stripe then
recommences below the soft dorsal fin origin, becoming
broadest on the caudal peduncle.
Adult males are bluish on the upper back and white on the
lower portion with a vivid dark blue stripe (about 2 scales
wide) on the middle of the sides. There is also a series of
narrow, red-orange stripes between each scale row on the upper
and lower margin of the blue midlateral stripe and one in the
middle of the stripe particularly prominent. Median fins dusky
blue-grey with white outer margin; pelvic fins white; pectoral
fins translucent. Live colours of the female are unknown.

Melanotaenia japenensis
Japen Rainbowfish
Species Summary
Melanotaenia japenensis have an overall mauve colouration
with silvery reflections on the back and sides. There is a
red-orange horizontal stripe between each scale row on the
body. Males have red-orange dorsal, anal, and caudal fins.
Growing to a length of around 11 cm, males are usually
deeper bodied than females. M. japenensis is clearly derived M. japenensis is apparently restricted to Japen, a long
from the same phyletic line which includes M. affinis and (approximately 160 km), narrow island situated in the gulf
M. vanheurni of northern New Guinea. (Teluk Sarera) on the north coast which isolates the
Vogelkop Peninsula from the remainder of New Guinea.
These species possess similar colour patterns and have The island represents a continuation of a coastal mountain
dorsal and anal soft fin ray counts which are relatively high chain found on the nearby (30 km distance) New Guinea
for the genus. However, M. japenensis differs from M. mainland and has a maximum elevation of 1500 m.
affinis by having a higher anal ray count (26–28 vs. 18–24), and Presumably speciation of M. japenensis has occurred in
from M. vanheurni by having fewer soft dorsal rays (15–17 vs. relatively recent times as a result of the separation of Japen
18–21 usually 19). In addition, the male holotype of M. from the mainland due to a post pleistocene rise in sea level.
japenensis has a deeper body compared to similar sized
males of M. vanheurni.
Remarks
M. japenensis were first collected in May 1955 by M.
Distribution & Habitat Boeseman from the Leiden Museum. David Price who does
M. japenensis were collected near Serui on Japen Island missionary work on Japen Island collected specimens for
(Yapen Island) on the north coast of West Papua. They were his own aquarium, but is still unavailable in the general
collected in rocky rainforest streams at lower elevations on hobby. Named japenensis with reference to the Japen
the southern side of the island. Temperature and pH Island, the type locality and only known collection site for
recorded at the collection sites were 24–28°C and 7.2–7.8. this species thus far.

Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia kamaka
Kamaka Rainbowfish
Species Summary This species is apparently restricted to Lake Kamakawaiar,
Melanotaenia kamaka have a silver-blue colouration on the the largest of three main lakes, and several smaller ones just
upper back, grading to silver white on lower half; upper half of inland from Triton Bay, West Papua. The Triton lakes are
body of males frequently flecked with silver; body scales with situated on the southern coast of West Papua, immediately
narrow dark outline, more intense on two midlateral scale east of the Bomberai Peninsula and about 50 km due east of
rows; males can expand melanophores of these two rows, the seaport of Kaimana. The lakes are surrounded by high
forming blue to blackish midlateral stripe on posterior part of limestone hills and lie just inland from Triton Bay. There
body, including caudal peduncle; blue to blackish patch usually are three main lakes: Kamakawaiar, Lakamora, and Aiwaso.
present, especially on mature males, between the upper rear Kamakawaiar (usually referred to as Kamaka) lies less then
corner of eye and region under the pectoral fin; first dorsal, 5 km from the coast and is separated from the second lake,
pelvic, and anal fins whitish; second dorsal and caudal fins Lakamora, by a distance of about 7 kilometres. The third
translucent with bluish suffusion; pectoral fins translucent; lake, Aiwaso, lies only a few hundred metres from
female fin colouration generally more diffuse and more Lakamora. The lakes do not appear to have any outlet
translucent compared to males. streams and drainage is presumably subterranean. The
following measurements were recorded in July 1995: water
Besides the colour differences mentioned above, females often temperature 28.9°C; pH 8.0; and conductivity 220 µS/cm.
exhibit a diffuse midlateral stripe, about one and a half scales
wide and extending from the eye to the base of the caudal fin.
Fin shape differences between sexes are not as apparent as in Remarks
most other members of the genus, but as in most Melanotaenia Heiko Bleher collected this species in June 1995 together
there is a pronounced difference in body depth. Males increase with Paola Pierucci and Patrick de Rham. The species was
in body depth with advanced age. They may reach a maximum named kamaka, the name used by inhabitants of Triton Bay
size of 8 cm, but are usually less than 6 cm. for Lake Kamakawaiar, the type locality.

Bernard Delsarte
Gary Lange

Gerald Allen
Melanotaenia kokasensis The colour pattern of females is similar to that of the males
except they are generally less vivid and the pelvic fins are
Allen, Unmack and Hadiaty, 2008 whitish. Unlike most members of Melanotaenia, males and
Kokas Rainbowfish
females are difficult to differentiate on the basis of body depth
or other external features.
Species Summary
Adult male Melanotaenia kokasensis have an overall pale blue- This species was named after the village of Kokas, which is the
grey body colouration with a blackish midlateral band at the major landmark in the area.
level of the upper pectoral-fin base. The midlateral band is
more or less solid on the rear half of the body, but incomplete
anteriorly where it is composed of darkened posterior scale Distribution & Habitat
margins. There are narrow orange stripes between each scale This species is currently known only from the type locality; a
row on the upper half of body. Most of the scales on the upper small stream flowing along a limestone creek bed through
two-thirds of the side have narrow greyish margins. primary forest. The stream plunges down a steep 20 metre high
ramp next to the sea into a mangrove-lined inlet near the
The upper portion of head is greyish while the lower half is village of Kokas on the northern Fakfak Peninsula. Specimens
white. A poorly defined stripe, about equal to the pupil in width were located about one kilometre upstream, in a circular pool
runs from the rear edge of the eye to immediately above the with an approximate diameter of 15–20 metres with a
pectoral-fin base where it merges with the midlateral band. The maximum depth of about 0.5 metre. This pool was situated
lower body is whitish with a broad, oblong bluish patch only about 20 metres downstream from a series of limestone
extending from just below the pectoral-fin base to above the fissures that appears to be the stream’s underground origin.
middle of the anal fin.
The dorsal fins are mainly greyish-blue with a narrow white

margin on the second dorsal fin. The caudal fin is whitish with Remarks
a slightly dusky grey basal half and faint blackish dorsal and Melanotaenia kokasensis were collected from a small creek
ventral margins. The anal fin is dusky yellow; pelvic fins bright above a waterfall near Kokas, northern Fakfak Peninsula in
yellow; pectoral fins translucent with small black spot on upper West Papua by G. R. Allen and M. Ammer in 2008. This
base and smaller silvery-white spot just above. species is not currently available in the aquarium hobby.

Silke Prinage
Melanotaenia lacustris mubiensis most frequently has 14 or 15 dorsal rays, 21 or 22
anal rays, and 14 pectoral rays compared to usual counts of 12
Munro, 1964
or 13, 18 or 19, and 15 respectively for M. lacustris.
Lake Kutubu Rainbowfish

Depending on water conditions, captive environment and diet, Melanotaenia lacustris have been collected in Lake Kutubu and
Melanotaenia lacustris can display an array of different colours the Soro River, which is the only outlet stream of the lake. The
and patterns ranging from cobalt blue, steel blue, aquamarine Soro River eventually flows into the Kikori River system. In
through to lighter and darker shades of turquoise. When late 1983 Gerald Allen, John Paska, and Barry Crockford collected
spawning the nape area changes to a bright orange or gold around 40 live specimens. Only 4 fish (1 ♂ and 3 ♀) survived
colouration. Males are more brightly coloured, larger, and with the journey back to Australia and a week after arriving in
a body depth of 4–5 cm, much deeper bodied than females. Melbourne the only male became infected with hook worm and
They may reach a maximum size of 12 cm, but usually less than subsequently died. The aquarium hobby had to wait another 3
10 cm. years before Heiko Bleher was able to collect further live
specimens. He returned in 1988 together with Gerald Allen and
Melanotaenia lacustris is closely related to Melanotaenia once more was able to bring back live specimens.
mubiensis. Large adults of the two species have very similar
colouration. However, they differ in several features, including Lake Kutubu is a scenically beautiful crystal clear lake situated
body depth, eye size, and modal fin ray counts. Adults of M. about 40 kilometres from Mendi, the main town of the Southern
mubiensis are much more slender than those of M. lacustris; M. Highlands Province in central Papua New Guinea. Lake Kutubu
mubiensis had an average depth as percent of the SL of 38.4 was originally formed when debris and ash originating from a
compared to an average of 47.2 for M. lacustris. The eye volcano, blocked a valley. It is the 2nd largest lake in PNG and
diameter of M. lacustris is larger than the snout length, but in its largest perched lake. Measuring approximately 19 km by 4
M. mubiensis it is shorter or equal to the snout length. Although km at its widest point, it has a maximum depth of about 70 m.
the two species have overlapping counts for dorsal, anal, and Water conditions recorded at the lake were a temperature range
pectoral fin rays, there are significant modal differences. M. of 21 to 25°C and a pH of 8.5–9.0.

Neil Armstrong
Male (Wild Caught)
Neil Armstrong
Female (Wild Caught)
An exceptionally clear lake where, in contrast to most of
PNG’s inland waters. The Lake plays a significant role in the
maintenance of biodiversity of the Kikori River basin and
beyond. The lake’s extraordinary level of fish endemicity
(10 of the 14 fish species found within the Kikori drainage
are endemic to the lake itself) exceeds that of any other lake
in the entire New Guinea-Australian region. The Kikori
drainage and the surrounding primary rainforest also support
high levels of endemism and rare terrestrial fauna. Lake
Kutubu provides the sole spawning, nursery and feeding
grounds for the 10 species of endemic fish. Remarks
Australian Patrol Officer T. Terrell first collected this
The water quality of the mainstream rivers of the Tagari- species in Lake Kutubu during 1955. He sent preserved
Hegigio and Lake Kutubu-Digimu-Mubi sub-basins are specimens to Australian ichthyologist Ian Munro, who in
typical of other mainstream rivers in Papua New Guinea that 1964 described them as Melanotaenia lacustris. Ian Munro
are near neutral to mildly alkaline (pH 7.4 to 8.2) and (1919–1994) worked with the CSIRO Division of Fisheries
calcium-bicarbonate dominated. These properties are Research and was an early pioneer in the identification of
indicative of water draining a limestone catchment area. The Australian and New Guinea rainbowfishes. Not only was he
lower calcium concentration, alkalinity and hardness of the a highly regarded ichthyologist but an accomplished
Ai'io River, which drains to the upper Hegigio River, aquarist as well and maintained many Australian and New
probably reflect the predominantly volcanic and sedimentary Guinea rainbowfish species. During the 1960’s he was
terrain at this location. Water hardness in all rivers except maintaining New Guinea rainbowfish species such as
the Ai'io River (30 mg/L CaCO3) is moderate to hard (60– Melanotaenia papuae, M. sexlineata and M. goldiei in
180 mg/L CaCO3). Conductivity values are generally similar captivity. Although at the time M. papuae and M. sexlineata
in all streams, with median values ranging between 167 and had not been scientifically described. He later went on to
267 µS/cm. publish “The Fishes of New Guinea” in 1967.

Gunther Schmida
Lake Lakamora
Melanotaenia lakamora During spawning males become intensely red with a white
to light blue forehead stripe. A male specimen collected
Allen and Renyaan, 1996 from Lake Aiwaso by Gerry Allen was pale mauve on the
Lakamora Rainbowfish
upper half and silvery white below with golden scale
margins.
Species Summary
Melanotaenia lakamora is a very attractive rainbowfish.
The body colour of adult males is generally an overall Distribution & Habitat
mauve colouration except for silvery white on the breast Melanotaenia lakamora have been collected from Lake
and lower half of head. Four lateral scale rows on middle of Lakamora and Lake Aiwaso in the remote southern region
the body are separated by bright orange stripes. They of West Papua, immediately east of the Bomberai Peninsula
display a broad, blackish to dark blue, mid-lateral stripe, and about 50 km due east of the seaport of Kaimana. The
which is most intense from the eye to the pectoral fin region lakes are surrounded by steep forested hills and situated just
and on the caudal peduncle, one scale row wide anteriorly inland from Triton Bay. There are three main lakes:
and occupying two scale rows posteriorly. The scales of the Kamakawaiar, Lakamora, and Aiwaso collectively known
body have narrow dark margins, most evident on the lower as the Triton Lakes. Lake Aiwaso is roughly circular with a
half, particularly above the anal fin where several zigzag diameter of about 2.5 km and lies a few hundred metres
lines may be apparent. from Lake Lakamora and separated by a 100 metre high
ridge. Lake Lakamora is approximately 6–7 km long and 1–
The dorsal and anal fins are bright red. The pelvic fins are 3 km wide.
slightly orange to translucent while the caudal and pectoral
fins are mainly translucent. Female specimens from Lake
Lakamora are bronze on the upper half and whitish below
with blackish mid-lateral stripe about 1–2 scales wide. They Remarks
have narrow orange stripes along the upper and lower edge This species was named lakamora, with reference to Lake
of the mid-lateral stripe. Fins are clear to translucent, except Lakamora, the type locality. Live specimens were collected
the second dorsal and anal fins, which have a pale orange from Lake Lakamora by Heiko Bleher for the aquarium
colouration. Growing to a size of around 6 cm, the males hobby in 1995.
are easily distinguished from females by their brighter
colours and longer and more elongated dorsal fin rays.

Lake Lakamora
Lake Aiwaso
Dirk Godlinski Gerald Allen

Gunther Schmida
Harvey Creek [Russell River, Queensland]
Melanotaenia maccullochi Male specimens of the variety found between Cairns and
Innisfail are easily recognised by the silvery-white or yellowish
Ogilby, 1915 body colour and 6–8 reddish-brown stripes on sides. The dorsal
McCulloch’s Rainbowfish
and anal fins are orange-red with a lower black margin running
along the body line. The caudal fin has a fan of orange-red
Species Summary colouration. Females are much less colourful, though some do
Melanotaenia maccullochi were described in 1915 by J. D. Ogilby show a hint of the males’ coloration. Females of this variety
from two specimens collected from the Barron River, near Cairns tend to grow larger and have deeper bodies than males.
in north Queensland, by Mr. A. Anderson. They were named after
the ichthyologist, Allan Riverston McCulloch (1885-1925). It is The variety found in the drainage division of the Jardine River
therefore, according to recognised nomenclature rules, pronounced are characterised by a series of fine black stripes on the sides,
McCulloch - eye, not “mac - cul - lo’kee”. with black submarginal bands and white to yellowish margins
on the dorsal and anal fins. Females generally have the stripes
Melanotaenia maccullochi is another rainbowfish species less defined. They are also a lot smaller than the other varieties,
that varies across its wide distributional range. Several both in length and body depth. The population from the latter
geographically isolated populations are found in northern area is similar to those that occur in the southwestern lowlands
Queensland. Several distinct colour forms are known, which of Papua New Guinea. The varieties found north of Cairns but
show marked variation in the intensity of the dark body south of the Jardine River are intermediate. However, the stripe
stripes and markings on the dorsal and anal fins as well as pattern is plain and they do not show the orange-red colouration.
differences in the colour of the ‘spawning’ stripe on the An unusual blue coloured form has been collected in the Hope
nape of males. This coloured nape is flashed on and off Vale region; a remote region situated 46 kilometres north of
during spawning activities and may be white, yellow, Cooktown
orange or red.
In 1988 a new colour variety was collected from a small
Current genetic data separate Melanotaenia maccullochi into shallow stream known as Burton Creek. Burton Creek is a
three groups, Burtons Creek, Etty Bay and Cape York spring-fed tributary in the Finniss River catchment. This
populations. Further genetic and morphological studies may variety has clear to yellowish dorsal and anal fins with bluish
justify recognition of two or three separate species.

Gunther Schmida
Burton Creek (Northern Territory)
Neil Armstrong
Papua New Guinea

edges above a black sub-marginal band. The body colour is Melanotaenia maccullochi are most likely aseasonal spawners,
silver to yellowish with a dark mid-lateral stripe and grows to a breeding continuously at intervals throughout the year.
much smaller size than the other varieties. More recently However, a peak in reproductive activity is usually during the
(2007) another population was found in Tolmer Creek, a early-wet season, from October to December. Strong sexual
tributary of the Reynolds River in the Northern Territory. dimorphism is present in the species with males typically being
These are similar to the Burton Creek population. brighter in colouration. Before spawning, a bright spawning’
stripe is evident in the males. It runs from the tip of the mouth
Differences between the various populations are considerable to the first dorsal fin on the dorsal surface of the fish.
and in all probability the different populations will be separated
into distinct species at some later date. Therefore, for the Females produce between 20–30 eggs each day for several
serious rainbowfish breeder, it is very important to maintain days. Eggs are attached by adhesive threads or tendrils to a
each geographical population separately in captivity. range of submerged physical structures, including gravel
substrates, woody debris, root masses, aquatic vegetation and
submerged marginal (riparian) vegetation, which hide them
Distribution & Habitat from predators. The eggs are subject to desiccation if the water
Melanotaenia maccullochi occur as a number of isolated level drops or to dispersal if there is a flood. It will take around
populations in southern New Guinea and northern Australia. In 8–9 days at 28° Celsius for the first young to appear. Larvae
Australia, several isolated populations are known to exist in achieve a length of around 12 mm by 60 days and 2.5–3.0 cm
Queensland and the Northern Territory. The distribution in in five months, when they become sexually mature. M.
Queensland includes the coastal plains between Cairns and maccullochi is an opportunistic omnivore. The main food items
Innisfail. In this region they have been collected from the are aquatic insects, algae and terrestrial insects. Their diet
Barron, Mulgrave (Behana Creek), Russell (Harvey Creek), varies in relation to the habitat they occupy.
Johnstone and Moresby Rivers, Maria Creek, Hull River and
the Murray/Tully Rivers. They are also found from the Melanotaenia maccullochi readily breeds in captivity. They
Daintree River north through Cooktown to the McIvor River generally spawn during the early morning hours, preceded
and streams in the Hope Vale region (Black Creek). Another by intense spawning activity of the male. The male presses
area where they are found is Cape York Peninsula, primarily in against the side of the female and accompanied by heavy
the Jardine River and its tributaries. They also occur at Cape trembling of both fishes; eggs are expelled directly among
Flattery and the Olive River and probably occur elsewhere the plants. The eggs are fairly large (1.5 ± 0.5 mm in
along the east coast of Cape York Peninsula that has suitable diameter), light amber to yellowish in colour and hang by a
habitat. Small isolated populations have also been found in two fine thread. The fry emerges after 7 to 8 days, first hanging
locations in the Northern Territory. The known New Guinean on the plants or glass. Several days later they are swimming
distribution encompasses the lower and middle sections of the mostly near the surface, feeding on protozoans or dust-fine
Fly River westward to the Bensbach River. prepared food. When properly fed and maintained, the fry
grow rapidly and become sexually mature at around four
Wild populations are still abundant in New Guinea and Cape months of age.
York Peninsula, but the more southerly populations along the
Queensland coast have declined due to habitat destruction. The
extensive development of coastal plains has contributed to the Remarks
demise of this species. It is now confined to a relatively few Melanotaenia maccullochi is one of the smaller species of
widely scattered locations and has long been absent in the rainbowfishes and have been a popular aquarium fish for
Barron River, the site of its first capture. The Murray River and many years. They were first introduced to the international
its floodplain lagoons represent the remaining habitat of the aquarium hobby in 1934, when Amandus Rudel, a founding
Cairns colour form. member of the Aquarium & Terrarium Society of Queensland,
sent 12 specimens, collected by him near Cairns, to Fritz
Melanotaenia maccullochi are generally found in lowland Mayer in Hamburg, Germany. Four arrived alive and
swamps and small streams, usually in clear, moderately developed into 2 pairs. They were one of the most popular
flowing streams, grassy wetland swamps and tannic stained aquarium fish from Australia. In the German aquarium
ponds in sandy coastal floodplains. Often with ample cover in magazine “Wochenschrift für Aquarien und Terrarienkunde”
the form of log debris or aquatic vegetation. The water in these in May 1935, Fritz Mayer gave the first account of their
natural habitats is usually very soft and often tannin stained. A breeding, which was translated by F. H. Stoye in Innes' “The
temperature range of 19° to 32°C and pH values of 5.5 to 7.0 Aquarium” in December 1936.
have been recorded in their natural habitats.
Through my correspondence with friends in all parts of the
world, I have been able to instigate new imports. In this way
Biology I became acquainted with Mr. A. Rudel of Brisbane,
Very little is known about the biology of Melanotaenia Australia, who notified me December, 1934, that he was
maccullochi in their natural environment. Most information is sending me twelve Melanotaenia maccullochi, collected by
mainly based on aquarium observations. They may reach a him near Cairns, northeastern Australia. Four arrived alive
maximum size of 6 cm, but usually less than 4 cm. and developed into 2 pairs.
~ Fritz Mayer, Hamburg (1935)

Alan Travers
Alan Travers
Tolmer Creek [Reynolds River, Northern Territory]

Gunther Schmida
Skull Creek [Jardine River, Queensland]
Jennifer Palmer
Skull Creek Lagoon Habitat

Jennifer Palmer
Hope Vale habitat (Queensland)
Gunther Schmida
Hope Vale (Queensland)
Dave Wilson
Skull Creek [Jardine River, Queensland]
Neil Armstrong
Etty Bay (Queensland)

Melanotaenia maylandi
Allen, 1982
Mayland's Rainbowfish
Species Summary
Adult males of Melanotaenia maylandi are generally olive
green or brownish dorsally and silvery white on the lower
half. The upper back and sides often reflect bluish or mauve
hues and there is a series of narrow oranges lines on the
sides between each horizontal row of scales. There is also a
diffused midlateral band extending from the upper corner of
the opercula margin to the middle of the caudal fin base,
often consisting of large blotches. The fins are translucent to set in the foothills of the van Wees Mountains, approximately 290
light blue-grey except for a yellow anal fin. Males are more kilometres west of Jayapura, the capital city of West Papua. The
brightly coloured, larger, and deeper bodied than females. lakes lie within a radius of 6–7 kilometres with the main lake
They may reach a maximum size of 10 cm. The species is having a length of approximately 4.5 kilometres and maximum
named in honour of Hans Mayland a well-known German width of about 2 kilometres. The lakes are drained by a small
writer, photographer, and aquarist. stream, which flows into the Mamberamo River at a point
approximately 15 kilometres directly to the north. The lake and
surrounding creeks are inhabited by 11 fish species, including one
Distribution & Habitat other rainbowfish, Chilatherina bleheri.
So far Melanotaenia maylandi have only been collected
from a small creek about 2 km upstream from Danau Bira
(Lake Holmes) in the lower Mamberamo system of West Remarks
Papua. Lake Holmes is situated in the Mamberamo region of This species was discovered by Heiko Bleher and Gerald Allen
West Papua. It is a complex of three interconnected lakes during a visit to West Papua in 1982. No live specimens have
lying at an altitude of about 430 metres above sea level and been collected for the aquarium hobby.

Gerald Allen
Gam River (Misool Island)
Melanotaenia misoolensis the pectoral fin of M. catherinae. In addition, the latter

Allen, 1982 species lacks the dusky spot on the fin membrane behind the
Misool Rainbowfish last dorsal spine and has a dusky soft dorsal fin which is
often blackish in adult males. M. misoolensis, in contrast,
Species Summary has a dusky spot behind the last dorsal spine and the soft
Melanotaenia misoolensis was described from 23 specimens dorsal fin is yellowish-orange. The only meristic difference
collected from Misool Island off the western extremity of noted is related to counts for the soft anal rays. M.
New Guinea. Adult males are bluish with a bronze or misoolensis usually has 22 to 25 rays compared with 19 to
golden sheen, and silvery white on the lower half. The 21 rays for M. catherinae.
upper back and sides often reflect bronze or golden sheen
and there is a series of narrow oranges lines on the sides
between each horizontal row of scales. There is also a Distribution & Habitat
diffused midlateral band extending from the upper corner of M. misoolensis is currently only known from Misool Island.
the opercula margin to the middle of the caudal fin base, Misool Island is the second largest (approximately 90 x 38
often consisting of blotches. The fins are translucent to light km) of the four Raja Ampat Islands. It covers an area of
yellow. Males grow to a length of around 6 cm and are about 2034 km2 and is separated from the mainland by a
usually deeper bodied than females. distance of 32 kilometres. Its geographical remoteness from
continental Papua and rugged, deeply bisected and heavily
They are closely related to Melanotaenia catherinae which forested, predominantly limestone karst terrain make this
is endemic to Waigeo Island, a large island lying one of the wildest and most visually stunning places in the
approximately 160 km north of Misool. Both species are entire Raja Ampat archipelago. To the north, a coastline of
similar in colour; however, the mid-lateral stripe of M. dense and deep mangroves shelter some villages located on
catherinae is significantly wider, having a maximum width the rare beaches fringed with coconut palms. To the east, a
of about three scales compared with 1½ scales for M. labyrinth of toadstool-shaped limestone islets and pinnacles,
misoolensis. Moreover, the midlateral stripe of M. deeply undercut below the high-tide water surface and
misoolensis is nearly covered entirely by the pectoral fin, covered in luxuriant vegetation, spreads out into a turquoise
whereas it is broadly exposed (at least one scale row) above sea.

M. misoolensis have been found in moderately fast-flowing clear-water streams running through primary rainforest. Other
rainbowfishes have been collected from several other islands in the Raja Ampat group of islands: M. batanta (Batanta Island); M.
catherinae (Batanta and Waigeo Islands); M. fredericki (Salawati Island) and M. synergos (Batanta Island).
Remarks
In October 1948, a Dutchman by the name of Maurits Lieftinck collected some rainbowfishes from a tributary of the Wai Tama River near
Fakal Village on Misool Island. The collection remained unstudied in the Zoological Museum of the University of Amsterdam in the
Netherlands until officially described by Gerald R. Allen in 1982. The species was named misoolensis in reference to the type locality.
In 2000 Heiko Bleher collected what he described as two different species. They are currently known in the hobby as
Melanotaenia misoolensis “Kasim” and Melanotaenia misoolensis “Ifaupan”. However, genetic analyse has failed to find any
difference between the two different varieties. M. misoolensis were also collected by Gerald Allen from the Wai Tama River
in 2002.
Male ▲ Female ▼ “Ifaupan” variety. This variety was collected by Heiko Bleher on Misool island in 2000, and distributed into the aquarium
hobby in 2001.
Photos: Gary Lange

Neil Armstrong
Melanotaenia monticola small headwaters tributaries in the Purari River system,
including Omei Creek, a tributary of the Ka River, 15-km
Allen, 1980 south of Mendi, and streams near Pimaga (about 13-km
Mountain Rainbowfish
southeast of Lake Kutubu). They generally inhabit the
slower flowing regions of swift flowing streams. They are
Species Summary usually found along grassy banks, or around sub-surface
Melanotaenia monticola males generally have a lilac-blue to vegetation, submerged logs, and branches. Water
greenish coloured wash over the body, fading to silvery white temperature recorded from their natural habitat was 18°C
on the chest and abdomen. Scales are edged with a coppery and pH 7.6. However, temperatures have been known to
gold colouration. They have a very prominent black mid-lateral drop to 16°C.
stripe extending from the eye to the caudal fin base. Females
are similarly coloured but not quite as bright. When spawning,
the colouration of the males becomes more intense. The upper Remarks
part of the head and body become very dark and a vivid orange Melanotaenia monticola were initially collected in
coloured nape band is flashed on and off on top of the head. September 1979 by Gerald Allen and Brian Parkinson from
They may reach a maximum size of 10 cm. Melanotaenia Omei Creek. Allen gave the species the scientific name of
monticola is similar in general appearance to Melanotaenia ‘monticola’ (Latin: mountain dwellers) with reference to the
mubiensis. The two species have been collected together. mountainous terrain of the type locality.
Besides differing in colour pattern they also have differences in
soft dorsal and anal fin rays; M. monticola has 15 to 17 dorsal Live specimens were collected by Barry Crockford from
rays and 18 to 21 (usually 19 or 20) anal rays. M. mubiensis Omei Creek and introduced to the Australian hobby in
most frequently has 14 or 15 dorsal rays and 21 or 22 anal rays. 1983. During the mid 1990s, eggs were collected from a
small stream near Lake Kutubu and brought back into
Australia where they were subsequently hatched, reared and
Distribution & Habitat distributed in the hobby. This is another rainbowfish that
Melanotaenia monticola are found in a relatively small area has been in the aquarium hobby for a long time but has
of the Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea between never been widely available.
Mendi and Lake Kutubu. They have been collected from

Gerald Allen
Ofake Creek (Kantobo)
Melanotaenia mubiensis compared to an average of 47.2 for M. lacustris. The eye diameter
of M. lacustris is larger than the snout length, but in M. mubiensis
Allen, 1996 it is shorter or equal to the snout length. Although the two species
Mubi Rainbowfish
have overlapping counts for dorsal, anal, and pectoral fin rays,
there are significant modal differences. M. mubiensis most
Species Summary frequently has 14 or 15 dorsal rays, 21 or 22 anal rays, and 14
Melanotaenia mubiensis are blue-green on the upper half of pectoral rays compared to usual counts of 12 or 13, 18 or 19, and
head and back, frequently with golden sheen anteriorly, lower 15 respectively for M. lacustris. M. mubiensis is also similar in
side whitish. Dark blue midlateral band extending from rear general appearance to M. monticola, which occurs in the middle
edge of eye to base of caudal fin, about one scale row wide Kikori and adjacent Purari River system. The two species have
anteriorly and two scales wide on caudal peduncle. 6–7 pale been collected together. Besides differing in colour pattern they
orange stripes between each horizontal scale row on upper half also have differences in soft dorsal and anal fin rays; M. monticola
of body. Yellowish stripe, one scale wide, immediately below has 15 to 17 dorsal rays and 18 to 21 (usually 19 or 20) anal rays.
dark midlateral band, from pectoral fin base to level of middle
anal rays. Pupil sized orange spot on upper part of operculum. Distribution & Habitat
Iris of eye golden-yellow. First dorsal fin pale green or bluish. Melanotaenia mubiensis was collected from a relatively small
Second dorsal and anal fins dusky blackish, except bluish section of the middle Kikori drainage system, spanning a
basally. Caudal fin bluish to translucent, upper and lower edge distance of approximately 20 km, between elevations of about
narrowly dusky. Pelvis fins translucent with dusky anterior 380 and 400 metres above mean sea level. All sites were
edge. Pectoral fins mainly translucent. Female colouration tributaries of the Mubi River, one of the primary mountain
generally less intense and all fins mainly translucent or bluish. tributaries of the Kikori, and the outlet for Lake Kutubu, which
Males are generally deeper bodied and have more elongated, lies approximately 70 km farther upstream from the collecting
somewhat pointed shape posteriorly on the soft dorsal and anal sites. The habitat consists of narrow, crystal clear streams in
fin rays. closed-canopy forest, flowing through limestone hills. The
holotype was collected from a spectacular series of sinkholes
Melanotaenia mubiensis is most closely related to linked by short tunnels to the main channel of the Mubi River.
Melanotaenia lacustris from Lake Kutubu. Large adults of the
two species have very similar colouration. However, they
differ in several features, including body depth, eye size, and Remarks
modal fin ray counts. Adults of M. mubiensis are much more This species is named ‘mubiensis’ with reference to the general
slender than those of M. lacustris; the four largest male types of locality where the type specimens were collected. Currently no
M. mubiensis had an average depth as percent of the SL of 38.4 live specimens have been collected for the aquarium hobby.

Gunther Schmida
Scotts Creek [Adelaide River, Northern Territory]
Melanotaenia nigrans inspired by the typical black mid-lateral band. The next step
was the creation of a subfamily Melanotaeniinae by Gill in
(Richardson, 1843) 1894 to stress the differences with the hardyheads even
Blackbanded Rainbowfish
more. It took another 70 years however, before Ian Munro
elevated them to full family status of Melanotaeniidae in
Atherina nigrans Richardson, 1843
1964. A full generic classification of the rainbowfishes
Atherinichthys nigrans Gunther, 1861
followed in 1980 by Gerald Allen from the Western
Nematocentris nigra Gunther, 1861
Australian Museum.
Melanotaenia nigrans Gill, 1863
Zantecla pusilla Castelnau, 1873
Melanotaenia nigrans can be recognised by a rather slender
Nematocentris pusilla Macleay, 1882
body than most other rainbowfishes. They may reach a
Melanotaenia pusilla Ogilby, 1896
maximum size of 12 cm, but are usually less than 7 cm.
Colouration includes a continuous distinct black band in the
Species Summary mid-lateral position. Above the lateral line the colouration is
Melanotaenia nigrans is the type species of the genus generally an olive-grey, brownish colouration and silvery-
Melanotaenia. They were collected by John Gilbert in 1840, white below. Colour variations can be found in the different
from the King River, near Victoria Settlement in the geographically located populations. Specimens from the
Northern Territory. John Gilbert later perished somewhere Kimberley region have several lines of dots below the
in the Australian wilderness with the famous German lateral line and red in the fins. Blue colouration in the body
explorer, Ludwig Leichhardt. A single specimen ended up and fins is also found in some populations. Colour
in the British Museum of Natural History in London where variability in rainbowfishes has been a source of confusion
John Richardson described it in 1843 as a new species of to both aquarists and taxonomists studying their life history.
hardyhead named Atherina nigrans. The differences Colour appears to vary from population to population as
between Atherina nigrans and the real hardyheads were well as within a population, particularly during different
sufficient enough for the American Thomas Gill to create stages of the fishes’ lifespan. This colour variability is
the genus Melanotaenia for this lone species in 1862, still related to age, sex, stress, habitat conditions and spawning.
within the family Atherinidae. The genus name being

Bruce Hansen
Pago Creek (Western Australia)
Bruce Hansen
Dominic Creek (Western Australia)

Allan Travers
Darwin (region) Northern Territory
Dave Wilson
Gulbuwangay River [Goyder River, Northern Territory]

Jennifer Palmer
Dave Wilson
▲▼George Creek [Adelaide River, Northern Territory]
Male and female rainbowfishes usually have different Biology
colours and this adds further difficulties to species In their natural environment Melanotaenia nigrans is an
recognition. In males, the spines of the first dorsal are omnivore feeding opportunistically across substrates and in
usually extended and may lie well past the origin of the surface waters, with possibly less emphasis on mid-water
second dorsal when not erect. The posterior rays of the areas. The main food items are aquatic insects, algae and
second dorsal and anal fins are extended caudally and may terrestrial insects. The diet varies in relation to the habitat
extend past the origin of the caudal fin. In females, the first they occupy. In the mainchannel waterbodies they eat
dorsal spines are short, not reaching the origin of the second mainly aquatic insects, with small amounts of terrestrial
dorsal. The posterior rays of the anal and second dorsal fin insects, plant material and algae. In perennial streams, algae
are not extended. The spines and outer rays of the ventral and terrestrial plant material are less important, while
fins of some males are also extended and may reach past the aquatic insects and, to a lesser extent, oligochaetes and
vent and the origin of the anal fin. microcrustaceans, are consumed. The diet in the lowland
sandy creekbeds had much larger algal and terrestrial insect
components. Specimens examined from the floodplains feed
Distribution & Habitat mainly on aquatic arachnids and aquatic insects, and a small
Melanotaenia nigrans has a discontinuous distribution amount of algae.
across northern Australia, from the Kimberley region in
Western Australia, across the northern part of the Northern Spawning is possibly continuous, with a few eggs laid at a
Territory to Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland, time, or opportunistic whenever conditions are favourable.
including a number of offshore islands such as Groote Small (less than 20 mm) juvenile fish have been collected in
Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria and some islands in the all seasons. Therefore it is difficult to define their breeding
Torres Strait. Discontinuous distribution of fish species season. However, a peak in reproductive activity was
appears to be a feature of much of the northern Australian recorded during the early-wet season (December-March).
fish fauna. A species found in one river system may not Melanotaenia nigrans appears to breed in small streams that
necessarily exist in an adjoining system. Most specimens contain deep shaded pools with roots and submerged
have been collected from the lower reaches of streams vegetation around the edges.
within about 50 km of the coast; however, they also occur in
several upland areas including above waterfalls barriers. Spawned eggs are adhesive, negatively buoyant in
They have been collected in the upper South Alligator River freshwater and average 1.00–1.08 mm in diameter, are
some 130 km upstream. usually clear to light amber in colour and hang by a fine
thread. Usually one to three eggs are deposited at a time,
In Western Australia, Melanotaenia nigrans have so far during which time 50–70 eggs can be produced. In one
only been collected in Dominic Creek during 1990 and study of the ovaries of M. nigrans, the number of eggs
Pago Creek in 1997; however, they probably occur ranged from 220 to 500 (mean = 344); egg diameters were
elsewhere. Dominic and Pago Creeks are small isolated not measured. These fish were not mature, so the numbers
streams between the Drysdale and King Edward Rivers. only indicate developing eggs within the ovary, not how
Pago Creek in the next stream north of Dominic Creek, but many might actually be shed during spawning.
it is probably not the correct name and is most likely an
unnamed stream. It was just called Pago Creek because it is Survival of eggs is reduced by predation activity of the
near Pago Mission (Drysdale River Mission) site which was parents. Many of the eggs are eaten before and after they
abandoned in 1939. A new mission was established at attach to the waterplants or other objects.
Kalumburu, about 30 km south of Pago. Unlike other M.
nigrans varieties, the Western Australian specimens have a
row of reddish-orange dots below the black stripe and may Remarks
yet prove to be genetically different. From the very beginning of its introduction to the aquarium
hobby, until around the mid 1960s, Melanotaenia duboulayi
Melanotaenia nigrans have been found in a variety of was mistakenly identified in both Australian and International
freshwater environments but seem to prefer slow-flowing hobby publications as Melanotaenia nigrans. The real M.
clear water streams, billabongs, and swamps with abundant nigrans never entered the International hobby until around
aquatic vegetation. A temperature range of 19–35°C has 1976, when specimens were sent to Europe. Even today it is
been recorded in their natural environment; pH 5.0 to 8.1; still being incorrectly identified on some Internet web sites. Some
hardness and alkalinity levels are usually below 50 mg/L sites also incorrectly refer the name ‘nigrans’ to Melanotaenia
CaCO3 and conductivity 4 to 180 µS/cm. M. nigrans is most australis.
frequently found in clear waters with sandy substrates,
followed by rocks, leaves and mud. They are usually found
around sub-surface vegetation, submerged logs, or
branches. They are often found in streams with M.
trifasciata, M. australis and/or M. splendida inornata.

Gerald Allen
Melanotaenia ogilbyi Distribution & Habitat
Weber, 1910 Found in tributaries of the Lorentz River, and streams north
Ogilby's Rainbowfish of Timika, West Papua. This species was first collected
from the Noord-Fluss (North River) by the Dutch explorer
Nematocentris ogilbyi Munro, 1967 Hendrikus Albertus Lorentz during an expedition in 1907.
Melanotaenia ogilbyi Weber, 1910 The Noord-Fluss River was later renamed the Lorentz River
after Dr. Lorentz. Lorentz participated in three expeditions to
Dutch New Guinea, the present-day West Papua (western)
Species Summary portion of the island of New Guinea. The first expedition was
Melanotaenia ogilbyi is a poorly known species which is known
in 1903, led by A. Wichmann. Lorentz led expeditions in
only on the basis of 7 specimens collected from pandanus swamps
1907 and 1909-1910.
on the lower Lorentz River in western New Guinea. These were
collected during the Dutch New Guinea Expedition of 1907
The Lorentz River is one of the large slow-flowing rivers of
and no further specimens have been collected.
the southern lowlands of New Guinea draining into the
Arafura Sea near Agats. The river passes through several
Melanotaenia ogilbyi have a bluish body colouration on the
major wetland habitats including freshwater swamp forest,
sides and back, becoming whitish ventrally. Each horizontal
peat swamp forest and mangrove forest.
scale row on the blue portion of body is separated by
narrow dark stripe. Fins are bluish to translucent, anterior
In 1995 Gerald Allen collected specimens in the vicinity of
edge of first dorsal fin and outer portions of second dorsal
Timika. Melanotaenia ogilbyi are often found with Melanotaenia
and anal fins dusky in males. Pelvis and pectoral fins
goldiei and Pseudomugil novaeguineae.
translucent. Melanotaenia ogilbyi may reach a maximum
size of 10 cm, but usually less than 8 cm.
Remarks
This species belongs to the Maccullochi spp. group of This species is not currently available in the international aquarium
rainbowfishes. The main differences between this species hobby, although they have been maintained locally.
and its nearest relatives M. papuae, M. maccullochi, and M.
sexlineata are related to colour pattern.

Neil Armstrong
Melanotaenia oktediensis The tributaries of the Ok Tedi River are cool, clear, relatively
fast flowing rainforest streams with rocky bottoms. Water
conditions reported from this habitat are temperature 17–24°
Oktedi Rainbowfish
Celsius, pH 7.3–8.7, hardness 20 to 80 ppm and a high
dissolved oxygen content of 6.9–10.0 mg/L.
Species Summary
Melanotaenia oktediensis were initially collected by C.R. Remarks
Boyden from the Ok Tedi River at Tabubil, Papua New Guinea Live specimens were introduced to the Australian hobby in
during the Cambridge Expedition in 1974. In 1975, Dr. Tyson 1982 and were spread to Europe and Northern America, but
Roberts collected them from the lower portion of Karamonge they have never been readily available.
Creek, a tributary of the Ok Tedi River during an ichthyological
survey of the Fly River and mistakenly identified them as Ok Tedi River
Melanotaenia vanheurni, a species found in the Mamberamo
basin, northern New Guinea. After examining specimens in the
Zoologisch Museum, Amsterdam and the American Museum
of Natural History, New York, Allen and Cross recognised
them as a distinct species and named them M. oktediensis after
the Ok Tedi River. M. oktediensis have a body colouration that
is coppery brown above a prominent mid-lateral line and pale
mauve to white below. They may reach a maximum size of 12
cm, but usually less than 10 cm.

M. oktediensis have been found in tributaries of the Ok Tedi
River (Ok Menga, Ok Ma, Karamonge Creek), which is one of
the main headwater streams of the upper Fly River system.
They are rather uncommon in the main river, which is mostly
populated by Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata.

Neil Armstrong
Melanotaenia papuae Gerry Allen found that Melanotaenia goldiei prefers more
inland streams which are faster flowing, less turbid, and
Allen, 1981 slightly cooler whereas M. papuae is more often found closer
Papuan Rainbowfish
to the coast in quieter conditions. However, in some locations
such as the Sogeri Plateau, they are found together, although at
Species Summary this locality M. goldiei was far more abundant.
The overall body colouration of Melanotaenia papuae is
generally olive-green above the mid-lateral line and silvery
white below. A prominent red spot is frequently present on the Remarks
upper part of operculum. A pair of prominent black lines is Melanotaenia papuae were one of the earlier New Guinea
present at the upper and lower edge of the lateral line and they Rainbowfishes to be maintained in the aquarium hobby and
continue down the lower half of the body. On the posterior half were available in Australia as early as 1961. In 1964, Ian
of the body the colours of these lines become reddish and/or Munro catalogued some specimens from Port Moresby as
purplish in males and yellow to pale orange in females. The paratypes of Melanotaenia sexlineata in “Additions to the fish
colours and markings of the females are generally less brilliant fauna of New Guinea”. However, there was some confusion
than those of the males. Named M. papuae after its type regarding their correct identification as among Munro's paratypes
locality Papua, the southern portion of Papua New Guinea. M. were some specimens later identified as Melanotaenia papuae by
papuae may reach a maximum size of 8 cm, but usually less Gerry Allen in 1981. Melanotaenia papuae were collected from
than 6 cm SL. tributaries of the Laloki, Brown and Goldie Rivers in 1970 and
1971. Gerald Allen and Brian Parkinson collected about 30 live
Distribution & Habitat specimens in 1978 from a small creek at Mount Diamond,
The full extent of its geographic range remains undetermined. about 15 miles west of Port Moresby. Specimens were also
Most collections have been within a 35 km radius of Port collected from the tributaries of the Laloki River in 1981.
Moresby, Papua New Guinea. They are generally found in
rainforest and coastal freshwater streams where they are often Some of these specimens were brought back to Australia and
found together with Melanotaenia goldiei. Temperature and small numbers were distributed in the hobby. They were a very
pH reported from these habitats were 25–33° Celsius and pH popular species but these days they seem to have been
7.3–7.8. From the collections around the Port Moresby District, forgotten and are rarely seen.

Melanotaenia parkinsoni
Allen, 1980
Parkinson’s Rainbowfish
Species Summary
Melanotaenia parkinsoni have an overall silvery body
colour with a rosy chest and narrow orange stripes between
the scale rows. The fins of adult males are bright orange
with dark edges. Mature males can be magnificent and Gerry Allen collected specimens from two small tributaries
usually have sweeping blotchy orange colouration on the
of the Kemp Welsh River a short distance inland from the
posterior area of the body, giving an overall patchy coast and about 75 kilometres southeast of Port Moresby,
appearance. Females are rather plain in comparison. Some and from a small stream about 3 kilometres west of Alotau
males also develop large extended dorsal and anal fins with at the extreme eastern tip of mainland Papua New Guinea.
a ragged appearance. Another colour variety exists with
Most of the original specimens collected were taken from a
bright yellow stripes or blotches instead of orange. Both small stream that was mainly dry except for the occasional
colour forms have been collected from the Kemp Welsh isolated pool. The stream was situated in grassy plains habitat
River. Sometimes the stripes or blotches fuse to form an with patchy rainforest immediately adjacent to the creek. The
overall colouration, which covers the entire posterior half of
temperature and pH range recorded from this habitat was 27–
the body. May reach a maximum size of 15 cm, but usually 30° Celsius and 7.6–7.8.
less than 12 cm.
Remarks
Distribution & Habitat Named in honour of Brian Parkinson, a regular companion of
Melanotaenia parkinsoni was first collected in October Allen’s on numerous collecting trips to Papua New Guinea.
1978 by Gerry Allen and were found along the southern
Live specimens were brought back to Australia in 1978 by
coast of eastern Papua New Guinea between the Kemp Gerald Allen and distributed in the aquarium hobby. Heiko
Welsh River and Milne Bay. They were collected in only a Bleher collected a yellowish coloured form in the 1990s and
few interspersed locations, but in all probability, could be distributed them in the European hobby. Males have a
widespread within this region.
yellowish body and a pinkish breast.

Female
Hristo Hristov Norbert Grunwald Neil Armstrong
Photos: Joël Félix
This form was originally collected by Heiko Bleher in the late 1990s from south-eastern Papua New Guinea and have been maintained by Marcel Dielen in
Belgium. They are known in the European hobby as either M. parkinsoni cf. “Orient” or M. parkinsoni cf. “South East”. ▲Male ▼Female
Gary Lange
Melanotaenia parva Yakati River and Melanotaenia parva from Lake
Kurumoi. Live specimens of M. parva were collected by
Allen, 1990 Heiko Bleher in 1999 and introduced to the aquarium hobby.
Lake Kurumoi Rainbowfish
Species Summary Marine and Fisheries Research, the Academy of Fishery
Gerry Allen reported that there appeared to be two colour Sorong, and the Institute of Research for Development of
forms of Melanotaenia parva in Lake Kurumoi; males France in five bioregions of West Papua. Fifteen species
being either bluish to mauve with a black midlateral band or of rainbowfishes were collected during these expeditions.
silver with red speckling and narrow red lines between each Based on the collections in the Bintuni Bay region 332
scale row on the side of the body. Fins of both varieties rainbowfish specimens were collected. Among them were
were red. Young males have a rosy-mauve body colour that M. irianjaya, M. parva and M. fredericki. Five species
turns more and more bright orange-red as they grow. The were taken live to Jakarta for breeding while the rest were
new species was reported to be very small (hence, the sent to the Sorong Fisheries Academy. These included M.
species name “parva”, meaning small in Latin). However, parva and M. irianjaya plus possibly three new species.
Melanotaenia parva may reach a maximum size of 9–10 M. angfa were not found!
cm.
A number of freshwater lakes were identified as high priority

Distribution & Habitat for conservation by Conservation International in 1999. This
Melanotaenia parva is currently known only from Lake was because they are important areas of fish and crayfish
Kurumoi, a small and isolated lake situated on the isthmus endemicity. These are Danau Bira (Lake Holmes), Lake
that links the Vogelkop Peninsula with the rest of New Sentani, Lake Kamaka, Paniai Lakes, Ayamaru Lakes, Lake
Guinea. Lake Kurumoi is part of the Yakati River system. Kurumoi, Lake Yamur, Lake Lakamora and Lake Aiwaso.
They were collected along the shoreline of the lake amongst Specific rainbowfishes that are considered threatened in West
dense aquatic vegetation. Papua are: Chilatherina bleheri, Chilatherina sentaniensis,
Glossolepis incisus, Melanotaenia arfakensis, Melanotaenia
boesemani and Melanotaenia parva (Conservation International
Remarks 2002).
In March and April 1989 Gerald Allen collected a number
of rainbows at various localities in the Vogelkop Peninsula.
Among these specimens were Melanotaenia angfa from the

Hans Booij Joël Félix
Gerald Allen
Melanotaenia pierucciae Distribution & Habitat
Allen and Renyaan, 1996 This species is known only from Werfyang Creek, which
Pierucci's Rainbowfish flows into the north-western end of Lake Kamakawaiar. The
habitat lies about 1–2 km upstream from the lake and is
separated from it by a scenic 20 m high waterfall. The fish
Species Summary was common in the main creek (about 4–5 m wide and 1–2
Melanotaenia pierucciae have a body colour of mauve or m deep) as well as a small tributary, both flowing through
purplish on the upper back with a bronze sheen, white or very dense rainforest. The water was crystal clear and flowing
pale mauve on the lower half (except a large violet patch may rapidly in Werfyang Creek, but slowly in the small
be evident just behind pectoral fin). The body scales have a tributary.
narrow dark outline, which is more intense on the ventral half,
particularly those above anal fin where scales often have The Triton lakes are situated on the southern coast of West
greatly expanded black margins. There is a broad, blackish to Papua, immediately east of the Bomberai Peninsula and
dark blue, mid-lateral stripe between the eye and base of caudal about 50 km due east of the seaport of Kaimana. The lakes
fin, occupying about two horizontal scale rows, except are surrounded by high limestone hills and lie just inland
interrupted on middle of side for about 6–7 vertical scale rows from Triton Bay. There are three main lakes: Kamakawaiar,
(scales in this area have a bronze sheen). First dorsal fin white; Lakamora, and Aiwaso. Kamakawaiar (usually referred to
second dorsal fin bluish; anal fin dusky grey to whitish; caudal as Kamaka) lies less then 5 km from the coast and is
and pectoral fins translucent; dorsal and ventral edge of caudal separated from the second lake, Lakamora, by a distance of
fin narrowly black on basal half. Female fin colouration about 7 kilometres. The third lake, Aiwaso, lies only a few
generally less intense and more translucent compared to males. hundred metres from Lakamora. The lakes do not appear to
have any outlet streams and drainage is presumably
Males have a more intense colour pattern, particularly during subterranean.
spawning and display a whitish-green forehead stripe. The
species exhibits fin shape differences, typical for the genus, in
which males have a longer first dorsal fin and the posterior Remarks
profiles of the second dorsal and anal fins, are somewhat Heiko Bleher collected these species in June 1995 together
elongated and pointed. Males have a deeper body as well and with Paola Pierucci and Patrick de Rham. The species is
may reach a maximum size of 8 cm, but usually less than 6 named in honour of Miss Paola Pierucci, who together with
cm. Heiko Bleher discovered the species.

Gerald Allen
Melanotaenia pimaensis
Allen, 1981
Pima River Rainbowfish

Melanotaenia pimaensis have a body colour of olive to Named “pimaensis” in reference to the Pima River type
brown dorsally; silvery blue on sides with narrow orange locality. This species was first collected by Brian Parkinson
lines between each scale row. Adults have a prominent and Gerald Allen in 1980. Live specimens were collected
blackish midlateral band. May reach a maximum size of 9 and brought back to Australia, but they failed to become
cm, but usually less than 6 cm. established in the aquarium hobby.

First discovered in 1980 from the Pima River (Oima River
on some maps) at the junction with Tua River, Purari River
system, Papua New Guinea. In 1991 further collections
were made in the Pio River. They were collected from small
slow-flowing tributaries in shallow depths of less than one
metre. The streams were relatively open and exposed to
sunlight, although bordered by rainforest in some areas.
Temperature ranged from 19°C in the deeper flowing
sections to 25°C in the exposed shallows. A pH of 7.8 was
recorded. About half of the specimens were collected from
moderately flowing turbid water and the remainder from a
crystal-clear backwater with minimal flow. One stream was
inhabited by a hardyhead (Craterocephalus) and another
rainbowfish, Chilatherina campsi.

Hristo Hristov
Melanotaenia praecox
(Weber and de Beaufort, 1922)
Neon Rainbowfish

Melanotaenia praecox are bright neon blue with red dorsal, anal, Melanotaenia praecox were originally introduced to the
and caudal fins. May reach a maximum size of 8 cm, but usually aquarium hobby by Charles Nishihira around 1991 who had
less than 6 cm SL. Heiko Bleher reported in Aqua Geõgraphia, “... obtained wild-caught specimens from a local aquarist in
males have red-edged fins while the fins of females are pure Jayapura. Heiko Bleher collected wild-caught specimens in
yellow”. However, my original females had red fins and succeeding 1993. Further live specimens were collected by Gary Lange
generations produced red-finned females, although at times they can and Johannes Graf in 2008 and taken back to Europe and the
appear faintly orange coloured. There are however, aquarium stocks United States. Fish from these collections have been bred
that have yellow-finned females. and distributed in the aquarium hobby.
Breeding trials with Melanotaenia praecox were conducted

Distribution & Habitat over a six-month period involving six replicates on viability
Melanotaenia praecox was initially collected by the Dutch naturalist regarding to number of eggs, fertilisation rate, hatching rate,
W. C. van Heurn in 1910 from a tributary of the Mamberamo River in length of incubation period, and survival rate in a seven days
West Papua. They have been collected from the Mamberamo and rearing period. While observations of growth rate, survival
Wapoga River systems. Gerry Allen collected specimens in 1991 rate, and male percentage were conducted until 6 months old
from two small localities near the airstrips at Dabra and Iritoi on the in three replicates. The results reported the average of
edge of the Mamberamo Plains. Gerry Allen (1998) also found number of eggs was 27 eggs/spawning, fertilisation rate was
them in small creeks and swampy ponds near Siewa, in the 92.93%; hatching rate was 98.18%; length of incubation
Tirawiwa River system, a remote area of northern West Papua period was 8 days (7–9), and survival rate in seven days
about 200 km west of the Mamberamo River basin. These rearing period was 89.45%, respectively. The growth rate up
specimens differ from the Mamberamo representatives in having a red to 6 months rearing period was 3 cm, while the survival rate
stripe between each scale row and males do not get so deep-bodied. was 94 (92–96)%, and the male percentage was 42.58%.

Gary Lange
▲The above specimen was collected near the village of Pagai [Taritatu River]. The Tariku River (previously known as the Rouffaer
River) in the west flows eastward and the Taritatu River (previously known as the Idenburg River) in the east flows roughly
westward. They meet in the Meervlakte Basin to form the main Mamberamo River.
Gunther Schmida

Gary Lange
Wild caught specimens in field tank—collected near the village of “Pagai” on the north bank of the upper Taritatu River
Hans Booij
M. praecox (female )
Female
Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia pygmaea The Prince Regent River is situated in northeast Western
Australia and flows into the Indian Ocean. The river rises 50
Allen, 1978 kilometres from the coast at an elevation of about 800 metres
Pygmy Rainbowfish
and drops through a rugged gorge. At the head of the river lies
a broad plateau averaging over 700 metres above sea level. The
Species Summary coastline is deeply indented by a number of drowned river
Melanotaenia pygmaea males display a brilliant colouration valleys. The following creeks flow into the Prince Regent River:
consisting of a metallic sky-blue back, a blackish mid- Pitta Creek, Gundarara Creek, Womarama Creek, Youwanjela
lateral stripe, and pale yellow fins. Males are more brightly Creek, Cascade Creek and Quail Creek. The upper reaches of the
coloured, larger, and much deeper bodied than females. river and creeks are mostly seasonal, with some permanent
Spawning males' display a yellowish body colour below the pools varying in depth up to several metres during the dry
lateral line and a brightly coloured rustic-red band running season.
from the first dorsal fin to the upper lip and extending down
the breast. Males may reach a maximum size of 7 cm, but
females are usually less than 5 cm SL. Remarks
In 1992 and 1994, live collections were made and descendants
from these collections now form the basis of the current stock
Distribution & Habitat available in the aquarium hobby today.
Melanotaenia pygmaea was first discovered by Gerald
Allen in 1974 in the tributaries of the Prince Regent River
in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. The Prince
Regent River is currently the only known habitat of M.
pygmaea. They have been collected from only two small
tributaries; Cascade Creek and Youwanjela Creek, where
they were found around sub-surface vegetation, submerged
logs, or branches. Most collections have been from Cascade
Creek, situated approximately 20 km upstream.

Dave Wilson
Schmida
Neil Armstrong
Gunther

Gerald Allen
Melanotaenia rubripinnis (Siewa)
Melanotaenia rubripinnis modal number of soft dorsal rays (usually less than 18 in M.
rubripinnis and more than 18 in M. vanheurni). In addition,
Allen and Renyaan, 1998 M. rubripinnis has fewer cheek scales (range 17–26, average 19.9
Red-finned Rainbowfish
vs. range 19–36, average 29.2).
Species Summary
Melanotaenia rubripinnis have a body colouration that is Distribution & Habitat
red on the back, mainly white on lower half of body except Melanotaenia rubripinnis is currently known only from the
for blue smudge above anterior part of anal fin. A black Wapoga River system of northern New Guinea. It was
stripe runs from the rear edge of the eye to the pectoral fin relatively common in a variety of habitats including tannin-
base, continuing as a blue-black mid-lateral stripe to the stained creeks in lowland rainforest, larger streams in more
base of caudal fin. The mid-lateral stripe is more or less open situations, and mountain tributaries to an elevation of
uniform in width, bordered by a narrow blue stripe above about 400 metres above sea level. It is found in quiet
and broader yellow stripe below. The dorsal, anal and shaded pools, as well as sunlit sections of larger streams and
caudal fins are red-orange. The pectoral and pelvic fins are relatively fast-flowing mountain streams. They are found
translucent. Specimens from more open habitats are brown together with Chilatherina alleni and Glossolepis leggetti.
above and white below with a black mid-lateral stripe that is Melanotaenia rubripinnis and Chilatherina alleni generally
narrowly bordered above and below by a light blue stripe. co-occur in the same streams and are also sometimes found
with Glossolepis leggetti in lowlands immediately adjacent
Occasional specimens from mountain streams are uniformly to foothills.
bluish except for a white breast region and black stripe
between the eye and pectoral-fin base. Males have a more
intense colour pattern, especially specimens from dense
lowland rainforest streams. May reach a maximum size of Remarks
12 cm, but usually less than 10 cm SL. Melanotaenia rubripinnis was described from 51 specimens
collected in 1998. It was named “rubripinnis” (Latin: with
Melanotaenia rubripinnis belongs to the ‘affinis species- red fins), with reference to the characteristic fin colouration.
group’ of northern New Guinea, which includes M. affinis, Currently, no live specimens have been collected for the
M. japenensis, M. maylandi and M. vanheurni, and is most aquarium hobby.
closely related to M. vanheurni from the Mamberamo River
system of West Papua. However, it differs in colour and

Joël Félix
Melanotaenia sexlineata (Kiunga)
Melanotaenia sexlineata Distribution & Habitat

(Munro, 1964) Melanotaenia sexlineata are presently only known from the
Fly River Rainbowfish Fly River and its tributaries. Most specimens have been
collected from creeks immediately north of Kiunga along the
Nematocentris sexlineatus Munro, 1964 Kiunga-Tabubil Road. The full extent of its distribution is
Melanotaenia sexlineata Allen, 1980 unknown. They have been found in small, shallow tannic
stained streams. Readings of pH 6.1–7.4 and 25°C have been
reported from some collection sites.
Species Summary
Melanotaenia sexlineata are a very attractive species. They
In October-December 1975, Tyson R. Roberts in his fish
have a lemon-greenish body colouration with 5-8 narrow
survey of the Fly River in Papua New Guinea (Roberts, 1978)
black stripes, with a darker mid-lateral band. This species
collected “M. sexlineata” from 2 locations:
belongs to the “Maccullochi Species Group” of
rainbowfishes. The main differences between this species
(1) Small tributaries and mainstream upper Fly River 1-2
and its nearest relatives, M. papuae, M. maccullochi, and M.
km upstream from mouth of Elevala River.
ogilbyi are related to colour pattern. They have a deeper
body than M. papuae or M. maccullochi and males often
(2) Lake Herbert Hoover (Lake Bosset), Wam River (which
show red coloured lips giving the appearance that they are
drains Lake Herbert Hoover), and swampy lagoons along
wearing lipstick. Females are a subdued version of the male
the main stream of the middle Fly River.
with lesser-defined markings. There appears to be a number
of different colour forms. Heiko Bleher collected a different
The eight specimens from (1) above, plus three additional ones
colour variety with a blue coloured back and orange fins
comprise the type specimens (Munro, 1964). The seven
from the upper Fly River catchment, apparently somewhere
additional specimens reported from Lake Bosset (2) were
along the Kiunga-Tabubil Road in 2003. In 2007, Mark
actually M. maccullochi. In addition, seven paratypes of M.
Allen collected specimens with an iridescent turquoise and
sexlineata from the Port Moresby district were re-indentified as
golden sheen. M. sexlineata may reach a maximum size of 8
M. papuae.
cm, but usually less than 7 cm SL.

Neil Armstrong
Melanotaenia sexlineata (Wild-caught specimen from the Fly River)
In 1982 Maunsell and Partners collected M. sexlineata from the 1982 Gerald Allen brought live specimens of M. sexlineata to
Membok village, Binge River, 10 km from confluence with Australia that he collected from the upper Fly River where they
middle Fly River. Then in 2005, a fish survey by the Ok Tedi were subsequently bred and distributed in the Australian
Mining Company collected them from 4 sites in the middle (2) aquarium hobby. Heiko Bleher collected M. sexlineata in the
and upper (2) Fly River. early 1980s and took them to Europe. Since then there has been
a number of live collections and M. sexlineata is relatively
freely available in the aquarium hobby.
Remarks
Melanotaenia sexlineata were initially discovered in 1937 by
Hejdi Gamst
Stuart Campbell in an upper tributary of the Fly River, Papua
New Guinea. However, they were not scientifically described
until 1964 when Australian ichthyologist, Ian Munro named
them Nematocentris sexlineatus. In a later review of the
rainbowfish group (Allen, 1980) the name was changed to
Melanotaenia sexlineata.
In October 1978, Gerald Allen and Brian Parkinson collected

what they thought were M. sexlineata from a small creek at
Mount Diamond, about 25 km west of Port Moresby. The
stream consisted of a series of small disconnected pools only a
few centimetres deep, due to the dry season. They collected
about 30 specimens, which Allen found out later were actually
M. papuae. They also collected more (M. papuae) in the Laloki
River. These were initially distributed in the Australian hobby
as Melanotaenia sexlineata. However, further research on these
and newly collected specimens by Allen resulted in the
recognition of the new species Melanotaenia papuae. Then in Kiunga Habitat

Gary Lange
Melanotaenia sexlineata (Tabubil) showing the ‘red lips’
CMCA Review
Ok Tedi River (Tabubil) contaminated with mine tailings. Small stream habitat (Tabubil)
Gunther Schmida
Kambolgie Creek [South Alligator River, Northern Territory]
Melanotaenia solata Following a scientific review of the rainbowfish family by

Gerald R. Allen (1980) it was considered that Melanotaenia
Taylor, 1964 solata fell within the range of Nematocentris australis with
Northern Rainbowfish
regard to colour pattern, morphometrics and meristics, and
in this review these two species were considered as one and
Species Summary were placed in the large “splendida” group as a sub-species,
This species was described by William R. Taylor in 1964 from and named Melanotaenia splendida australis. However,
specimens collected in 1948 from Groote Eylandt, Bickerton earlier Allen (1978) remarked that Melanotaenia australis
Island, and a creek near Yirrkala. The name “solata” is from and Melanotaenia splendida inornata were so closely
solatus Latin, meaning sunburned. It is given to this species of related that he was tempted to consider the latter a
rainbowfish in reference to the characteristic golden yellow life subspecies of australis. Morphologically or meristically
colours. Taylor described them as a species of Melanotaenia with a there is little that tells them apart, the biggest difference is
rather slender, compressed body; with complete dentition, with that Melanotaenia splendida inornata tends to be deeper
poorest developed in upper jaw; with a rather faint brown lateral bodied and seems to grow a little larger. Later, Allen et al.
body band and with numerous, characteristic, golden yellow life (2002) distinguished Melanotaenia solata from Melanotaenia
stripes through brown band as well as along the body. Large adults australis on the basis of the genetic results of McGuigan et al.
with diffuse dark band and about ten brilliant golden (2000).
longitudinal stripes on each side; basal half of caudal fin bright
yellow; bronze bar behind eye crossing preopercle and diffusing “The differentiation of M. s. australis lineages in this study
downward on opercle; belly and bases of second dorsal and anal could (i) indicate the presence of two distinct species, (ii) be
fin pinkish; the inter-radial membranes paler outward; inter- the result of introgression of the Northern Territory
radial membranes of first dorsal fin red. In specimens from population with sympatric M. nigrans or M. exquisita, or
Yirrkala, the dorsal and anal fins red; caudal fin yellowish (iii) reflect retention of ancestral polymorphisms. This third
orange; pelvic fins deep red; lower side bluish silvery; scale possibility is unlikely because the polymorphisms would
centres on side generally golden bronze; they form about five need to be present in the ancestor of clades A, B and C. To
longitudinal rows, the lowermost of which is approximately on distinguish between hypotheses (i) and (ii), M. s. australis,
a level with the ventral surface of the caudal peduncle. M. nigrans and M. exquisita would need to be characterised

Alan Travers
Groote Eylandt habitat
molecularly (mtDNA and nuclear) and morphologically Their natural environment is subjected to seasonal variations
from across their geographical range. This would also help with water temperature, pH, and hardness levels varying
to determine the cause of the polyphyly in cytochrome b of considerably. There is often a large fluctuation in water
Northern Territory M. s. australis. If hypothesis (i) is true, conditions between the dry and wet seasons.
then the name M. solata (Taylor 1964) could be applied to
the Northern Territory populations following re-description.
Irrespective of the situation in the Northern Territory, West Remarks
Australian populations of M. s. australis should be accorded A rainbowfish fitting the description by Allen et al. (2002) of
species status.” ~ McGuigan et al. (2000). Melanotaenia solata has been reported from the Howard River
system near Darwin (Pidgeon, 2003). In the aquarium hobby
“However, the status of M. solata is questionable based another rainbowfish from the Blackmore River in the Northern
primarily on the mtDNA analysis of the unusual population Territory is also often called Melanotaenia solata.
from upper South Alligator River which is introgressed with M.
nigrans (Zhu et al., 1994; McGuigan et al., 2000). Therefore, it However, despite the research that has been undertaken to
is probably better recognised as a synonym of M. s. inornata date, the specific status and distribution of Melanotaenia
until further work is conducted, especially given the recognition solata still remains unclear. Colour variability in rainbowfishes
that hybridization may be the cause of at least some of the odd has been a source of confusion to both aquarists and
morphotypes observed.” (P. J. Unmack 2009, pers. comm.) taxonomists studying their life history. Populations of almost
every river system they occupy have their own distinctive
body colour and pattern. Colour can also vary considerably
Distribution & Habitat within stream populations in the same river system.
Melanotaenia solata are confined primarily to Arnhem Land, Rainbowfishes at one end of a river system can look very
Northern Territory between the South Alligator and Walker different from rainbowfishes at the other end of the river
rivers. They are also found on the larger offshore islands of the system. This colour variability is often related to habitat
Gulf of Carpentaria including Groote Eyland and Bickerton conditions. Consequently, until more scientific research has
Island. They are a stream dwelling rainbowfish mainly found been completed on the M. solata complex, specific names
around sub-surface vegetation, submerged logs, or branches in based on the locality where each variety is found is best used
small tributary streams, but can also occur in swamps and by rainbowfish enthusiasts to identify the different varieties,
lagoons. They generally form small groups at or near the e.g., Melanotaenia sp. (Kambolgie Creek, South Alligator
surface of deeper pools in stream habitats, especially where River).
there is aquatic vegetation.

Gunther Schmida
Blackmore River (Northern Territory)
Neil Armstrong
“Yirrkala” (Northern Territory)
Melanotaenia splendida Geographic populations of M. splendida have been isolated
from each other for perhaps thousands of years. They have
(Peters, 1866) gradually evolved physical adaptations that reflect their
Eastern Rainbowfish
habitat. Some biologists classify M. splendida as separate
subspecies because they are visibly different. Others say they
Species Summary are genetically the same as other M. splendida subspecies and
Melanotaenia splendida is by far the most widespread of any differ only because of environmental circumstances. The
rainbowfish species, occurring across western and central traditional view of subspecies is morphological variants
southern New Guinea and northern Australia from the Adelaide distinguishable at the level of the population where 75% or
River in the Northern Territory to Deepwater Creek a small more of the individuals of the populations of one subspecies
coastal stream located between the cities of Bundaberg and can be distinguished from those of other subspecies.
Gladstone on the east coast of Queensland. They also occur
throughout most rivers in central Australia as well as the
Paroo and Warrego Rivers in Murray-Darling system. The Biology & Ecology
“splendida” rainbowfishes are currently a widely distributed Not a lot is known about the biology or ecology of M.
group comprising four subspecies:
splendida in their natural environments. Most information is
mainly based on aquarium observations. In captivity they can
Melanotaenia splendida inornata reach a maximum size of 12–15 cm, but are usually less than
Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata 8 cm. Males are more brightly coloured, larger, and much
Melanotaenia splendida splendida
deeper bodied than females. Generally, the larger males can
Melanotaenia splendida tatei usually be identified from the elongation of posterior rays in
the second dorsal and anal fins. Females and juveniles have
Melanotaenia splendida were originally collected from the plain silvery bodies and fins that are either translucent or only
Fitzroy River in central Queensland and scientifically
faintly coloured compared to the brighter colours of males.
described as Nemacentrus splendida in 1866. Gerald Allen’s Sexual maturity occurs at about 3–4 cm for both sexes.
revision of the family Melanotaeniidae in 1980 places them
under their current name. The different subspecies of M. The main components of their natural diet are algae, aquatic
splendida are not easily identified in relation to each other as
insects, terrestrial insects and microcrustaceans. The algal
they display a great variation of colours and markings. component consists mainly of green filamentous species. A
Principal visual differences are body depth and colour pattern, variety of aquatic insects are eaten; the main identifiable
which is variable depending on location and natural
species being chironomid larvae and pupae, and coleopterans.
environment. At the same time, body form within each
The main terrestrial insects were formicids (ants) and the main
subspecies is variably and appears to be related to habitat microcrustaceans were cladocerans. Traces of hydrophytes,
conditions, which can sometimes make correct identification oligochaetes, gastropods, arachnids, macrocrustaceans, teleosts,
difficult.
terrestrial plants, detritus and inorganic material were also found
in the stomachs. In the pools and riffles that enter the
Populations of almost every river system they occupy have floodplain in the wet season they feed mainly on non-aquatic
their own distinctive body colour and pattern. Colour variability insect forms such as winged diptera and ants.
in rainbowfishes has been a source of confusion to both
aquarists and taxonomists studying their life history. Colour In their natural environment M. splendida has a prolonged
appears to vary from population to population as well as spawning period with a peak of spawning activity in pre-flood
within a population, particularly during different stages of the and flood periods, although individuals in spawning condition
fishes’ lifespan. This colour variability is related to age, sex,
and juveniles may be found throughout the year. Spawning
stress, habitat conditions and spawning. Geographic distribution during the wet season (November to April), when the inundation
is very helpful; if you know where they were collected you of streams and floodplains ensures an expanded habitat (in area
can generally make a confident identification. Consequently, and diversity) and a greater array and abundance of food. In
specific names usually based on the locality where each is
contrast, spawning peaks during the dry season (May to
found are used by rainbowfish enthusiasts to identify each October) ensures that larvae are produced during a period of
variety. Where populations need to be identified, they are relatively stable environmental conditions. This strategy
often done by inclusion of a form or population identifier in increases the chances of some eggs surviving. Increased stream
brackets following the species name e.g., Melanotaenia
flow may result in conditions unfavourable for reproduction (i.
splendida (Burdekin River). e., physical removal of eggs, larvae and spawning substrate).
Whether or not Melanotaenia splendida is truly a distinct In the main, M. splendida will breed when environmental
species or subspecies complex is a matter of on-going
conditions ensure maximum fertilisation and larval survival.
debate. Ever since Carolus Linnaeus founded the modern They usually spawn small numbers of eggs over a large area in
system of classifying species in the mid-l8th century, slow-flowing waters and the backwaters of flooded areas. The
taxonomists have argued over just what exactly species and
presence of extensive spawning substrate enables them to
subspecies are. In general, fishes evolve into different species
‘spread the risk’ from predators. The eggs are attached by
and subspecies after becoming geographically isolated from adhesive threads to aquatic plants and other objects in the
others, adapting to their different environments, and changing water, which hide them from predators.
over time through the process of natural selection.

The eggs, however, are subject to desiccation if the water level The eggs of M. splendida at fertilisation are similar in
drops or to dispersal if there is a flood. appearance to those of other rainbowfishes. All are spherical,
with a number of adhesive filaments, 3-8 mm in length,
Melanotaenia splendida subsp. inornata are reported to arising from a small area of the chorion at the animal pole.
migrate upstream at the onset of the breeding season, which Spawned eggs, which range in size from 0.93 to 1.24 mm in
corresponds to the start of water flow after the dry season. diameter, are adhesive, negatively buoyant in freshwater and
They spawn for an extended period during the early-wet are usually clear to light amber in colour. The eggs hatch after
season, and their gonads are developing for the next year’s an incubation period of four to nine days depending on
spawning by the late-wet-early-dry season. In a number of temperature. Temperature is one of the major factors that
gonads examined, the number of eggs ranged from 70 to 370. influences the embryonic period for rainbowfishes. Average
embryonic period is about 5 days at 28°C.
Under aquarium conditions, pre-spawning behaviour usually
occurs in the morning and may continue for up to an hour The average larval length of M. splendida at hatching ranges
before spawning takes place. During this period the colours in from 2 to 4 mm, which is similar to other rainbowfish species.
both sexes become more intense, but to a lesser extent in the Hatched larvae are well developed and competent swimmers.
female. In males, the edges of the fins and the chequering of Growth rates of the larvae are initially slow, with little
the caudal and second dorsal fins become black. The nape variation until around 7 to 14 days. Growth is directly related
may darken to black in some but not all fish. The midlateral to the initial absorption of the yolk sac and the provided larval
stripe is prominent, extending from the origin of the pectoral diet. After that period growth rates increased. As the larvae
fin to the caudal peduncle. Near the tail, two shorter dark lines increased in age, the variation in length between individuals
appear above and below the midlateral stripe. The normal also increased.
orange-yellow longitudinal stripes become a more intense
colour in both sexes. The males have an iridescent purple The continued growth and development of the fry will vary
sheen in light. The operculum has a glowing red spot in both from one hobbyist to another and is largely conditional upon
sexes. The pectorals do not become coloured in either males captive conditions such as temperature, water quality, and
or females. In the females, the midlateral stripe darkens before feeding regime. Under aquarium conditions increased
spawning but the stripe is not as long as in males. The temperature generally results in higher growth rates. 28 ± 1°C
chequered appearance of the second dorsal fin becomes more is considered the most effective and safe temperature for
noticeable and the colour of all the fins darkens except in the optimum growth rate. At this temperature range, M. splendida
case of the pectorals. are relatively fast growing with sexual differences beginning
to appear between 9 and 12 weeks after hatching.
Chasing follows immediately after the colour change. The
males chase the females, swim below them and brush their Food is an important factor affecting growth, especially in the
vent area with erect dorsal fins or butt them in the vent region early larval stages. Research has found that diet strongly
or in the area of the pectoral fins. The males frequently affects not only fecundity but also the biochemical make-up
tremble as they swim below the females. They display erected of eggs and sperm as well as the growth rate and survival of
fins as they swim beside or at right angles in front of the larvae. The preferred size of food for larval fishes increases as
females. During the pre-spawning chasing and display, the mouth size and feeding competency increase. Providing
males can become quite aggressive and nip the females if the natural ‘green-water’ (phytoplankton) with resident zooplankton
latter do not show interest in the display. In the final phase of as food for the newly hatched fish has several advantages.
pre-spawning behaviour, the pair swim with their bodies The larvae are easily able to switch to different sized food, a
parallel, sinking and rising and then remain in one place with feature not present when feeding foods such as rotifers or
heads touching and their bodies vibrating rapidly. Eggs and brineshrimp. Green water also enables the zooplankton to
sperm are then expelled amongst the plants or spawning feed on resident algae and microbes, thus retaining their
medium. nutritional value for greater periods of time. In addition, a
varied diet may affect the growth of rainbowfishes positively.
Large females (>50 mm TL) produce more than 100 eggs per
day at the peak of their spawning. Smaller females (30-35 mm
TL), which were only just sexually mature shed fewer eggs, Remarks
20-30 per day and do not spawn each day. Accurate counting Because of the great variation in colours and body forms,
of the eggs is difficult as the male disperses the eggs rapidly Melanotaenia splendida should be bred within their own
by the swishing of his tail. Two females were once observed localised populations. Regardless of their various colour
to lay more than 1700 eggs within a single one-week patterns, at this point of time, they are all believed to belong
spawning period. The number of eggs shed by a single female to the same species and are capable and willing to breed
is directly related to the size of the female with large females together if permitted to do so. The serious hobbyist intent on
spawning from 40-250 eggs. Females usually only spawn maintaining pure lines must keep each population in separate
once each day; however, males will often spawn with more aquariums. Unless this is done, members of the different
than one female in one day. In captivity, with limited area and subspecies or populations will interbreed and complicate
artificial substrate, females may spawn all their eggs at the future breeding programs and identification.
same time.

Melanotaenia splendida — Distribution Map
Melanotaenia splendida subsp. inornata inhabit the river Melanotaenia splendida subsp. tatei is widespread and abundant
systems of the Northern Territory and Queensland, which in the larger rivers of the Lake Eyre Basin and the Western
flow into the Arafura Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria – from Plateau of the Northern Territory. This species has only
the Adelaide River to Cape York Peninsula, extending recently been identified from the Murray-Darling Basin,
down the east coast to around the Lockhart and Stewart where it is recorded from the arid rivers in the north-western
Rivers. basin. It is found only in the Paroo and Warrego rivers, and
hybrids with Murray-Darling rainbowfish have been
Melanotaenia splendida subsp. rubrostriata are widely distributed identified in the lowermost Warrego River and the Darling
in southern New Guinea between Etna Bay in West Papua and River from around the Bogan River down to at least
the Central Province of Papua New Guinea. The Kikori River Menindee.
was the previous eastern limit of distribution, but recent
surveys indicate that they are more widespread; having been
collected in the Sapoi River in the Lakekamu Basin. The Sapoi Melanotaenia duboulayi inhabits the coastal drainages east
River drainage is located approximately 150 km northwest of of the Great Dividing Range from the Hastings River on the
Port Moresby. They have also been found on the Aru Islands. mid northern coast of New South Wales to Baffle Creek in
However, their full distribution is unknown. southern Queensland.
Melanotaenia splendida subsp. splendida are found in streams Melanotaenia fluviatilis is the most southerly ranging
east of the Great Dividing Range along the coast of rainbowfish in Australia. Their distribution covers the Murray-
Queensland from Deepwater Creek north to Scrubby Creek, Darling River system in Queensland, New South Wales,
just south of the Lockhart River. Victoria, and South Australia.

Dave Wilson
Gulbawangay River [Goyder River, Northern Territory]
Melanotaenia splendida Generally the body colour is olivaceous to yellowish with

white breast. Scales on side of body with purplish sheen.
subsp. inornata Mid-lateral stripe deep yellowish anteriorly, and bluish-
(Castelnau, 1875) green or brownish-green on caudal peduncle. Other body
Chequered Rainbowfish stripes yellow or red. An orange or yellow spot on opercula.
Dorsal, caudal and anal fins red and yellow chequered or
Aida inornata Castelnau, 1875 orange-yellow with bright red spots on their membranes,
Aristeus cavifrons Macleay, 1882 with faint black edge.
Rhombatractus cavifrons Ogilbyi, 1896
Aidapora carteri Whitley, 1935
Melanotaenia maculata Allen, 1978 Distribution & Habitat
Melanotaenia splendida inornata Allen, 1980 Melanotaenia splendida subsp. inornata inhabit the river
systems of the Northern Territory and Queensland, which
flow into the Arafura Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria from
Species Summary Darwin to Cape York Peninsula, extending down the east
Melanotaenia splendida subsp. inornata were first coast to around the Lockhart and Stewart Rivers. The
described in 1875 as Aida inornata. During the 1950–60’s Adelaide River is the furthest west that M. s. inornata has
they were very popular with native fish keepers in Australia. been recorded. They are frequently found in company with
They were then scientifically known as Aidapora carteri other rainbowfish species.
and commonly known as “Carter’s Sunfish”. They did not
become known in the international hobby until around the M. s. inornata are tropical fish and are found in almost
mid-1970s when they went on displayed at the Berlin every kind of freshwater habitat, from slow-moving
Aquarium in Germany. At that point of time they were streams, wetland swamps, lagoons and clear flowing rivers.
known as Melanotaenia maculata (Allen, 1978). Gerald They are generally found in waters with moderately thick
Allen’s revision of the family Melanotaeniidae in 1980 vegetation. A temperature range of 10–40° Celsius; pH 4.6–
places them under their current name. 8.5 and conductivity 2–220 µS/cm, has been recorded in
their natural environment.

Gunther Schmida
▲ ▼ Anniversary Creek [Adelaide River, Northern Territory]
This wide range of water conditions matches the wide
Photos: Jennifer Palmer

distribution of the species. However, survival rates for M. s.
inornata are known to decline sharply when the water
temperature is high and will often die at temperatures above
36°C. Such increases in temperature are common in tropical
waterbodies of Australia during the late dry season.

Gunther Schmida
South Alligator River (Northern Territory)
Gunther Schmida
Coomalie Creek [Adelaide River, Northern Territory]
Gunther Schmida
Flat Rock Creek [Goyder River, Northern Territory]
Neil Armstrong
Manton Creek [Adelaide River, Northern Territory]
Neil Armstrong
Flying Fox Creek [Roper River, Northern Territory]
Neil Armstrong
Nimrod Creek [Mary River, Northern Territory]
Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia splendida Distribution & Habitat
Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata were initially
subsp. rubrostriata collected during the 1880s from the Strickland River, Papua
(Ramsay and Ogilby, 1886) New Guinea. They are widely distributed in southern New
Red-striped Rainbowfish Guinea between Etna Bay in West Papua and the Central
Province of Papua New Guinea. The Kikori River was the
Nematocentris rubrostriatus Ramsay & Ogilby, 1886 previous eastern limit of distribution, but recent surveys
Aristeus loriae Perugia, 1894 indicate that they are more widespread; having been
Rhombatractus loriae Ogilby, 1896 collected in the Sapoi River in the Lakekamu Basin. The
Rhombatractus rubrostriatus Ogilby, 1896 Sapoi River drainage is located approximately 150 km
Rhombatractus patoti Weber, 1907 northwest of Port Moresby. They have also been found on
Melanotaenia maculata Weber, 1908 the Aru Islands. Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata
Melanotaenia dumasi Weber, 1913 inhabit freshwater creeks and rivers along lowland coastal
Melanotaenia rubrosriatus Weber, 1913 plains. They are usually found around sub-surface
Nematocentris rubrosriatus Weber, 1913 vegetation, submerged logs, or branches. Temperature and
Anisocentrus rubrostriatus Regan, 1914 pH recorded in their natural habitats range from 24–33°C
Amneris rubrostriata Whitley, 1935 and 5.6–7.5.
Nematocentris maculata Munro, 1967
Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata Allen, 1980
Remarks
Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata were one of the earlier
Species Summary New Guinea rainbowfishes to be introduced to the aquarium
Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata have a basic body hobby. They first appeared in the Australian hobby around
colouration of overall pale bluish-green, grading to white on 1959. Live specimens were also collected by Gerald Allen
the lower sides. Each horizontal scale row is separated by a during the period 1978-1982. This was another rainbowfish
narrow orange to pink stripe. The membranes between the that fell out of favour with hobbyists as the number of new
rays of the second dorsal and anal fin are red. Melanotaenia species arrived from New Guinea, and much of the captive
splendida rubrostriata may reach a maximum size (TL) of stock disappeared.
16 cm, but usually less than 12 cm, with a body depth of 6–8
cm. Males are more brightly coloured, larger, and much
deeper bodied than females.

Preliminary genetic studies (P. J. Unmack 2009, pers. comm.) have revealed significant genetic variation between Melanotaenia
splendida rubrostriata and other geographically distinct populations of Melanotaenia splendida subspecies in northern Australia that
warrant taxonomical separation at the species level.

Gunther Schmida
Daintree River (Queensland)
Melanotaenia splendida the caudal peduncle. Other body stripes can be yellow, green,
blue or red. There is usually an orange or yellow spot on the
subsp. splendida opercula. The dorsal, caudal and anal fins can be red and
(Peters, 1866) yellow chequered or orange-yellow with bright red spots on
Eastern Rainbowfish their membranes, with faint black edges. Other forms can
have a blue-green body with yellow-green fins, with dark
Nematocentris splendida Peters, 1866 flecks and a dark border. However, colour is extremely
Strabo nigrofasciatus Kner & Steindachner, 1867 variable and will depend upon the mood of the fish, water
Aristeus fitzroyensis Castelnau, 1878 conditions and diet. Females and juveniles have plain silvery
Aristeus rufescens Macleay, 1881 bodies and fins that are either translucent or only faintly
Melanotaenia nigrofasciata Ogilby, 1896 coloured compared to the brighter colours of males.
Rhombatractus fitzroyensis Ogilby, 1896
Rhombatractus rufescens Ogilby, 1896 Genetic studies beginning in the mid 1990’s (Zhu et al.
Melanotaenia splendida splendida Allen, 1980 1994) revealed the existence of significant genetic variation
between populations of M. s. splendida that occur in the
upland streams of north Queensland. In particular, these
Species Summary studies highlighted the degree of isolation of upland
Melanotaenia splendida subsp. splendida were originally populations from the lowland populations. Subsequent
collected from the Fitzroy River in central Queensland and genetic research (McGuigan et al. 2000) suggested that at
scientifically described as Nemacentrus splendida in 1866. least some of these species are unusual variants of
The basic body colouration is overall pale bluish-green, Melanotaenia splendida - or populations displaying genes
olivaceous to yellowish, grading to white on the lower that have traits of more than one species. As a direct result
sides. Each horizontal scale row is separated by a narrow of some of this research, the Utchee Creek Rainbowfish
orange to reddish stripe. The scales on the side of the body (Melanotaenia utcheensis) was described as a new species
usually have a bluish-green, yellowish-red or purplish in 2000, with populations known from Utchee, Fisher,
sheen. The mid-lateral stripe can be faded black to deep Rankin and Short Creeks in the North and South Johnstone
yellowish anteriorly, and bluish-green or brownish-green on River catchments (McGuigan 2001).

Gunther Schmida
Gunther Schmida
Station Creek [Boyne River, Queensland]
Gunther Schmida
Owen Creek [Pioneer River, Queensland]
Neil Armstrong
Herbert River (Queensland)
Gunther Schmida
Wallaby Creek [Annan River, Queensland]
Schmida
Fitzroy River (Queensland)
GuntherSchmida
Gunther
Neil Armstrong
Streets Creek [Barron River, Queensland]
Rainbowfish from upstream sections of the Burdekin River Abundance varies significantly over the seasons; being
have long been considered to be a distinct species by greatest after the wet season (which enhances recruitment)
rainbowfish enthusiasts, and are known in the hobby as the but will decline greatly as flow decreases during drought
Burdekin Rainbowfish (Running River or “zigzag” form). condition.
This form is believed to also be present in other tributaries
draining the Paluma Range, notably the Fanning River. M. s. splendida are frequently found in company with M.
maccullochi, M. trifasciata, Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides,
There are other informally recognised forms of “splendida” and Pseudomugil species. Their natural environment is
such as the Davies Creek Rainbowfish, Kuranda Reds and subjected to seasonal variations with water temperature
Mena Creek Rainbowfish. However, despite the research (12–36°C), pH (5.0–9.2), and hardness levels varying
that has been undertaken to date, the specific status and considerably. This wide range of water conditions matches
distribution of M. s. splendida still remains unclear. the wide distribution of the species.
Melanotaenia duboulayi inhabits the coastal drainages of

Distribution & Habitat the east coast of northern New South Wales from the
M. s. splendida are found in streams east of the Great Macleay River region to Baffle Creek north of the
Dividing Range along the coast of Queensland from Bundaberg region in Queensland. It may be that these two
Deepwater Creek a small coastal stream located between the species live sympatrically in some locations. Natural
cities of Bundaberg and Gladstone extending up the east hybrids of M. splendida and M. duboulayi have been
coast to around the Lockhart and Stewart Rivers on Cape reported from Deepwater and Mullett Creeks.
York Peninsula. Scrubby Creek, just south of the Lockhart
River, appears to be the northernmost location for this
species. Remarks
M. s. splendida were introduced to the international hobby in an
M. s. splendida are usually abundant in almost every kind of article by Paul V. Loiselle in the March, 1970 edition of “The
freshwater habitat, from slow-moving streams, swamps, Aquarium” magazine under the name Nematocentris splendida.
lakes and clear flowing rivers. They are most abundant in
open reaches of zero to low flow containing abundant
instream vegetation and cover, and an intact riparian zone.
They are less abundant in riffle/rapid habitats.

Gunther Schmida
Davies Creek [Barron River, Queensland]
Gunther Schmida
Miskin Creek [South Johnstone River, Queensland]

Bruce Hansen
“Kuranda Reds” Streets Creek [Barron River, Queensland]
Neil Armstrong
Emu Creek [Barron River, Queensland]
Gunther Schmida
▲▼ Deepwater Creek (Queensland)
Ure
GregUre
Greg
Neil Armstrong
McIvor River (Queensland)
Gunther Schmida
Mulgrave River (Queensland)

Dave Wilson
Ellery Creek [Finke River, NT] Male ▲ Female ►
Melanotaenia splendida
subsp. tatei
(Zietz, 1896)
Desert Rainbowfish
Nematocentris tatei Zietz, 1896

Nematocentris winneckei Zietz, 1896
Rhombatractus winneckei Ogilby, 1896
Melanotaenia splendida tatei Allen, 1980
Females and juveniles have plain silvery bodies with clear fins.
Species Summary Males are usually more brightly coloured with pale stripes
Melanotaenia splendida subsp. tatei is a small, laterally along the sides, larger, and much deeper bodied than females.
compressed fish. They may reach a maximum size of 10
cm, but usually less than 8 cm SL. The eyes are large and M. s. tatei was originally named Nematocentris tatei by
positioned towards the top of the head, and the mouth is Zietz in 1896 after Ralph Tate (1840-1901), a geologist and
moderately large, oblique and upturned. There are two botanist who was on the 1894 Horn Expedition when this
dorsal fins separated by a small gap, with the first short- species was first collected.
based and the second long-based. There is a long-based anal
fin and the tail is moderately forked. Two colour forms
exist; in one form males have a purple body with yellow- Distribution & Habitat
green fins, with dark flecks and a dark border. The other M. s. tatei is widespread and abundant in the larger rivers of
form has a blue-green body with similar colouration on their the Lake Eyre Basin and the Western Plateau of the
fins. During spawning the belly of the male turns bright Northern Territory. This species has only recently been
pink. Colour varies depending upon the mood of the fish, identified from the Murray-Darling Basin, where it is
water conditions and diet. recorded from the arid rivers in the north-western basin.

It is found only in the Paroo and Warrego rivers, and hybrids In addition to the consumption of some aquatic insects and
with Murray-Darling rainbowfish have been identified in the algae, this species fed chiefly upon terrestrial arthropods,
lowermost Warrego River and the Darling River from around many of which were flying insects (e.g., ants, wasps and
the Bogan River down to at least Menindee. Any rainbowfish dipterans). Other items included aquatic dipterans,
captured in or near the Darling River need to be carefully coleopteran larvae and zooplankton. The aquatic dipterans
examined, as confusion or hybridisation with Murray-Darling were mostly chironomid larvae, while the zooplankton prey
rainbowfish is likely (P. J. Unmack pers. comm.). consisted chiefly of conchostracans and cladocerans.
Terrestrial foods included isopods, scolopendridid centipedes,
M. s. tatei inhabit semi-permanent streams, springs, artesian or a variety of alighting insects such as dipterans, hymenopterans
bores (wells), and lagoons. During prolonged droughts the and coleopterans. Up to 100% terrestrial insects was consumed
fish are confined to isolated pools. Their natural during the dry season.
environment is subjected to seasonal variations with water
temperatures ranging between 24°C during the dry season
and up to 33°C in the wet season. The water is generally Remarks
alkaline (pH 7.2–8.0); however, they are occasionally found This species has never generated much interest among
in acidic conditions (pH 6.5–6.9). They are usually found Australian aquarists, except for a few dedicated rainbowfish
around sub-surface vegetation, submerged logs, or enthusiasts and is still relatively uncommon in the international
branches. Living in a hot and arid environment M. s. tatei hobby.
have broad physiological tolerances. Spawning typically
takes place during the warmer months when temperatures
are above 20°C, or whenever ample rain falls.
Balcombe et al., 2005 found that terrestrial fauna was a

major food group consumed by Melanotaenia splendida
tatei. Their diet consisted of terrestrial insects (67.4%),
other terrestrial invertebrates (10.2%), algae (16.8%), and
aquatic insects (5.6%).
Barry Meiklejohn
Ellery Creek (Northern Territory)

Gerald Allen
Lakekamu River, PNG
Melanotaenia sylvatica New Guinea). The group is characterised by a relatively small

Allen, 1997 maximum size, similar shape, and a relatively low number of
Forest Rainbowfish dorsal, anal, and pectoral rays (7–11, 14–19, and 11–14
respectively), as well as a low number of cheek and predorsal
Species Summary scales (10–16 and 13–17 respectively). Although the members
Melanotaenia sylvatica was described from 26 specimens of the group have similar live colour patterns, each is clearly
collected in 1996 during a Conservation International fauna distinct (Allen 1995). Live colours are most similar to
survey in the upper Lakekamu basin of southeastern Papua Melanotaenia caerulea, but it lacks the pronounced neon blue
New Guinea. The Lakekamu basin covers 2500 km2 of pristine that covers much of the body. There are also differences in
lowland alluvial rainforest, surrounded in the east, west and modal fin-ray counts between these two species. Preserved
north by mountains. The Lakekamu basin is an undisturbed specimens, which show a distinct blackish midlateral stripe,
region with minimal human impact. The collection site is closely resemble M. ogilbyi, but the two species have different
located approximately 150 km northwest of Port Moresby on live colours and there is a modal difference in the number of
the southern slope of the Central Dividing Range. Most of the soft anal rays. The known geographic distributions of this pair
basin is an extensive lowland alluvial plain over which the are separated by a distance of approximately 900 km.
Lakekamu River and its tributaries meander. The collection
sites were situated about 15–20 km above the Lakekamu River Melanotaenia sylvatica have body colour of yellowish-bronze
junction and 90–100 km upstream from the sea in the Sapoi with narrow brownish-orange stripes between each scale row.
River and its forest tributaries, close to the transition from Greenish brown on upper back; midlateral row of scales on
lowland to mountainous terrain. side grey to blackish, connected to similar coloured stripe
extending from edge of eye; lower half of head and body
Melanotaenia sylvatica belongs to a species complex known as silvery-white, usually with variable duskiness associated with
the “maccullochi group” (Allen 1981), which includes M. edge of scales on side of abdomen; dorsal and anal fins yellow
caerulea (Kikori River, New Guinea), M. maccullochi to translucent bronze, grey near outer margin with fine white
(northern Australia and Fly River, New Guinea), M. ogilbyi border; caudal fin clear or slightly grey; pelvis fins pale yellow;
(Lorentz River, New Guinea), M. papuae (vicinity of Port pectorals clear or with slight yellow tint. May reach a
Moresby, Papua New Guinea), and M. sexlineata (Fly River, maximum size of 6 cm, but usually less than 5 cm.

Typical of most members of the genus; males are generally In addition to the primary forest habitat, M. sylvatica also
deeper bodied and have a more elongate, somewhat pointed occurs in the main Sapoi River below an altitude of about
shape posteriorly on the soft dorsal and anal fins. In 50 metres. Above this altitude, the river undergoes a
addition, the depressed first dorsal fin of adult males relatively quick transition from a slow-flowing lowland
overlaps the second dorsal fin in males, but falls short of stream to a mountain torrent. The riverine habitat of M.
this point or barely reaches it in females. The body depth (as sylvatica consists of deeper (to 3 metres), sand or gravel
percentage of the standard length) of 13 males, 31.5–55.0 bottom pools, often behind log jams, either in shaded
mm SL, ranged from 30.2–35.5 with an average of 32.7; positions or in full sunlight. Two other species of rainbowfish,
that of 13 females, 36.6–50.6 mm S L , was 27.8–31.3 with M. goldiei (abundant) and M. rubrostriatus (rare) share this
an average of 29.5. The smallest gravid female examined habitat. Temperatures recorded in the habitats ranged from 20°
was 36.6 mm SL. The smallest male exhibiting secondary to 29°C. Aquatic and terrestrial insects and various aquatic
sexual characteristics (elongated first dorsal fin and pointed larval insects feature prominently in the diet of the rainbowfishes.
shape posteriorly of anal and second dorsal fins) was 31.5
mm SL. Judging from the growth rates of closely related The fish fauna of the upper Lakekamu Basin is broadly
members of the “maccullochi group” sexual maturity is typical of freshwater localities in New Guinea. It consists of
reached before the end of their first year. approximately 23 species in 18 genera and 14 families and is
dominated by catfishes, rainbowfishes, gobies and gudgeons.
The majority of species recorded are distributed widely either
Distribution & Habitat across the southern portion of New Guinea or the combined
Tributaries of the Lakekamu and Sapoi River drainage are northern Australia-southern New Guinea region. The rivers
located approximately 150-km northwest of Port Moresby of the upper Basin are still pristine and essentially uncontaminated
on the southern slope of the Central Dividing Range, Papua by introduced species.
New Guinea. Typical habitat consists of small (1–3 metre
wide), clear, slow-flowing creeks in closed canopy forest
over relatively flat terrain, but also found in side channels Remarks
and quiet pools. These creeks typically have mud or gravel The species is named “sylvatica” (Latin: “of the forest”) with
bottoms and are littered with leaves and log debris. One reference to its typical forest habitat. They are currently not
species of submerged aquatic plant, Hydrostemma motleyi available in the aquarium hobby.
(Nymphaeaceae), was common in many of the streams. The
fish was most abundant in 0.5–1.0 metre deep pools behind
fallen logs or buttress roots of large trees.

Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia synergos are usually much larger and deeper bodied than females. I
Allen & Unmack, 2008 found this species to be reasonably tolerant of the presence of
Batanta Island Rainbowfish newly hatched fry in their aquarium.
Species Summary
Adult males have a bluish (turquoise) wash above a usually Distribution & Habitat
discontinuous mid-lateral stripe and a whitish belly region. Melanotaenia synergos is currently only known from Batanta
They have a gold (yellowish) wash of colour above and below Island, which lies immediately west of the West Papuan
the lateral line near the caudal peduncle. The second dorsal and mainland. Batanta is a small island approximately 55
anal fins are a silver-grey-blue colour. Females are similarly kilometres long and 30–35 kilometres wide and is home to
coloured but not as intense and their dorsal/anal fins are three separate species of rainbowfishes. Much of the Island is
uncoloured. They are very similar in colouration, body shape covered with dense rainforest. They are mainly found around
etc., to Melanotaenia catherinae and can easily be confused submerged logs, or branches in clear rainforest streams, in
with this species. The two species share similar meristic and water temperatures between 18–28° Celsius. However, their
morphological features as well as general colour pattern natural environment is subjected to seasonal variations with
similarities. However, they differ in modal counts for pectoral- water temperature, pH, and hardness levels varying considerably.
fin rays and lateral scales. They also exhibit slight colour
pattern differences related to the width of the dark midlateral
stripe, which is generally narrower in Melanotaenia synergos, Remarks
covering one and a half scale rows for most of its length versus This species was first collected in 1992 by Heiko Bleher while
2 to 3 scale rows for Melanotaenia catherinae. This species exploring the freshwaters of Batanta Island. Gerry Allen
should not be confused with Melanotaenia batanta, another tentatively identified the species as Melanotaenia misoolensis,
rainbowfish found on Batanta Island. which he described in 1982 from a collection held in the
Zoological Museum of the University of Amsterdam in the
Males are distinguished from females by their brighter colours Netherlands. However, as it turns out they were an undescribed
and longer and more elongated fin rays. Growing to a length of species.
around 10 to 12 cm, and a body depth of 3.5 to 4.0 cm, males

Neil Armstrong
Gerald Allen
Gary Lange

Gunther Schmida
Mary River (Northern Territory)
Melanotaenia trifasciata M. trifasciata are commonly known as the Banded Rainbowfish.

However, I think they should be called the “Regal Rainbowfish”
(Rendahl, 1922)
because they are without doubt the most majestic rainbowfishes
Regal Rainbowfish
you will ever see. As with many rainbowfishes, the colouration of
M. trifasciata is variable depending on location, water conditions
Rhombosoma trifasciata Rendahl, 1922
and diet. Populations from almost every river system where they
Melanotaenia trifasciata Allen, 1980
are found have their own distinctive body colour. Consequently,
specific names usually based on the locality where each is found
Species Summary are used by rainbowfish enthusiasts to identify each variety. They
Melanotaenia trifasciata was collected in June 1894 (Port can be recognised by a very deep body, usually deeper than 1/3 of
Darwin) by Knut Dahl, a Norwegian Zoologist. The species their body length, and an often discontinuous black mid-lateral
description was published in 1922 by Hialmar Rendahl, on the band. Males are more brightly coloured, larger, and much deeper
basis of one single specimen from the Mary River, in the bodied than females. Specimens found in a number of rivers in
Northern Territory. Why he proposed the name trifasciata, Queensland are more streamlined and do not have the deeper
meaning literally “three-banded”, is not very obvious when you body shape of their counterparts from other river systems.
look at live specimens. However, it becomes clear when you
bear in mind that Rendahl only knew this one museum M. trifasciata may reach a maximum size of 15 cm, but are
specimen caught more than 20 years earlier. He described the usually less than 12 cm, with a body depth of 6–8 cm.
colours as follows: Males are deeper bodied than females and the overall colour
pattern of males is more intense. The vertical fins of
“The ground-colour of the fish is (in spirits) a light brown. females are either translucent or only faintly coloured
Along the sides of the body, occupying the adjacent two-thirds compared to the brighter colours of males. These features
of the scales, there is a broad blackish brown bar on the 5th become more obvious with increased growth.
and 6th longitudinal rows of the scales. ... On both sides, this
dark bar is (except on the head) bordered by a very obvious
light (in alcohol whitish), bar, the ventral of which is the
broadest and about half the width of the dark one. ”

Gary Lange
Melanotaenia trifasciata [Fly River, PNG]
Distribution & Habitat Biology

Melanotaenia trifasciata have a discontinuous distribution M. trifasciata characteristically display a considerable range
across northern Australia, from the Mary River in the Northern of growth rates, depending on conditions such as food,
Territory, throughout Arnhem Land to Cape York Peninsula. space, numbers, competition and water temperature. In
In north Queensland they are found as far south as Gap Creek, tropical waters, which have prevailing high temperatures,
north of the Bloomfield River. In 1989, some specimens were fish generally grow faster, mature younger, and have a
collected on Melville Island, the only offshore record thus far. shorter life span than fish in temperate waters.
Recent genetic studies suggest that M. trifasciata may also
inhabit the Fly River and the Aru Islands (P. J. Unmack 2009, M. trifasciata are aseasonal spawners, breeding continuously at
pers. comm.). intervals throughout the year. Therefore it is difficult to define
their breeding season. However, a peak in reproductive activity
Melanotaenia trifasciata are a tropical fish, and occur in is usually during the early-wet season. The breeding season
almost every kind of freshwater habitat, from slow-moving must coincide with the conditions that offer the greatest
streams, wetland swamps, lagoons and clear flowing rivers. amount of protection for the eggs, and food and shelter for the
They are most common in flowing waters or in streams where newly hatched young. The duration and timing of reproductive
water flow is present for much of the year. M. trifasciata are activity are thus two critical components for their continual
most frequently found in clear waters with sandy substrates, survival.
followed by rocks, leaves and mud. In these habitats they are
commonly found around sub-surface vegetation, submerged Females produce between 200 and 500 eggs, spawning a
logs, or branches. Depth of waters in which M. trifasciata are number of times daily for several days or opportunistically
mostly found range from 30 to 200 cm. They are often found whenever conditions are favourable. Large females usually
inhabiting the same streams with M. nigrans, M. maccullochi produce more than 50 eggs per day for several days. Smaller
and M. s. inornata. Their natural environment is subjected to females, which are only just sexually mature, shed fewer eggs,
seasonal variations with water temperatures ranging between 20–30 per day and spawning does not occur daily. The eggs are
24°C during the dry season and up to 33°C in the wet season. attached by adhesive threads or tendrils to aquatic plants or
The water is generally alkaline pH 7.2–8.0; however, they are artificial substitutes. The eggs are large (average 1.5 ± 0.5 mm
occasionally found in acidic conditions pH 6.5–6.9. in diameter); clear to light amber in colour. After spawning, the
female will leave, while the male remains displaying to passing
Rainbowfishes have evolved to survive under a wide range of females and thus defending his territory and the fertilised eggs.
environmental conditions, and those conditions and the Depending on temperature hatching will occur 6–7 days after
habitats created can change dramatically over time. Part of spawning.
the reason for this is that Australian freshwater fish have
adapted to live in variable and unpredictable environments, M. trifasciata is an omnivore feeding opportunistically in the
and so have not developed the strong habitat associations that surface and mid-water regions. In sunny conditions shoals of
are characteristic of highly specialised fish in more predictable juveniles occurred near the water surface, but larger fish tend to
river systems in other countries. Not surprisingly, the largest occur in the mid-water region near submerged vegetation, often
and healthiest populations of a species will generally be utilising aquatic plants as a refuge and food source. Under
found where the conditions are closest to optimal for all the cloudy conditions, however, fish of all sizes preferred deeper
water quality factors. water.

Neil Armstrong
Rocky Bottom Creek [Goyder River, Northern Territory]
The main food items are aquatic insects, algae and terrestrial Remarks
insects such as green ants (Oecophylla smaragdina), which Due to the diversity of range and habitat, there are many colour
presumably fall on to the water surface from overhanging variations in the trifasciata group. One of the most appealing is
vegetation. the ‘Goyder River’ variety found in the Goyder River in
Arnhem Land. This species was first introduced to the
The diet varies in relation to the habitat they occupy. In the aquarium hobby back in the early 1970’s.
mainchannel waterbodies they eat mainly aquatic insects,
with small amounts of terrestrial insects, plant material and Wally Muller, a well-known aquarium dealer in those days
algae. In perennial streams, algae and terrestrial plant obtained a few during his visit to the Northern Territory to
material are less important, while aquatic insects and, to a collect aquarium specimens. He obtained permits from the
lesser extent, oligochaetes and micro-crustaceans, are Fisheries and Wildlife Department, and was able to bring back
consumed. The diet in the lowland sandy creekbeds has some fine specimens to Brisbane where he had his retail
much larger algal and terrestrial insect components. business.
Specimens examined from the floodplains feed mainly on When first introduced to the aquarium hobby in Brisbane, the
aquatic arachnids and aquatic insects, and a small amount of Goyder River rainbowfish created quite a deal of excitement.
algae. Planktonic invertebrates (mostly zooplankton) are At a public aquarium exhibition, where they made their first
importance in their early life history stages. The availability public appearance, the cover glass was glued to the aquarium
of appropriate zooplankton is an important determinant of proper so that no one would be able to steal them.
mortality levels endured by larval fish populations and thus
is an important determinant of recruitment into the adult
population.

Gunther Schmida
▼▲ Goyder River (Northern Territory)
▼▲Burster Creek (Queensland)
Jennifer Palmer Gunther Schmida

Neil Armstrong
▼▲ Wenlock River (Queensland)
Jennifer Palmer
Neil Armstrong
▼▲ Melville Island (Northern Territory)
Alan Travers
Neil Armstrong
▼▲ Claudie River (Queensland)
Gunther Schmida
▼▲ Pappan Creek [Mission River, Queensland]
Leo O’Reilly
▼▲ Gap Creek (Queensland)
Bruce Hansen Gunther Schmida

Gunther Schmida
▼▲ Running Creek [Embley River, Queensland]
Leo O’Reilly
Neil Armstrong
▼▲ Pascoe River (Queensland)
Alan Travers
Neil Armstrong
Wonga Creek (Northern Territory)
Dave Wilson
Cato River (Northern Territory)
Gunther Schmida
Olive River (Queensland)
Neil Armstrong
Yirrkala (Northern Territory)
▼▲ McIvor River (Queensland)
Jennifer Palmer Gunther Schmida

Neil Armstrong
▼▲ Marmoss Creek [Embley River, Queensland]
Leo O’Reilly
Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia utcheensis flows into the Coral Sea near the north Queensland town of
Innisfail. The river branches about 5 km from the mouth
McGuigan, 2001 into the North and South Johnstone Rivers, both of which
Utchee Creek Rainbowfish
have their sources on the Atherton Tablelands. Rankin and
Fisher Creeks flow northeast into the lower North Johnstone
Species Summary River. Short Creek and an unnamed creek are in the upper
Melanotaenia utcheensis has a distinctive colour pattern with a North Johnstone a little bit upstream of Gillies and Dirran
blue-black mid-lateral band and orange margins on the vertical Creek and they enter from the opposite side of the river.
scale rows. It is morphologically distinct from the broadly Utchee Creek feeds into the South Johnstone River on the
sympatric M. eachamensis and M. s. splendida, as well as from coastal plain upstream of Innisfail.
its sister species from southern Queensland/northern New
South Wales, M. duboulayi. In particular, M. utcheensis has
more first dorsal spines and fewer vertical scale rows and anal Remarks
rays than M. s. splendida, and fewer soft second dorsal rays I obtained wild-caught specimens of Melanotaenia utcheensis
and more pectoral rays than either M. eachamensis or M. in September 1983, and maintained a small captive population
duboulayi. M. utcheensis is also generally smaller than either until at least 1989. Although, at the time they were considered
M. s. splendida or M. eachamensis and intermediate between just a variety of M. s. splendida. Genetic studies beginning in
them in eye diameter, predorsal length, head depth and body the mid 1990’s revealed the existence of significant genetic
depth. variation between populations of Melanotaenia splendida that
occur in the upland streams of north Queensland. In particular,
these studies highlighted the degree of isolation of upland
Distribution & Habitat populations from the lowland populations. Subsequent genetic
Melanotaenia utcheensis have currently only been collected research suggested that at least some of these species are
from the Utchee, Fisher, Rankin and Short Creeks in the unusual variants of Melanotaenia splendida - or populations
North and South Johnstone River catchments in north displaying genes that have traits of more than one species. As a
Queensland. They are found in sites with moderate to high direct result of some of this research, Melanotaenia utcheensis
water flow over cobbles and boulders. The Johnstone River was described as a new species in 2000.

Jennifer Palmer
Short Creek [North Johnstone River, Queensland]
Jennifer Palmer
Melanotaenia utcheensis [Short Creek] (Field Tank Photo)
Gary Lange
“Faowi” population
Melanotaenia vanheurni
(Weber and de Beaufort, 1922)
Van Heurn’s Rainbowfish Remarks
Melanotaenia vanheurni were first collected in the Mamberamo
Rhombatractus vanheurni Weber & de Beaufort, 1922 Valley by W. C. van Heurn in 1920 during the Dutch Northern
Melanotaenia vanheurni Allen, 1980 New Guinea Expedition (Mamberamo Expedition) of 1920–1921.
It was not seen again until David Price collected it 70 years later.
Species Summary
Melanotaenia vanheurni are brown or olive on the back and Live specimens were reportedly imported into Germany during
yellow on the lower sides. There is a prominent blue-black, 1992 by Heiko Bleher. However, the status of this population in
midlateral band with a broad pale yellow to white line along the hobby today is uncertain. Further live specimens were
its upper and lower margin. Spawning males display a collected in 2008 near Faowi Village, located at the upper
pulsing glow of golden yellow on top of the head. They may reaches of the Tariku River. The Tariku River flows from
reach a maximum size of 20 cm, but usually less than 15 Sudirman Mountains in the west to the east and combines with
cm. It is the largest member of the rainbowfish family. Taritatu River in the middle of Mamberamo River Catchment.
Gerald Allen
“Dabra” population
Mamberamo River system of
northern West Papua. They have
been collected from small clear
water streams flowing through
rainforest mainly close to
foothills around the periphery of
the Mamberamo Plains.
They are abundant in slow to

relatively swift flowing streams
with rock and sandy bottoms. It
shares this habitat with
Chilatherina fasciata. Temperature
and pH values range between 25–
28° Celsius and 7.1–7.5.

Gerald Allen
Pelangia mbutaensis The difference between sexes is far less evident in this species than in
most rainbowfishes. Males have a slightly longer first dorsal fin, which
Allen, 1998 slightly overlaps the second dorsal fin origin when depressed. By
Lake Mbuta Rainbowfish
contrast, the depressed first dorsal fin of females fails to reach the dorsal
fin origin or barely reaches it. In addition, males generally have a
Species Summary deeper body than females. The average body depth as percentage of the
The Pelangia genus is the sister group of Glossolepis, judging from SL for eight mature males, 45.2–55.5 mm SL (average = 49.3 mm SL)
external appearance and osteological features, particularly with was 31.3 compared with an average of 28.0 for six females, 43.0–51.4
regards to dentition, and morphology of the premaxillary, pelvic mm SL (average = 47.9 mm SL).
girdle, and pectoral fin (Allen 1980). However, it differs from
Glossolepis with regards to several important features including a
lack of teeth on the vomer and palatines, a larger mouth (jaws
extend to below front of eye, but fails to reach eye in Glossolepis), Distribution & Habitat
a larger eye (horizontal diameter exceeds caudal peduncle depth; Lake Mbuta Basin, lying approximately 8 km inland from Etna Bay,
equal to or less than depth in Glossolepis), reduced crenulations on West Papua is invariably represented on published maps as a lake, but
the scale margins, and fewer anal rays (14–18, usually 16 is actually a swampy basin surrounded by low mountains. Although a
compared with 18–22 in Glossolepis). There are also differences lake was probably present in former times there is no indication of
in the positions of the fins. The anal fin origin is closer to the recent inundation. The basin, which is roughly circular and measures
caudal fin base than to the snout tip, which is the opposite situation up to 7–8 km in width, is mainly covered by swamp overgrown with
compared to Glossolepis. Moreover, the origin of the first dorsal 3–4 m tall grass with numerous small ponds, creeks, and at least one
fin is well ahead of the anal fin origin, but in Glossolepis it is either small river. It is not known if there is surface drainage from the basin to
even with the anal fin origin or behind it. Finally, the second dorsal Etna Bay (about 8 km away) or whether the drainage is subterranean,
fin origin is approximately level with the third soft anal ray in as is the case for several other small lakes in the area. P. mbutaensis
Pelangia, but in Glossolepis it is usually level with the middle were collected in a small creek approximately 2–3 metres in width,
rays. with depths to about 2 metres. The collection was made over a 50
metre long section immediately above its confluence with a small
Pelangia mbutaensis was described on the basis of 52 specimens turbid river. The water was very clear, but darkly stained (tea-coloured),
collected in 1997 in the Mbuta Basin near Etna Bay, West Papua. with relatively fast flow through forest that formed a nearly closed
They have a yellowish-tan body colour grading to silvery-white on canopy. The bottom consisted mainly of mud with occasional rocks
the lower half of sides. Larger males have scattered yellow flecks and log debris with sparse aquatic vegetation. A water temperature of
along the middle of the side. Fins are mainly translucent except for 25.8°C and pH of 6.4 were recorded. Other rainbowfish inhabitants
dusky grey pigmentation on the first dorsal fin. They may reach a included Melanotaenia goldiei. P. mbutaensis was relatively common,
maximum size of 6 cm, but usually less than 5 cm. but outnumbered by M. goldiei by a 3:1 ratio.

Rainbowfishes
‘Undetermined Species’
There is a number of other informally recognised species of rainbowfishes being

maintained in the aquarium hobby that are still awaiting formal scientific description.
Clearly, there will also be many more new species found in New Guinea, as most areas
remain poorly collected. There is also a need for more careful study of the many
widespread species, as it is highly likely that such study will lead to a significant
increase in the number of recognised species. For example, variation in morphology
within the Melanotaenia genus is high, with species differing from one another though
small variations in colour, morphology and meristics, each with highly restricted,
allopatric distributions. Much could be gained from careful analysis of the many
morphological characters already at hand, such as the colouration characters noted for
many of the rainbowfish “varieties”. Colouration characters, however, when not
supported by other characters, have generally been dismissed by ichthyologists
working on rainbowfishes from Australia.
The study of species questions and hybridisation has been greatly facilitated by the
development of genetic studies, leading to the identification of presumptive new species
as natural hybrids or captive hybrids from the aquarium hobby.
Rainbowfishes that may undergo species separation after further genetic studies include:
Chilatherina fasciata; Iriatherina werneri; Melanotaenia australis; Melanotaenia exquisita;

Melanotaenia goldiei; Melanotaenia maccullochi; Melanotaenia splendida; Melanotaenia
trifasciata; Melanotaenia utcheensis (South Johnstone River); Pseudomugil signifer;
Pseudomugil tenellus and Pseudomugil paludicola.
(P. J. Unmack 2009, pers. comm.)

Gary Lange
Melanotaenia sp.
(Bonggo Village)
Species Summary
This species was collected by Gary Lange in 2006 from a small stream near the village of “Bonggo” located near Jayapura in
West Papua. The small stream flowed under the gravel road and the fish were collected where the water was shallow and a lot
easier to catch. Preliminary genetic studies suggest that it is an undescribed species (P. J. Unmack 2009, pers. comm.). This
species is currently available in the hobby.
Gary Lange
Bunitj Miles
Melanotaenia sp. (Katherine River)
This species was collected in 2009 from the headwaters of the Katherine River in the Northern Territory,
located on the top of the Arnhem Land Escarpment.
Bunitj Miles
Dave Wilson
▲▼ Katherine River habitat (Northern Territory)
Dave Wilson
Neil Armstrong
Gunther Schmida
Melanotaenia sp.
(Burdekin River)
Species Summary
Rainbowfishes from upstream sections of the Burdekin River
have long been considered to be a distinct species by
rainbowfish enthusiasts, and are known in the hobby as the
Burdekin Rainbowfish (Running River or “zigzag” form).
This form is believed to also be present in other tributaries
draining the Paluma Range, notably the Fanning River.
Distribution & Habitat an elevation of 313 metres merging with the Burdekin River.
The Burdekin River, the fifth largest in Australia (Australia’s Deception Creek is a major eastern tributary of Running River
largest in terms of peak discharge), is located in north-eastern and drains a particularly rugged section of the Coane Range.
Queensland. The catchment is the second largest on the east
coast of Queensland (after the Fitzroy), covering a total area The Fanning River has two main arms arising within the
of 130 500 km2. The catchment comprises four distinct sub- Herveys Range, west of Townsville, then falling through a
catchments. gorge before flattening out in savannah rangelands. The west
arm within and above the gorge contains a number of
Running River is located near Hidden Valley, 40 km west of permanent waterholes, though the presence of water in the
Paluma and covers an area of approximately 300 km2. The lower half of the river is limited. The upper portions of the
river passes through open eucalypt forest, and forms a steep river are within a military training area, thus limiting their
gorge south of Hidden Valley. This runs for approximate 10 land use and water conditions there is generally considered to
km. The river starts at an elevation of 660 metres and ends at be very good.

Photos: Alan Travers
▲ Running River ▼ Fanning River [Burdekin River, Queensland]
Johannes Graf
Melanotaenia sp.
Photos: Gary Lange

(Suswa Village)
Species Summary
Melanotaenia sp. “Suswa Village” were originally collected
from the Auk River at Suswa Village (approximately 0°56'S,
132°15'E) by G.R. Allen and H. Bleher in 1982 and formed
part of the original description of Melanotaenia irianjaya in
1985. However, genetic studies clearly show that the specimens
collected from Suswa Village were a different species (P. J.
Unmack 2009, pers. comm.)
They look very similar to Melanotaenia irianjaya and were

originally distributed in the hobby as Melanotaenia irianjaya
“Suswa Village”. They have a distinctive colour pattern with
two dark blotches on the side of the body. These blotches
become visible at around 3 cm in size, and increase with age
and size. The mauve base colour and the black and white
edging of the second dorsal fin are concise characteristics
that don’t occur on any other rainbowfish species in this
combination (Graf 2009).
This species was being maintained locally and were eventually

taken to the United States where they were bred and distributed
into the aquarium hobby.

Joël Félix
Melanotaenia sp. Aru 2 [Ngadamdi, Korobor Island]
The Aru Islands (also known as Aroe Islands or Kepulauan Three rainbowfishes have been reported from the Aru Islands:
Aru) lie on the western edge of the shallow seas of Torres
Strait, around 7°S and 134°E. New Guinea is some 150 km Melanotaenia goldiei
to the north and Arnhem Land in Australia is some 550 km to Melanotaenia trifasciata (Rhombatractus senckenbergianus)
the south. There are six low-lying islands of significant size - Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata
Kola, Wokam, Kobroor, Maikoor, Koba and Trangan - and
many smaller ones, comprising about 180 islands in total. Remarks
The islands lie very close to one another. The seven largest Heiko Bleher collected a number of different rainbowfishes
are separated only by narrow channels and are effectively from the Aru Islands. He named them as follows:
one land mass. The archipelago stretches about 180 km north
to south, and is 80 km east to west at its widest, with a total Melanotaenia sp.1 – Aru I (Loramar River, Korobor)
area of about 8563 km2. It has a low dissected terrain Melanotaenia sp.2 – Aru II (Ngadamdi, Korobor)
including chains of low hills with the highest point only some Melanotaenia sp.3 – Aru IV (Sin River, Trangan – This is
240 metres above sea level, and extensive areas of coastal the type locality of Rhombatractus senckenbergianus.)
and inland swamp. The sea around the islands is shallow,
generally less than 20 metres in depth. The islands lie on the Preliminary genetic study (P. J. Unmack 2009, pers. comm.)
Australia-New Guinea continental shelf, and were connected suggests that the rainbowfishes collected by Heiko Bleher as
to Australia and New Guinea by land when sea levels were Melanotaenia sp.3 (Aru IV) are actually Melanotaenia
lower during the ice ages. trifasciata. It is possible however; that these fish are the same
that Weber described as Rhombatractus senckenbergianus. If
Seasonal streams are common and some flowing water occurs that is the case then all M. trifasciata would become M.
from springs. Lakes are rare except for a few small karst senckenbergianus because Rhombatractus senckenbergianus
hollows on Kobroor and Trangan Islands. Permanent and Weber, 1910(11) predates Rhombosoma trifasciata Rendahl,
seasonal swamps are also found on Trangan Island. Springs 1922. However the type specimens would have to be re-
occur along the coast and interior gorges. The savannah examined before any changes were considered.
formation has strong relationships with southern New Guinea
and northern Australia, especially Cape York Peninsula.

In reviewing the description of Rhombatractus goldiei
in 1922, Weber & de Beaufort made the following
statement: “Specimens from the Aru-Islands
(Rhombatractus senckenbergianus) seem to be a little
more elongate. Height 3.5−3.75, more than 4−4.5 in
length with caudal. As the largest specimen known
from the Aru-Islands is 92 mm. and considering the
well known variability in the height of these fishes, we
don’t think the difference sufficient to keep them
apart.”

Photos: Heinrich Gewinner
▲ ▼ Melanotaenia sp. Aru 3 [Sin River, Trangan Island]

Photos: Heinrich Gewinner
▲ ▼ Melanotaenia sp. “fredericki”
Gunther Schmida
Pseudomugil connieae
(Allen, 1981)
Popondetta Blue Eye
Popondetta connieae Allen, 1981

Popondichthys connieae Allen, 1987
Pseudomugil connieae Saeed, Ivantsoff & Allen, 1989

When Pseudomugil connieae were initially discovered they Pseudomugil connieae were initially collected from a number
were mistakenly identified as Pseudomugil furcatus, a species of small creeks in the vicinity of Popondetta, situated on the
described by Nichols in 1955. However, when Gerald Allen northern side of the central dividing range, eastern Papua
realised that they were a new species he called them New Guinea. They are common in the vicinity of Popondetta
Popondetta connieae after his wife Connie (Lagos) Allen. and have been collected from a number of localities within a
When it was discovered that the genus Popondetta already 25 km radius. They are generally found in small, clear,
existed, he renamed them Popondichthys connieae. However, relatively swift-flowing freshwater streams. Temperature and
in 1989 they were placed in the genus Pseudomugil, where pH in these streams recorded at the time of collection ranged
they remain today. from 24–27°C and 7.7–7.9.
Males are easily distinguished from females by their brighter
colours and longer and more elongated dorsal fin. The body
Remarks
colour is yellow-green in both males and females. The dorsal
This species was originally collected by Gerald Allen and Brian
and anal fins of the males have a broad white or yellow outer
Parkinson in 1978. They collected approximately 200 specimens.
margin and black band across the middle. The outer region of
However, mortalities were high and only eight specimens
the first dorsal fin is yellow. Females are similarly coloured but
survived the journey back to Australia. These were shipped to
not as intense, and have much smaller fins, which lack the
Sydney and picked up by Gunther Schmida and acclimatised in
detailed markings of the males. They have a moderately
his tanks for several weeks before the last lag of their journey
compressed and elongated body and grow to a length of around
to Perth. Small numbers were eventually bred and circulated in
4 to 5 cm.
the Australian hobby.

Pseudomugil connieae have never been readily available in the
aquarium hobby and this small initial group formed the base of Comparisons of Pseudomugil connieae and
all populations in Australia, which I might add has now almost Pseudomugil furcatus :
disappeared. Heiko Bleher collected live specimens in 1982
and these were bred and distributed in Europe and form much The two species are easily distinguished on the basis of
of the available stock currently in Europe. I first obtained stock colour and there are significant differences in modal
in 1992 and bred them in January 1993. Some of these were counts for the second dorsal and anal fins. The most
sent to Europe in 1994, which at the time there wasn’t many apparent differences involve fin colouration of mature
available in Europe. males. The dorsal and anal fins of P. furcatus are mainly
transparent to slightly dusky with a relatively narrow outer
Pseudomugil connieae are a magnificent blue eye and are margin of yellow. Those of P. connieae have broad,
much sought after by aquarium hobbyists. It is very important whitish outer margins with a bold black band across the
to provide regular partial water changes as I have found this middle of each fin; the outer portion of the first dorsal fin
species doesn’t like old, acidic water. The key for successfully is yellow as in P. furcatus. However, the caudal fin of P.
maintaining Pseudomugil connieae in captivity is excellent furcatus has a pale yellow lobes with thin black dorsal and
water conditions. This can be easily provided with regular ventral margins, whereas that of P. connieae has whitish
partial water changes. They will display their best colouration lobes, a dusty central portion, and lacks dark margins. The
when maintained in a densely-planted, partly shaded aquarium. pelvic fins of P. connieae are largely dusky or blackish
However, this is not a requirement for their successful maintenance and the pectoral fins are whitish on the upper edge. By
in captivity. I have bred and raised them in captivity with the contrast the pelvics of male P. furcatus are yellow and this
following water conditions: Temperature 19–31°C, pH 7.6– same colour is present on the upper edge of the pectoral
8.2, Hardness 90–150 mg/L, Alkalinity 40–65 mg/L and fins. The females of P. connieae are basically similar to
Conductivity 369–663 µS/cm. Eggs adhere to water plants and males except the dark bands in the middle of the dorsal
hatching occurs around 15 days at a temperature of 25° and anal fins are less distinct and narrower, the outer edge
Celsius. of the second dorsal is broadly yellow (as in P. furcatus),
the caudal fin lobes are yellowish and the pelvic and
The stomach content of several wild-caught specimens pectorals are uniformly transparent.
indicated a diet consisting primarily of minute crustaceans and
insect larvae with small amount of algal matter.
Neil Armstrong

Gunther Schmida
Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis Distribution & Habitat
Allen & Sarti, 1983 Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis was first collected by Helen Larson
Neon Blue Eye (Northern Territory Museum) in 1981 near Darwin. A year later
Gerald Allen (Western Australian Museum) found them in Crab
Species Summary Creek, 15 km east of Broome in Western Australia. In 1983, there
Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis is a very colourful species and were scientifically described by Allen & Sarti. They have been
deserves a much better common name than ‘Blueback Blue collected from around Broom and Wyndham in northern Western
Eye’ as suggested by Gerald Allen. The upper half of the Australia. In the Northern Territory they have been recorded in
males’ body is metallic blue (similar to the Neon Tetra) and coastal catchments around Darwin and the Mary River. They have
peppered with fine grainy melanophores. The lower half of the also been collected from Melville Island. In Queensland they have
males’ body is translucent to yellowish white. A single thin been collected from the Norman River in the Gulf of Carpentaria.
dark mid-lateral line runs from the base of the pectoral fin to They are probably widely distributed in estuarine and coastal
the caudal fin. The first dorsal fin is translucent with an outer freshwater habitats across northern Australia and southern New
blackish border, and a small yellowish patch at the base near Guinea. Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis are sympatric with Pseudomugil
the last spine. The elongated anterior rays and outer edge of the inconspicuus, and are found together in at least one locality (Woods
second dorsal and anal fins are black. The remainder of the fin Inlet) near Darwin.
is creamy yellow or whitish. The caudal and pectoral fins are
translucent or slightly yellowish with black outer edges. The Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis are euryhaline and tolerate a wide
body of the female is a semi-transparent silver-grey colour with range of ecological conditions. Although more commonly found
translucent fins and white abdomen. Maximum size is around in small brackish estuarine creeks, they also inhabit pure
3.5 cm. Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis were originally available freshwater habitats, especially during the wet season. During the
in the Australian hobby in 1982 but failed to become established. wet season, freshwater flowing into these habitats dilutes the
Another wild-collection for the aquarium hobby was made in waters to fresh. Water thus varies from saline through brackish to
1986 and today, they are widely distributed in the aquarium fresh. However, habitat preference appears to be mangrove-lined
hobby all around the world. muddy brackish creeks, where they are commonly found in large
numbers. They have been found in hypersaline waters (28–40 ppt)
and at temperatures of 22–39°C.

Hans Herbert Boeck
Bruce Hansen
Leanyer Swamp (P. Cyanodorsalis habitat)

Dave Wilson
P. cyanodorsalis (male) [Buffalo Creek, NT]
Dave Wilson
P. cyanodorsalis (female) [Buffalo Creek, NT]

Dirk Godlinski
Pseudomugil furcatus Pseudomugil genus and placed in a new genus Popondetta, and
the name was changed to Popondetta furcata. It was then later
Nichols, 1955 discovered that the genus name ‘Popondetta’ was previously
Forktail Blue-eye
used and in 1987 they underwent another name change and
were then called Popondichthys furcatus. Two years were to
Species Summary pass and following a review of the Pseudomugil genus in 1989,
Pseudomugil furcatus is a small species growing to a length of the blue-eye group, including Popondichthys furcatus, were
about 5 or 6 cm. They have two dorsal fins, separated by a placed in their own family Pseudomugilidae and they were
small gap, the first much smaller than the second. The body returned to their original name of Pseudomugil furcatus.
colour is yellow-green in both males and females. The dorsal
and anal fins of the males are transparent with narrow yellow
margins. The pelvic and pectoral fins are often tinged with red. Distribution & Habitat
The caudal fin lobes are yellowish with black dorsal and Pseudomugil furcatus were originally collected from Peria
ventral margins. Females caudal fin lobes are yellowish while Creek, a tributary of the Kwagira (Kwagila) River, in Papua
the pectoral and pelvic fins are transparent. The outer part of New Guinea. They have also been collected from Safia, in the
the second dorsal fin is yellowish. The body scales have a Musa River valley where they are relatively common in small,
slight dark edge. They differ from most other forms of clear rainforest streams. They have a range in Papua New
Pseudomugil from Australia and New Guinea, in having the Guinea between Dyke Ackland and Collingwood Bays. They
caudal fin longer and more deeply forked. Males are easily are generally found in small, clear, relatively swift-flowing
distinguished from females by their brighter colours and longer freshwater streams with abundant aquatic vegetation. Water
and more elongated dorsal fin. conditions reported from their natural habitats are: Temperature
24–28.5°C; pH 7.0–8.0 and Hardness 90–180 ppm.
This species was originally named Pseudomugil furcatus in
1955 by John Treadwell Nichols, curator of recent fishes at the
American Museum of Natural History. They were collected by Remarks
Hobart M. Van Deusen during the Forth Archbold Expedition Live specimens were collected in 1981 by Gerald Allen and
to New Guinea on August 24, 1953. In a review of the family Barry Crockford and were returned to Australia whereupon
Melanotaeniidae in 1980, they were separated from the they were later bred and established in the aquarium hobby.

Dirk Godlinski
Comparisons of Pseudomugil connieae and
Pseudomugil furcatus :
The two species are easily distinguished on the basis of
colour and there are significant differences in modal
counts for the second dorsal and anal fins. The most
apparent differences involve fin colouration of mature
males. The dorsal and anal fins of P. furcatus are mainly
transparent to slightly dusky with a relatively narrow outer
margin of yellow. Those of P. connieae have broad,
whitish outer margins with a bold black band across the
middle of each fin; the outer portion of the first dorsal fin
is yellow as in P. furcatus. However, the caudal fin of P.
furcatus has a pale yellow lobes with thin black dorsal and
ventral margins, whereas that of P. connieae has whitish
lobes, a dusty central portion, and lacks dark margins. The
pelvic fins of P. connieae are largely dusky or blackish
and the pectoral fins are whitish on the upper edge. By
contrast the pelvics of male P. furcatus are yellow and this
same colour is present on the upper edge of the pectoral
fins. The females of P. connieae are basically similar to
males except the dark bands in the middle of the dorsal
and anal fins are less distinct and narrower, the outer edge
of the second dorsal is broadly yellow (as in P. furcatus),
the caudal fin lobes are yellowish and the pelvic and
pectorals are uniformly transparent.
Bernd Jung

P. furcatus (Female)
Gunther Schmida Dirk Godlinski

Gunther Schmida
Weipa (Queensland)
Pseudomugil gertrudae Creek. Pappan Creek flows into the Mission River. The forms
Weber, 1911 typical of those found at the top of Cape York in areas such as
Spotted Blue Eye the Jardine River (and its associated swamps) and Burster
Creek have large round fins and multiple small spots. In
Species Summary Arnhem Land a nice form with golden body colours occurs in
Pseudomugil gertrudae is a small freshwater fish growing to a size Goanna Lagoon while not far away in the Giddy River the fish
of around 30 mm and is endemic to Australia and New Guinea. have larger fins with larger spots but no golden body colour.
They have a moderately compressed and elongated body that is a Specimens collected in the Darwin region typically have
semi-transparent silvery-blue colour, sometimes having an overall orange pectoral fins. There are many other forms of this
wash of golden-yellow. They have two dorsal fins, very close beautiful little fish and new ones are regularly being
together, the first much smaller than the second. The tips of the discovered. Pseudomugil gertrudae from the Aru Islands are
pectoral fins can be bright yellow, orange or orange-red, other fins larger and have an overall a golden colour (fins and body). To
often edged with white. The dorsal, anal and tail fins can be clear date there has been no research published on the genetic or
to white, silvery-grey or yellow with rounded or oblong dark spots physical characteristics of the various populations.
scattered all over. Several rows of body scales are edged in black
forming an attractive latticework pattern over the body. Females Pseudomugil gertrudae is very similar to the endemic New
generally have a deeper body than the males whilst the adult males Guinea species, Pseudomugil paskai. Both species are
have larger dorsal, anal and pelvic fins, with extended filaments on characterised by rows of permanent spots covering the fins.
the first dorsal and pelvic fins. Males also exhibit more intense The only differences being the colour and shape of the fins.
spotting on the body and fins. This species has a patchy Pseudomugil gertrudae were originally collected from
distribution where it occurs and as such, there is considerably Terangan Island (one of the Aru Islands), which lies directly
variation between the different populations in colouration and south of the Vogelkop Peninsula in western New Guinea. They
body size, as well as fin size and shape. were described by Max Wilhelm Carl Weber, Professor of
Zoology at the University of Amsterdam in 1911 and named
The variety from Weipa is one of the most impressive forms “gertrudae” after the wife of Dr. Hugo Merton, a German
and can be found in Melaleuca swamps besides the road naturalist who travelled through the Aru Islands between
leading into town. A similar form can be found in Pappan October 1907 and August 1908.

Hans Booij
Hans Booij
Aru Islands ▲Male ▼Female
Distribution & Habitat Biology
In Australia, Pseudomugil gertrudae has been found in Very little is known about the biology or ecology of this species in
scattered localities in river systems which flow into the Timor their natural environment. Most information is mainly based on
Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria - from Darwin through Kakadu aquarium observations. Pseudomugil gertrudae are a relatively
and Arnhem Land to Cape York Peninsula, including the short lived species in the wild and most die in their first year,
offshore islands of Bathurst, Melville and Groote Eylandt, plus even if conditions are ideal. Mortality becomes more
some of the islands in the Torres Strait. They are widespread predictable after the first two years of life. Natural factors
throughout Cape York Peninsula, extending down the eastern affecting them include disease, parasites, predation and
coastal plains to around the Innisfail - Tully region. competition for food and space. Females may only spawn
once, usually at around one year of age, rarely living to spawn
Their known distribution within Australia includes the a second season. Males often live around two years. In
Adelaide, Alligator, Blyth, Buckingham, Cadell, Cato, Daly, captivity, life expectancy can increase up to four years if
Finniss, Liverpool, and the Moyle River systems in the appropriate aquarium conditions are provided.
Northern Territory; including the smaller catchments around
Darwin. In Queensland they have been found in the Barron, In their natural environment spawning usually commences
Coen, Dulhunty, Embley, Endeavour, Jacky Jacky, Jardine, during the early-wet season from October to December, which
Johnstone, McIvor, Moresby, Mulgrave, Murray, Olive, often causes an increase in plankton and other foods. The
Russell, Tully and Wenlock Rivers, plus the smaller coastal young are spawned when food is plentiful and when aquatic
streams. They have also been found in oligotrophic sand dune plant communities are most dense, affording them protection
lakes in the Cape Flattery and Shelburne Bay region. The from predation. They are an egg-scatterer, generally spawning
known New Guinean distribution includes the Aru Islands, the amongst aquatic plants and grasses. In captivity pre-spawning
Pahoturi, Fly (Elevala River, Lake Bosset) and Bensbach behaviour is initiated adjacent to the chosen spawning site by
(Torassi) river systems. They probably occur elsewhere along the male actively pursuing a female. Males displayed during
the southern coast of New Guinea that has suitable habitat. the daylight hours with the peak of activity occurring in the late
morning and early afternoon when water temperatures are
Pseudomugil gertrudae are found in small creeks, lagoons, maintained around 24–28°C. When actively pursuing a female
billabongs, swampy marshes and rainforest streams, often the male display from a side on position, with spread dorsal
associated with dense aquatic vegetation, woody debris and and anal fins, while at the same time raising and lowering his
leaf litter. They are almost exclusively found in vegetated pectoral fins. During this procedure the colour intensifies in
lagoons and backwaters with clear water where they can be both sexes with the spots on the body and fins becoming very
seen swimming in the shallow waters along the margins. dark.
Floating species of waterplants or bottom rooted emergents
with floating leaves occur in most, if not all, of their natural Eggs have adhesive filaments that attach to aquatic plants or
habitats. Substrates are usually mud or silt, and there is an amongst the strands of the spawning mops, and sometimes
abundance of water plants growing to the surface around the even in the substrate. Spawning has been observed in ponds
margins. Sometimes they may have water plants growing in with eggs being recovered from the roots of floating duckweed.
the deeper water in the middle. Lagoons often have a thick Spawning often continues throughout the day, with each
layer of leaf litter around the margins. They are seldom found female releasing up to 10 or 12 eggs. Spawned eggs are
in turbid lagoons, even when there are abundant water plants. relatively large, adhesive, negatively buoyant in freshwater and
average 1.3 ± 0.5 mm in diameter, and are usually clear to light
The water in some habitats is often intensely discoloured by amber in colour.
tannic acids leached from decaying vegetation. These
‘blackwater’ habitats are generally acidic, with pH levels from Eggs are best left attached to the spawning medium to
3.9 to 6.8, have low conductivity (dissolved ions), and vary in minimise handling stress and removed from the spawning tank
their dissolved organic matter, ionic composition, and colour. and placed in another aquarium for incubation and larval
Alkalinity and hardness levels are very low. Factors rearing. Maintain a constant temperature ± 1°C and gently
contributing to these variations are age, formation, layers of aeration. Hatching will begin after an incubation period of
low permeability and peats, proximity to the sea, surrounding around four to nine days depending on temperature.
vegetation, and the extent to which leaf litter accumulates and Temperature is one of the major factors that influences the
decays in the water. However, habitat conditions can vary embryonic period of blue-eyes. Although Pseudomugil
substantially and Pseudomugil gertrudae have been collected gertrudae are only small their newly hatched larvae are rather
from natural habitats within the following range of water large. The hatching size of the larvae is around 3-4 mm.
conditions: Hatched larvae are well developed and competent swimmers.
Upon hatching the larvae swim at the surface of the water,
Temperature: 12–34° Celsius generally within the upper 1-cm water layer. The mouth is well
pH 3.68–9.4 developed and functional, and they begin feeding within hours
Conductivity: 12–646 µS/cm of hatching. They can be fed finely powdered dry foods,
Hardness 0–320 ppm newly-hatched brine shrimp, copepods, phytoplankton and
Alkalinity 2–180 ppm microworm. Pseudomugil gertrudae grow fairly rapidly and
reach maturity in about three months; at a size of around 15 to
20 mm in length.

Dave Wilson
Cadell River (Northern Territory)
Pseudomugil gertrudae have a generalised diet in

Joël Félix
their natural habitat consuming aquatic prey items

such as small crustaceans, various aquatic insects
and invertebrates, tadpoles, algae, diatoms and
small quantities of terrestrial insects such as flies.
In captivity, they can be fed live or frozen foods
such as daphnia, copepods, mosquito larvae or
brine shrimp. Microworm and other small worms
are also an excellent food. Flake food or small
bite-sized pellets can also be fed with success
however for best results some supplementary
feeding with live or frozen food is required.
Aru Islands (male)

Dave Wilson
Pseudomugil inconspicuus due to their small size and largely inaccessible habitats. They
are known from several locations in New Guinea and probably
Roberts, 1978
extend from the Kikori River to the Vogelkop Peninsula. They
Inconspicuous Blue Eye
have been collected in the Fly River, Bintuni Bay, Timika
region, Aru Islands and Bristow Island, near Daru. In Australia
Species Summary they have been found in scattered localities around Darwin and
Pseudomugil inconspicuus is a small slender-bodied species, Kakadu regions in the Northern Territory. They have also been
usually not exceeding 35 mm in length. They have two dorsal fins, collected from Jacky-Jacky Creek on Cape York Peninsula.
very close together, the first much smaller than the second. The
body colouration is translucent bluish with some scattered Pseudomugil inconspicuus are euryhaline and tolerate a wide
melanophores and clear to slightly yellowish fins. A uniformly range of ecological conditions. Although more commonly
thin, uninterrupted, longitudinal line of black pigment extends found in small brackish estuarine creeks, they also inhabit pure
from just above the origin of the first pectoral fin ray to the base of freshwater habitats, especially during the wet season. During
the caudal fin. This line is enhanced with metallic blue reflective the wet season, freshwater flowing into these habitats dilutes
scales above and below. P. inconspicuus show only slight sexual the waters to fresh. Water thus varies from saline through
dimorphism involving the dorsal and anal fins only. Mature males brackish to fresh. However, habitat preference appears to be
have a slightly larger first dorsal fin than females (sometimes with mangrove-lined muddy brackish creeks, where they are
a short filamentous extension). The second dorsal fin often has a commonly found in large numbers. They have been found in
short filamentous extension as well. P. inconspicuus does not seem hypersaline waters (28–40 ppt) and at temperatures of 22–39°
particularly closely related to any other described Pseudomugil. C. They have been observed sheltering among submerged roots
They were scientifically described by Tyson R. Roberts in 1978 or inundated leaves and branches, often in muddy waters. They
from specimens collected from a small mangrove-lined tributary are frequently seen swimming in midwater rather than near the
of Guiavi Creek at the mouth of the Fly River, Papua New Guinea surface. They are sympatric with Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis
in 1975. over part of their range.
In their natural environment spawning usually commences during

the early-wet season from October to January. They are a Remarks
planktivorous species and adapt well to freshwater environments. Pseudomugil inconspicuus is currently rare in the aquarium
hobby and as far as I know, have never been bred in captivity.
So far, they have proved rather delicate when being collected
Distribution & Habitat and difficult to maintain in captivity. Captured specimens carry
Pseudomugil inconspicuus are probably widely distributed in high parasite loads and seem to waste away slowly.
estuarine and coastal freshwater habitats across northern
Australia and southern New Guinea, but have escaped notice

Dave Wilson
Pseudomugil inconspicuus - Blackmore River (Darwin, Northern Territory)
Hans Herbert Boeck
Pseudomugil ivantsoffi - Deky Creek [Iwaka River, West Papua]

Gary Lange
Deky Creek [Iwaka River]
Pseudomugil ivantsoffi 1999 near the type locality of Pseudomugil reticulatus, which
lies some 900 km northwest of Timika, revealed that the two
populations are distinctive.
Ivantsoff Blue Eye

The head and body of male Pseudomugil ivantsoffi is Pseudomugil ivantsoffi have been found in the tributaries of the
semitransparent, often with a bluish or reddish hue. Iris of eye Ajkwa, Iwaka and Kopi Rivers in the Timika-Tembagapura
intensely blue. The opercle, abdomen and swim bladder region region of West Papua. The habitats consist of small (1-2 metre
are silvery. The upper half of first dorsal and anterior half of wide) shallow, slow-flowing streams in dense rainforest. Water
second dorsal fins, and edge of anal fin are bright red. The is generally clear, but some are tannin-stained, with sparse
dorsal and ventral contour posterior to second dorsal and anal aquatic vegetation. Bottom conditions included sand, gravel,
fins edged with similar red; the upper and lower third of caudal cobble, and rocks. Water temperature and pH values ranged
fin also red. The pelvic fins are pinkish. The edges of some from 24–28 °C and pH 6.7–7.8 respectively. Other fishes
scales on abdomen with narrow black margins. Females overall collected from these habitats include Pseudomugil pellucidus,
semitransparent, lacking bright red shades of male; opercle, P. novaeguineae, Melanotaenia goldiei, M. splendida rubrostriata,
abdomen and swim bladder region silvery; some scales on and M. ogilbyi.
anterior half of body with faint, fine black margins; fins mainly
translucent to faintly yellowish, the outer tips of the first and The Timika region includes the following rivers: Kamora
second dorsal fins yellow. This is a small species, slender and River (Kamora, Tuaba, Wataikwa, Iwaka) Wania River,
laterally compressed, growing to a length of around 3 cm SL. Tipuka River, Ajkwa River, Minajerwi River (Minajerwi,
Named “ivantsoffi” in honour of Walter Ivantsoff, of Kopi, Aimua) Mawati River, Otokwa River, Mamoa River
Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia, in recognition of his (Mamoa, Seruka) Atuka River (Atuka, Wapuka) [The Atuka
valuable contributions to the knowledge of atherinoid River meanders north to its junction with the Kamora River,
taxonomy. very close to the village of Mioko.]
This fish was initially identified as Pseudomugil reticulatus, The dark colouration in ‘blackwater’ streams is due to the
based on the close resemblance of females from the Timika presence of organic substances. This black or tea colouration
area to the single known example of that species collected (these rivers are called kali kopi in Indonesian, or coffee
about two kilometres east of Ayamaru (Ajamaru) Lake in the stream – kali is Indonesian for river) is quite common in the
centre of the Vogelkop Peninsula. However, collections in area, due to extensive heath forest. These streams start in the

Gary Lange
Kopi River [Minajerwi River]
heath and are shorter and narrower than the rivers which begin
Iain Wilson
in the mountains and have enough volume from rainfall to
dissolve the colouration. The blackwater streams all drain into
the rivers.
Remarks
In 2004, Iain Wilson and Charles Nishihira collected live specimens
of Pseudomugil pellucidus, P. ivanstoffi and Melanotaenia goldiei
from the Iwaka River (Deky Creek), which is a tributary of the
Kamora River. M. goldiei, M. s. rubrostriata, P. novaeguineae, P.
pellucidus and P. ivantsoffi were collected in small streams of the
Kopi River, which is a tributary of the Minajerwi River.
A different colour variety of Pseudomugil pellucidus was collected

from the Kamora River catchment. Males had spotted red and
black on the dorsal fin. The anal fin colouration was also different
with lots of yellow. They were collected from two streams only
metres apart and actually intersect further downstream. A yellow-
coloured form of Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata was also
found. It may have been an environmental issue as their stream
was red with iron seepage from the mine site. ~ Iain Wilson
Live specimens have also been collected Heiko Bleher. Although

a very attractive species if kept under suitable conditions, they are
rarely seen in the retail aquarium trade.
Typical Stream Habitat

Pseudomugil majusculus
Ivantsoff and Allen, 1984
Cape Blue Eye

Pseudomugil majusculus have a moderately compressed and Pseudomugil majusculus were initially collected in 1979 by Bruce
elongated body that usually doesn’t exceed 5 cm. The body Collette, an American ichthyologist, from brackish water on the
colour is mainly pale yellow with fine, dark scale outlines. northern coast of New Guinea, near Cape Ward Hunt,
There is a horizontal row of about 10 vertically elongated, approximately 190 kilometres northeast of Port Moresby. They
white spots along the middle of the side. The lower edge of the have also been collected from a freshwater stream on Tagula
breast is yellow and there are white margins on the anal and (Sudest) Island, in the Louisiade Archipelago. Tagula Island is
second dorsal fins. Mature males have a slightly larger first about 280 kilometres southeast of Papua New Guinea. It is the
dorsal fin than females (sometimes with a short filamentous largest island of the archipelago with an area of 800 km2. They are
extension). P. majusculus is similar in appearance to P. probably euryhaline and inhabit a wide range of natural habitats
signifer. including mangrove swamps, marine estuaries and freshwater
streams.
Pseudomugil majusculus can be distinguished from P.
inconspicuus, P. novaeguineae and P. paludicola by a low
predorsal scale count and the more anterior position of the Remarks
origin of the first dorsal fin; from P. gertrudae, by the Live specimens were collected in June 1993 from Tagula Island,
coloration of the latter and the anal fin ray count; from P. but they are currently rare (or non-existent) in the aquarium hobby.
tenellus, by the gill raker, anal fin ray and transverse scale row It was named “majusculus” (Latin), meaning somewhat larger or
counts; and from P. signifer, by the gill raker count and the gill greater, thus implying that this species grows to a larger size than
raker length. other species of Pseudomugil.

Neil Armstrong
(female)
Pseudomugil mellis severely reduced, they are currently known from about 19
locations on both the mainland and Fraser Island. It is still
Allen & Ivantsoff, 1982
relatively abundant in the Noosa River catchment and Fraser
Honey Blue Eye
Island localities. Lacustrine populations occur in seven lakes
(six on Fraser Island and one at Cooloola). P. mellis is known
Species Summary to co-occur with P. signifer in Lake Wabby and Bool Creek on
Pseudomugil mellis is a small freshwater species endemic to Fraser Island, and Schnapper Creek and Big Tuan Creek on the
Australia. They have a moderately compressed and elongated mainland. Big Tuan Creek is a small coastal creek about 5 km
body; usually not exceeding 40 mm, but are more commonly south from the mouth of the Mary River. Most populations are
found at lengths between 25 and 30 mm. Males are honey- totally isolated from one another.
coloured with the first two rays of the dorsal and anal fins black
with creamy-brown centres and outer white margins. The body The former distribution of P. mellis may have extended from
scales are lightly edged with black forming an attractive Woodgate in central Queensland extending down to the Myall
latticework pattern. They have two dorsal fins, separated by a Lakes, in the northern coast region of New South Wales,
small gap, the first much smaller than the second. Males are including the offshore sand islands. This range has been
easily distinguished from females by their brighter colours and fragmented by residential development, forestry plantations
longer and more elongated dorsal fins. Female and juveniles and agriculture. Most existing locations have been similarly
have a plain light-amber coloured body with small unmarked affected by changes within their catchments. While a number
translucent fins. P. mellis was formally described by Gerald of suitable habitat streams still exist in the region between
Allen and Walter Ivantsoff in 1982. Brisbane and Noosa, it is likely that most will show substantial
differences in water chemistry in comparison to similar
undisturbed streams. Its abundance within this area has been
Distribution & Habitat drastically reduced and it now only occurs as a number of
Pseudomugil mellis have a patchy and restricted distribution in isolated populations where there is suitable remaining habitat.
southern Queensland, extending from about 65 km north of Its continued existence is being threatened by continuing urban
Brisbane to Maryborough, including Fraser Island. They have development and the spread of the introduced mosquitofish
also been collected at the northern end of Dismal Swamp, (Gambusia holbrooki).
south of Shoalwater Bay. Although their range has been

Photos: Leo O'Reilly
Pseudomugil mellis (wild–caught specimens in field tank) ▼ Teewah Creek (Queensland)
Barry Meiklejohn
Pseudomugil mellis in outdoor pond
Pseudomugil mellis are typically found in slightly acidic and In their natural habitat females ready to release eggs have
tannin-stained water in coastal heathland (wallum) swamps been found from September to January. Spent fish
and streams. Wallum is a restricted region and, thus, any (examination of the ovaries indicates that only a small
species of fauna confined to it are restricted in their percentage of eggs are sufficiently developed to the stage at
distribution. However, they can also be found in clear water which they are able to be fertilised) have been collected from
habitats. They inhabit freshwater dune lakes, creeks, swampy November to April. The number of spent males and females
areas and wetlands. These waterbodies are characterised by was found to be highest in January. This indicates that P.
low pH (4.4 to 6.8), and very low dissolved mineral salts. mellis begin to spawn in the wild as early as September/
October and that most members of the population have
The first time I collected this species from the wild I recorded ceased to spawn by January-February. Spawning in the wild
a water hardness of 10 mg/L CaCO3, pH 5.8, and conductivity occurs at temperatures in the range of 26–28°C. Females
170 µS/cm. They can tolerate wide fluctuations in stream spawn at around 17–22 mm in size with the larger females
temperature, from 11°C in winter to 38°C in summer. They producing more eggs than smaller females.
usually occur where there is little or no flow over sandy or
muddy substrates with abundant emergent and submerged The small maturation size and the use of batch spawning over
aquatic vegetation. The presence of aquatic vegetation successive days were considered to be reasons for the
appears to be essential for this species for shelter, foraging, successful recruitment of this species in the wild. Recruitment is
spawning and the growth of larvae and fry. They may occur further maximised by several mechanisms that decrease
with Rhadinocentrus ornatus, Nannoperca oxleyana, predation: territorial defence of the spawning site by the male,
Melanotaenia duboulayi and other small bodied native fishes. direct pairing with a short courtship, and larvae that swim at the
surface and seek cover in the meniscus of floating objects when
predators attack.
Breeding
The reproductive biology of Pseudomugil mellis has been well In captivity males exhibit territorial behaviour guarding the
documented from studies of wild populations and from specimens spawning site from intruding conspecifics. Prespawning
maintained in captivity. The following summarises much of that behaviour is initiated adjacent to the spawning site by the male
information. raising his fins and swimming in a zigzag pattern to block the

Leo O'Reilly
Kangaroo Creek [Tin Can Bay, Queensland]
female's retreat. Spawning usually occurs in late morning and Remarks

early afternoon with the female entering the spawning site first, Pseudomugil mellis currently has a conservation status listing
followed by the male. After spawning, the male will continue to as vulnerable. You can do your part in helping to preserve this
display, defending his territory and thus the fertilised eggs. species and their natural habitat by breeding and maintaining
Spawning usually commences at around 10–12 months of age captive populations. Collecting wild specimens for the hobby
when water temperatures exceed 20°C and the fish are about 20 can have a direct impact on their population numbers to the
mm in size. Sexual dimorphism is evident, with adult males extent that they could become locally extinct. It is becoming
having larger and more colourful dorsal and anal fins. Males increasingly difficult to find them at the popular spots in Tin
develop black and white fin marking with a golden bronze Can Bay. We know that their populations undergo large
sheen to the body when displaying. fluctuations associated with seasonal recruitment and if they
are over-collected during a period of low population numbers,
Females spawn 1–15 eggs each day for about 7–9 days, with they may never recover and we could well see them disappear
1–4 eggs at a time being released amongst aquatic vegetation or from that location. Habitat destruction or alteration in some
spawning mops. A total of 42–125 eggs can be released over areas has also favoured the spread of the aquatic terrorist,
that period. Eggs are demersal, adhesive and attached to aquatic Gambusia holbrooki.
plants or spawning mop. After spawning females rest for 4–9
days, during which time they formed schools. Water hardened The secret in maintaining long-term captive populations of
eggs range from 1.29–1.64 mm in diameter, probably Pseudomugil mellis is to constantly breed them. There is a
depending on the size of the female and have adhesive tendrils reduction in the frequency and intensity of spawning activity in
or filaments to attach them to the spawning site. Eggs hatch 12– fish over one year of age. If you fail to notice the change they
14 days (288–336 hours) after fertilisation at a constant water become too old and then you just lose them. Try to obtain
temperature of 24°C. At slightly elevated water temperatures of young specimens and breed them early and regularly and you
25–27°C eggs hatched between 5 and 8 days (112–190 hours). will always have some around to enjoy. Because each female
Larvae are around 3.60–5.00 mm SL at hatching and begin only lays a few eggs each day, it can take a while before you
feeding at the surface after absorption of the yolk and oil have significant numbers. If possible, start with 6-12 juveniles
droplets (3–80 hours after hatching). Juveniles feed mid-water rather than adults pairs.
or from benthic surfaces.

Gerald Allen
Pseudomugil novaeguineae Distribution & Habitat
Weber, 1907 This species has patchy distribution in central southern New
New Guinea Blue Eye Guinea between the Fly River, Papua New Guinea and Etna
Bay, West Papua. They have also been collected from the Aru
Species Summary (Aroe) Islands in the Arafura Sea. Scientific specimens of this
Pseudomugil novaeguineae have a yellowish semi-translucent species were first collected from the Lorentz (Noord) River by
body with a thin dark mid-lateral line on the sides. The body Hendrikus Albertus Lorentz during the Dutch Expedition to
scales are lightly edged with black forming an attractive New Guinea in 1907. Lorentz participated in three expeditions
latticework pattern. Common maximum size for this species is to Dutch New Guinea. The first expedition was in 1903, led by
about 4–5 cm SL. Males have elongated anterior first, second A. Wichmann. Lorentz led expeditions in 1907 and 1909-1910.
dorsal and anal fin rays. Adult males have a red first dorsal
spine and the outer margin of the first dorsal fin is also red. The Pseudomugil novaeguineae inhabit small clear rainforest
second dorsal and anal fins, as well as the lower lobe of the streams; well shaded but with occasional open patches exposed
caudal fin have white, yellow or red margins. The colour can to sunlight. A temperature of 24° Celsius and pH 7.8 were
change rapidly back and forth. The adult male can also be recorded at one collection site in a tributary of the Ok Smak
recognised on the blackish anterior edge of his dorsal fin and River, about 35 kilometres north of Kiunga. Kiunga ballochi
the black streaks that adorns both the upper and the lower edge sometimes occurs in the same streams.
of the caudal fin.
Specimens collected from the Fly River in New Guinea have Remarks
been reported as having a transparent body with glistening Around 1976 and 1989 live specimens were collected and
bluish or violet colour on the head and abdomen. The eye has a taken back to Europe. In 2004, Iain Wilson and Charles
faint gold ring around the pupil with the iris silvery or faintly Nishihira collected live specimens of Pseudomugil pellucidus,
blue. The second dorsal fin of males is either clear, as in P. ivanstoffi and Melanotaenia goldiei from the Iwaka River
females or carmine red. Due to the wide geographical range of (Deky Creek), which is a tributary of the Kamora River. M.
this species the colours and markings on the body and fins can goldiei, M. s. rubrostriata, P. novaeguineae, P. pellucidus and
be variable. Red coloured eggs are laid by Pseudomugil P. ivantsoffi were collected in small streams of the Kopi River,
novaeguineae. which is a tributary of the Minajerwi River in West Papua.
There have been a number of other collections, but P. novaeguineae
is still not widely available in the aquarium hobby.

Hans Herbert Boeck Hans Herbert Boeck
Gunther Schmida
Pseudomugil paludicola as being very common in the swamplands of the lower
Allen and Moore, 1981 Pahoturi River. Other collections have been in the Sorong
Swamp Blue Eye region in West Papua and the Kikori and Binaturi river
systems in Papua New Guinea. However, they are probably
widely distributed in coastal streams over much of southern
Species Summary New Guinea.
Pseudomugil paludicola are a small species growing to a
maximum size of around 4–5 cm. They have a translucent Pseudomugil paludicola is a stream dwelling species found
body, with silvery head and abdomen. The pelvic fins are in clear coastal rainforest streams and swamps, often
yellowish. The edge of the second dorsal fin in males is associated with thick aquatic vegetation. A temperature of
yellowish. In females, the caudal fin base is yellowish and 26.8°C and pH 7.6 were recorded from one collection site.
the anterior portion of the anal fin is pale yellow. Males are They are probably euryhaline and tolerate a wide range of
easily distinguished from females by their brighter colours environmental conditions.
and longer and more elongated dorsal fin. Females are
smaller and have smaller fins but lack the colours of the
males.
Remarks
There are probably a number of geographically isolated This species was named “paludicola” (Latin for “swamp
populations that have their own distinctive colouration. A dweller”) with reference to its habitat. In 1979 Gerald Allen
variety collected from the Sorong area in West Papua have a returned to Australia with live specimens but unfortunately
semi-transparent body and when viewed under overhead they departed this life before any were bred and distributed
lighting the dorsal area of the male’s body has a beautiful in the hobby. Another collection was made in the Sorong
blue coloration much like Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis but area and small populations were established in the Europe
not as intense. The pelvic, pectoral and anal fins show a and North America. Eggs were imported into Australia in
slight hint of yellow. A yellow coloured form has been 1996 whereupon they were bred, but again, failed to
reported from the upper Kikori River in Papua New Guinea. become established in the hobby.

Pseudomugil paludicola were first collected in 1973 by R.
Moore in a mangrove creek near Bulla at the mouth of the
Morehead River, Papua New Guinea. They are also reported

Pseudomugil paskai Aquatic vegetation is generally abundant. The pH and temperature
Allen and Ivantsoff, 1986 ranges recorded at the collection site were 6.0–6.5 and 25–26°
Paska's Blue Eye Celsius.
Species Summary
Pseudomugil paskai is a small slender-bodied species, usually Remarks
not exceeding 35 mm in length. Two dorsal fins, very close Live specimens were collected in 1983 by Gerald Allen and
together, the first much smaller than the second. Males have a returned to Australia, but failed to become established in the
semi-translucent body colour that is bluish ventrally and hobby. However, further live collections were made and small
yellowish above the mid-lateral line, with narrow dark scale populations were established in the hobby. In 1996 eggs were
outlines. The fins are generally translucent with white or imported into Australia from Europe, but again, they failed to
yellow margins and scattered oval black spots. Lobes of the become established. Their current status in the hobby is unknown.
caudal fin have either white, yellow or reddish tips. Pelvic fins
are yellowish with elongated anterior rays. Females do not
have spots on their fins and do not show the colours of the
males.

Pseudomugil paskai were first discovered by David Balloch and
Gerald Allen in 1983. They are very similar to Pseudomugil
gertrudae, but differ in colouration and fin shape. Known only
from a few locations between Etna Bay and the Fly River system
in New Guinea. However, they are probably widely distributed in
coastal streams over much of southern New Guinea. They are a
stream dwelling species occupying slow-flowing muddy or tea-
coloured rainforest streams.

Hans Herbert Boeck
Pseudomugil pellucidus The second dorsal fin is dusky with rays suffused with
melanophores to form black stripes; posteriorly edged with
Allen, Ivantsoff, Shepherd and Renyaan, 1998 brilliant orange. Thin black and orange bands extend along
Transparent Blue Eye
entire length of the anal fin. The upper half of caudal has small
flashes of orange. The edges of the body scales are outlined
Species Summary heavily in black above the midlateral band and lightly below.
Pseudomugil pellucidus was described on the basis of 30 The iris has an orange hue. Individuals possess a pupil-sized
specimens collected from tributaries of the Iwaka and Kopi white spot on top of the head which is readily visible when
rivers in the vicinity of Tembagapura, West Papua. The species observed from the stream bank. Reddish coloured eggs are laid
is very closely related to Pseudomugil novaeguineae but is distinct by Pseudomugil pellucidus.
from the latter on the basis of greater number and length of first
dorsal fin spines, number of anal rays, shape of vomer, In 2004 a new colour variety of Pseudomugil pellucidus was
basibranchials, pectoral girdle, urohyal, and anal pterygiophores. collected from Kali Meyon. Males have spotted red and black on
Pseudomugil pellucidus is also different in colouration, and rather the dorsal fin. The anal fin colouration was also different with lots
transparent. It was named “pellucidus” (Latin), meaning clear or of yellow. Two streams were collected that are only about 15
transparent. metres apart and intersect about 150 meters downstream and each
stream contained a different colour variation (Iain Wilson pers.
Pseudomugil pellucidus is a small slender-bodied species, comm.)
usually not exceeding 3–4 cm in length. The head is silver-
reddish blending into a silver-reddish opercle and peritoneum.
The rest of the body is quite transparent. The swim bladder is Distribution & Habitat
transparent and obvious. The upper edge of midlateral band is Pseudomugil pellucidus have been collected from tributaries of the
neon-red, while the rest of band is solid black, extending to the Iwaka and Kopi Rivers in the Timika-Tembagapura region of
hypural joint and then fanning out onto the caudal as thin black West Papua. They are generally found in small shallow streams
stripes on each of the mid-caudal rays. The first dorsal fin is usually slow flowing through dense rainforest, always in clear
jet-black, with a small flash of orange on the first dorsal spine. water which may be deeply stained with tannin. Aquatic
vegetation was sparse or absent at the collection sites.

Gerald Allen
The bottom substrate is variable from sand, to gravel, pebble and
Iain Wilson
rocks. Water temperature 24–28°C, pH 6.7–7.8. Pseudomugil Typical Stream habitat
pellucidus swims close to the surface, in contrast with its sympatric
congener, Pseudomugil ivantsoffi which is found in mid-water or
near the bottom. Other fishes collected from these habitats include P.
ivantsoffi, P. novaeguineae, M. goldiei, M. splendida rubrostriata,
and M. ogilbyi.
These ‘blackwater’ steams are dark coloured due to the presence

of organic substances which drain heath forests. This black or tea-
stained colouration (these rivers are called kali kopi in Indonesian,
or coffee stream – kali is Indonesian for river) is quite common in
the area, due to extensive heath forest. These streams start in the
heath and are shorter and narrower than the rivers which begin in
the mountains and have enough volume from rainfall to dissolve
the colouration. The blackwater streams all drain into the rivers.
Remarks
Live specimens were collected for the aquarium hobby in 1999
by Heiko Bleher. In 2004, Iain Wilson and Charles Nishihira
collected live specimens of this species from Kali Iwaka (Deky
Creek) and Kali Kopi, along with specimens of Pseudomugil
novaeguineae, Pseudomugil ivantsoffi, Melanotaenia goldiei
and Melanotaenia splendida rubrostriata.
Although a very attractive species if kept under suitable

conditions, Pseudomugil pellucidus are rarely seen in the retail
aquarium trade and are mainly kept by a few aquarists who are
principally interested in rainbowfishes.

Pseudomugil reticulatus
Allen and Ivantsoff, 1986
Vogelkop Blue Eye
Species Summary
Pseudomugil reticulatus is a small species, slender and laterally
compressed, growing to a length of around 3–4 cm SL. They
have a translucent greenish-brown body; abdomen and swim
bladder region silvery. The ventral part of the breast is yellow.
The upper half of first dorsal fin and anterior half of second
dorsal and edge of anal fin is coloured brick-red. The dorsal
and ventral contour posterior to second dorsal and anal fins are
edged with a similar red. The upper and lower third of caudal
fin also red. Head with red tinge, ventral fins pinkish-red. The
eyes are intensely blue. The edges of some scales on abdomen
are edged with black. The females are similar in colouration. River, eventually flowing into the Ceram Sea to the south.
They superficially look very similar to the Redfin Blue Eye Habitat variable, relatively clear shallow water, with abundant
(Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis). Eggs are orange-red in colour. vegetation. The lakes and streams are alkaline with pH always
slightly above neutral (7.1–7.6). Water temperate about 24–28°
C. Co-occurs with Melanotaenia boesemani.
Currently known only from the Ajamaru Lakes region in
Vogelkop Peninsula, Irian Jaya. Previous records of this Remarks
species from elsewhere in New Guinea are in error. They were Live specimen were collected by Heiko Bleher in 1998.
collected about two kilometres east of Ajamaru Lake in the However, they are rarely seen in the retail aquarium trade
centre of the Vogelkop Peninsula. The lakes are located at the and are mainly kept by a few aquarists who are principally
headwaters of the Ajamaru River which drains into the Kais interested in rainbowfishes.

Gunther Schmida
Pseudomugil signifer The various populations exhibit remarkable morphological
variation throughout their range, which is evident from their
Kner, 1865 confused taxonomic history. In 1979, researchers using
Pacific Blue Eye
electrophoretic analyses and a large sample of specimens taken
from 14 localities along the east coast determined that all
Atherina signata Gunther, 1867
populations were scientifically indistinguishable from one
Atherinosoma jamesoni Macleay, 1884
another. Although they did recognise that there were some
Atherinosoma signata Ogilby, 1886
slight differences. This, however, is inconsistent with recent
Pseudomugil signata Ogilby, 1896
genetic research that indicated there are extensive differences
Pseudomugil signatus Jordan & Hubbs, 1919
among the various populations.
Pseudomugil signatus affinis Whitley, 1935
Pseudomugil affinis Munro, 1958
The research provided a good reason for suggesting that
Pseudomugil signifer may represent at least two distinct
Pseudomugil signifer is a small, colourful blue-eye species
species. Support for this contention is not only consistent
inhabiting freshwater streams and estuaries in coastal
with some of the previous taxonomic designations, but is
drainages along much of the east coast of Australia and
also in keeping with recent behavioural studies. Breeding
offshore islands. They are the most common and abundant
experiments showed that fish from opposite ends of the
freshwater/estuarine species along the east coast of
species range would not interbreed. In Queensland, there are
Australia.
two major geographical populations, those north and south
of the Herbert River, with an intermediate form in the
They were first discovered near Sydney, New South Wales
Townsville area.
in the 1860’s and were the first blue-eye species to be
scientifically described. A few years’ later specimens were
It has long been the belief of native fish hobbyists in Australia
collected from northern Queensland. Various name changes
that the various forms of Pseudomugil signifer are different,
followed, and in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
particularly the northern and southern populations. Also that
centuries, they were separated into two species, the northern
the variety found in the Townsville region is different. I
Pseudomugil signatus and the southern Pseudomugil
maintained and bred populations from Harvey and Lacey
signifer. Also, it was suggested that a population resident on
Creeks in north Queensland, the Ross River variety from
the offshore Low Isles and some northern mainland
Townsville, and a number of different populations from south-
populations were distinctive and were afforded sub-specific
east Queensland over a period of 20 years. However, you only
status as Pseudomugil signatus affinis.
have to maintain these species for a very short time before you

realise that they not only look different, but that they behave They are generally found in brackish reaches of the Ross River
differently as well. Therefore, they should be maintained and and surrounding streams. A similar form extends south, down
bred within their own localised groups and it is wise not to at least as far as Eurimbula Creek just north of the Town of
interbreed the various geographical varieties. 1770.
Pseudomugil signifer is one of the most readily identifiable and Southern populations have a body colouration of translucent to
ubiquitous members of the Australian fish fauna. They have a olive-greenish above, canary yellow below; the caudal
moderately compressed and elongated semi-transparent body peduncle is tinged with red. There is sometimes a broad dark
that can vary in colour from pale olive, yellow to bluish, with band from pectoral to tail. The first and second dorsal spines
fine, dark coloured scale outlines on the upper body. They have are long and white though blackish at the base, while the rest of
two dorsal fins, very close together, the first much smaller than the fin is translucent. The second dorsal has the front and
the second. As the common name suggests, the iris is blue. The exterior margins black while the rest of the fin is yellow or
operculum and belly region are silvery. There is often a mid- orange. The anal fin is similar to the second dorsal. The caudal
lateral row of 10–12 vertically-elongated white or reflective fin can be clear to orange or yellow with the outer rays, tips of
spots along the side of the body. The males are larger and more lobes, and sometimes the central rays blackish. The pectoral
colourful than females. The males display spectacular fin fins are clear to opaque, with upper rays black. The ventral fins
embellishments that are rapidly raised and lowered during are usually bright yellow or orange. As the name indicates, the
courtship and agonistic encounters with other males. Due to the eyes are a beautiful blue. Females are less colourful; have
wide geographical range of this species the colours and smaller rounded clear dorsal and anal fins with a dark line on
markings on the body and fins can be variable. There is also the anterior edge of the second dorsal fin. Specimens collected
substantial inter-population variation in male body size and fin from freshwater habitats generally have deep orange coloured
length. Male specimens from northern populations can reach dorsal and anal fins whereas specimens from saltwater or
90 mm and females 65 mm, although they can be considerably brackish water habitats have yellow fins. Fish from acidic,
smaller over much of their range. Southern populations rarely tannin strained streams in south-eastern Queensland also show
exceed 40 mm. deep orange on the dorsal and anal fins. However, colour is
extremely variable and will depend upon the mood of the fish,
Male specimens from north Queensland populations (especially water conditions and diet.
specimens from Harvey and Laceys Creeks) have extremely long
extended filaments on both the dorsal and anal fins. These
filaments are usually shed during capture and if not, once Distribution & Habitat
placed in the confines of an aquarium, are nipped off by the Pseudomugil signifer is the most widely distributed blue-eye in
other fish. From my experience, these fin extensions never re- Australia. They have extensive distribution from Merimbula
grow or appear in captive populations. They have a silvery to Lake just north of Eden on the southern coast of New South
yellowish body, with the elongated parts of fins blackish, also Wales to Cape York Peninsula including islands in the Torres
the margins of the second dorsal and anal fins. Edges of upper Strait. They have also been found in the Embley and Mission
scales dark, and often a dark stripe along the side. The young rivers near Weipa on the west coast of Cape York Peninsula.
are yellowish-brown with dark spots on the dorsal and caudal They are abundant in freshwater habitats, and inhabit rainforest
fins. A black band along the middle of sides with a similar but streams, riverine habitats and freshwater swamps, but do not
shorter dark band above and below it on the caudal peduncle. usually penetrate far inland. They can tolerate brackish to fully
About six rows of dark spots along the scale rows, fading out marine conditions, being found in tidal mangrove creeks,
posteriorly. Spawning males display a coppery-gold body estuaries and saltmarshes, and on several offshore islands,
colouration, particularly along the lower jaw region. including Moreton Bay in south-east Queensland. They are
frequently found in the waters of canal housing estate
The first thing that is evident about the northern variety at developments on the Gold Coast in south-east Queensland.
Pseudomugil signifer is the size of these fish in comparison to Diadromous migration is not an essential requirement of the
the southern forms. The specimens I received from Laceys species. Rather, the species is characteristic of the estuarine-
Creek in 1980 were about 60 mm in size and a number of the freshwater interface. They inhabit waters with a temperature
males had long extended filaments on both the dorsal and anal range of 15–28° Celsius, and pH 5.5–8.3.
fins, extending past the tail. Another obvious difference is that
northern males are also highly territorial and aggressive and
will often kill sub-dominant males. Outside of breeding, Keeping & Caring
aggression can be suppressed by maintaining them in reasonably Pseudomugil signifer has been maintained in the aquarium
sized aquaria in company with a small group of rainbowfishes. hobby for many years. David G. Stead published a report on
Pseudomugil signifer in his book “Fishes of Australia ~ A
The Ross River variety is a large, deep-bodied species with Popular Systematic Guide to the Study of the Wealth within
huge fins that are wide and long, but less intense in colouration. Our Waters” in 1905: “The Blue-eye is sprightly, vivacious and
They usually have less body colour, but have a row of brilliant an active swimmer; being, in addition, very tenacious of life,
blue or purple reflective scales along the posterior section of and, therefore, embracing, in its little self, all the qualities
the lateral line, often merging to form a continuous band, that is which go to make up a desirable aquarium-fish. Its common
flashed on and off like a neon sign as they display to passing name is derived from the blue-colour of the irides of both
females. sexes. In general shape it is more Mullet-like than any other

Ross River (Queensland)
Bernd Jung Gunther Schmida

species of the Atherinidæ. The male is far more handsome than aquarium with similar sized tankmates and be kept in small
the female; the second-dorsal, anal and caudal fins being groups. Regardless of the water conditions of their natural
greatly elongated; each being beautifully barred with yellow habitat they will survive in most dechlorinated tap waters
and black. The beautiful colours are particularly noticeable available to the home hobbyist. Even those collected from
during the spawning season, which is the summer-time. The brackish and saltwater habitats will survive and breed in
body is usually of a silvery tint on the sides, the back being freshwater. For general aquarium maintenance water conditions
somewhat greenish. If in very dirty waters, the body-colour is can be as follows: pH 6.5–7.5, hardness <200 ppm and a
often a yellowish-brown, and only slightly silvery. But little is temperature range of 20–28°C. Prolonged exposure to
known in regard to the habits, and, nothing so far, in regard to temperatures above 30°C may cause some casualties.
the life-history, of this entertaining little Atherinid.”
The diet of Pseudomugil signifer in their natural habitat consists
On May 31, 1911, David G. Stead exhibited examples of primarily of small insect larvae, aquatic crustaceans, worms,
Pseudomugil signifer to a meeting of the Linnean Society of zooplankton and phytoplankton. In captivity, they can be fed
New South Wales. “These were part of a number obtained, live or frozen foods such as daphnia, copepods, mosquito larvae
during April, from Wamberal Lagoon, at a spot where the water or brine shrimp. Whiteworms and other small worms are also
was “sweet” or brackish. These were brought away in that an excellent food. Flake food or small bite-sized pellets can
water, and, on April 19th, one was placed in an aquarium of also be fed with success however for best results some
sea-water (of about three years’ standing), and the others were supplementary feeding with live or frozen food is required.
put into a freshwater aquarium. All had done well up to the Obviously, no single food will meet their needs at all life stages,
present; the one in salt water, equally with those in fresh. This and the best way to ensure that they are getting a well-balanced
is an interesting experiment, inasmuch as it demonstrates the diet is to feed them as wide a variety of food as possible.
power of this little species to withstand sudden changes in its
surrounding element. The coastal lagoons are very rich in this Pseudomugil signifer are a relatively short lived species in the wild
species, and these lagoons become practically fresh, and very and females may only spawn once, usually at around one year of
salty alternately; it is, therefore, greatly to the advantage of this age, rarely living to spawn a second season. Males often live
(and other species of aquatic life present) if they can adjust around two years. In captivity, life expectancy can increase to four
themselves to the varying conditions.” years or more if appropriate aquarium management procedures are
employed.
In 1915, Albert Gale wrote in his book Aquarian Nature
Studies - “One of the most beautiful indigenous aquaria fish we
have in New South Wales, both in colour and markings, and at Breeding
the same time the most shapely, is the little blue-eye Not a lot is known about the breeding biology of Pseudomugil
(Pseudomugil signifer). The adults never exceed 2 inches in signifer in their natural environment. Most information is
length, and its depth is symmetrical to its length. Among mainly based on aquarium observations. In their natural
imported aquaria fish specimens, the Paradise fish and the environment spawning usually occurs from October to January
Fighting fish are its only rivals. In spring time, the breeding for southern populations, while the breeding season for northern
season, the sexes are very readily distinguished; the male, as is populations can be year round. They are an egg-scatterer,
always the case in the fish-world, attires himself in his wedding generally spawning amongst aquatic plants and grasses. Males
garb, his fins become more developed and expansive. His whole are territorial and engage in spectacular fin-flashing displays
body assumes a maize tint, his fins the colour of old gold edged during contests with rivals over the acquisition and defence of
with black, having a very narrow margin mottled with gold and spawning sites. In the wild, males maintain and guard these
white. The eyes of the male form a very striking contrast with sites while females move between them, inspecting the males
the general markings of the body, being azure or sky blue and along the way. Females may swim along in small shoals or also
bright and lively; the whole contour giving the fish the swim past alone. Males do not venture far from their territories
appearance of aquatic butterflies rather than that of fish. The and rely on the females to swim past. Males will actively swim
males are far more resplendent in the breeding season than are over and try and entice the females with conspicuous courtship
the females. Their natural food is rotifers, and the various displays (body tilted in a head-down position, raising and
varieties of animalculae. They are very fond of mosquito larvae. lowering his fins). If successful, the female will follow the male
In confinement they do well on coffee biscuit, occasionally to his territory and spawn. In the wild they tend to spawn
varied with a little flesh food or gentles.” [Gentles are the amongst stems and roots of marginal aquatic vegetation close to
larvae of blow-flies - the first stage after leaving the egg.] the water’s edge. In laboratory research, males were found to
prefer courting larger females presumably because female
Pseudomugil signifer were introduced to the international aquarium fecundity increases with body size.
hobby as early as 1932. During 1933 the Shedd Aquarium in Chicago,
dispatched an expedition to Australia, which, in addition to the larger Group spawning with multiple males and females is probably
fishes that were the object of the trip, obtained a number of smaller the preferred method for breeding. Several spawning mops
specimens. Notably in this collection were Hypseleotris galii, should be provided for egg placement. It is advisable to provide
Hypseleotris compressus and Pseudomugil signifer. a spawning mop for each male in the group. In addition, this
method should provide you with more eggs. Spawning pairs or
Pseudomugil signifer are an attractive species that are easy to trios is possible but you may end up with damaged or dead
maintain and breed in captivity and are hardy aquarium fishes females due to the male’s aggression. Group spawning spreads
despite their small size. Ideally, they should share their this aggression.

Glynn Aland
Torres Strait Islands (Queensland)
In captivity pre-spawning behaviour is initiated adjacent to the I found that Pseudomugil signifer seem to prefer a dimly lit
chosen spawning site by the male actively pursuing a female aquarium for breeding. The number of eggs being laid was not
with raised fins and swimming in a zigzag pattern to block the as high as I expected. Perhaps some were being eaten, although
female's retreat. When receptive, the female will enter the this was never observed. Also free hatching larvae were never
spawning site first, closely followed by the male. Disinterested observed in the breeding aquarium. If your floating mops are
or non-gravid females move away and swim to the surface or not producing eggs, try mops without floats, and if you still
hide amongst aquatic plants. Females do not always choose the can’t find any eggs you might find that the fish are spawning in
dominant male/s and will usually achieve higher spawning the gravel. You might be surprised how many larvae actually
success when they mate with their preferred choice. In the hatch out from the gravel.
wild, a female has the choice of either spawning or fleeing. In
captivity, the flight of the female is reduced or confined to the Eggs were collected daily and placed in a 4 litre plastic
size of the breeding aquarium. Therefore, the size of the container with the addition of methylene blue as a fungicide.
breeding aquarium is vitally important and should be Upon hatching the fry were carefully transferred to a 135 litre
appropriate for the variety being bred. raising tub. I found that the larvae nearly always emerge from
the eggs during the night or early morning. Water conditions of
Males exhibit territorial behaviour towards conspecifics such the fry raising tub were maintained at around the same
as lateral fin-flaring displays and pursuits. They do not actively chemistry of the breeding tank. Weekly water changes of 20%
care for the eggs other than through defence of the spawning were provided.
site. A male might cannibalise his own eggs, or defend his
spawning site badly against other egg predators. During Eggs will take around 12–17 days to hatch at a temperature
spawning the males colour intensifies with the fins becoming range of 22–28° Celsius. Although Pseudomugil signifer are
brighter and the body turning from silvery to a golden bronze only small their newly hatched larvae are rather large. The
colour. The females body darkens with the scales edged in hatching size of the larvae is around 4–5 mm. At around 15–20
black. Females usually shed 2 to 3 eggs (1.1–1.8 mm) each mm the males began to show some fin colouration but the fins
spawning with up to 18 eggs being laid per day. Eggs have were still the same shape as the females. By 20–25 mm the
adhesive filaments that attach to plants or spawning mops. elongated anal and dorsal fins are developed and the sexes
should readily be distinguished. Rapid development of larvae
Spawning usually occurs in late morning or early afternoon. continues with maturity being reached within 6 months with
After spawning, the male will continue to display, defending males at about 30 mm and 25 mm for females. Males show
his territory and thus the fertilised eggs. The eggs can be slender elongated dorsal and anal fins with yellow, orange and
difficult to find in large mops and if the eggs are being red markings, while the females and juveniles have short
“picked” from the mops, thorough checking is required if all rounded clear dorsal and anal fins with the only colouration
the eggs are to be found. Eggs were usually found singularly or being a dark line on the anterior edge of the second dorsal fin.
in groups of 2 or 3.
Gunther Schmida
Pseudomugil tenellus Distribution & Habitat
Taylor, 1964 P. tenellus was first collected from the East Alligator River near
Delicate Blue Eye Oenpelli, in the Northern Territory during the American-
Australian Scientific Expedition of 1948. They were reportedly
abundant in large billabongs and creeks below escarpment
Species Summary waterfalls in the Oenpelli area. However, they were not
Pseudomugil tenellus is a small fish growing to a length of around scientifically described until 1964. They have patchy distribution
4-5 cm. Adult males generally have a translucent golden-brown throughout the northern areas of the Northern Territory, around the
body colour above the mid-lateral line and yellowish-brown with a Gulf of Carpentaria to Cape York Peninsula in Queensland. In
silver sheen below. The mid-lateral line consists of a series of New Guinea they have been found in the Bensbach River and the
discontinuous silvery, reflective scales that become larger in older Aru Islands; although I suspect that their distribution in southern
fish. The body scales are edged in black and form an attractive New Guinea will be much wider.
latticework pattern. They have two dorsal fins, very close together,
the first much smaller than the second. The fins have a background In Australia, P. tenellus has been recorded from catchments of the
colour of golden burnt-orange, with the outer margins light yellow; Alligator, Blyth, Daly, Finniss, Howard, Liverpool and Mary river
often edged with white. The second dorsal and anal fins have a systems in the Northern Territory, where they are commonly
semi-circular pattern of several small white spots. The caudal fin found in riverine floodplain billabongs. They have also been
has a black margin that is fringed with white. The pectoral fins are collected from Leanyer Swamp, a tidal swamp north-east of
fringed along the anterior edge with orange. As the common name Darwin; Rapid Creek, Benjamin Lagoon and a number of other
suggests, the iris is blue. The operculum and belly region are minor streams in the Darwin region. In Queensland they have
silvery. However, colour can be variable and will depend upon the been collected in the Coleman, Edward, Jardine, Lockhart and
mood of the fish, water conditions and diet. Females and juveniles Watson river systems; Jacky Jacky and Scrubby Creek (near
have a similar body colour but not as intense, and have much Coen).
smaller uncoloured rounded fins with no markings. Females
generally have a deeper body than the males whilst the adult males P. tenellus are usually found inhabiting coastal brackish or fresh
have larger dorsal, anal and pelvic fins. The differences in colour waters. They are most common in the lower riverine floodplain
of the body and especially the larger size of the males’ fins make swamps and in slow-flowing streams, generally in areas with
the sexes of P. tenellus easily distinguishable.

Dave Wilson
dense aquatic vegetation. They are usually found in the greatest P. tenellus have a generalised diet in their natural habitat
numbers during the mid-wet season. Juveniles have been collected feeding opportunistically from the lower and mid-water areas
in all seasons with a peak in the late-wet to early-dry season. of the waterbodies. The main items are algae, microcrustaceans
Juveniles are mainly found in floodplain billabongs. Larger and aquatic insects. The identifiable algae were green
juveniles can be found in mainchannel waterbodies. Adults are filamentous and blue-green algae and dinoflagellates. The
found in essentially the same habitats as the juveniles as well as in microcrustaceans were mainly cladocerans, ostracods and
the upper reaches of freshwater streams. Both adults and juveniles copepods. Chironomid larvae were the main aquatic insects
have been collected in estuary and tidal salt marshes; presumably eaten. Other food items found in the stomachs were terrestrial
they can spend their entire lives in these brackish habitats. Water insects and miscellaneous organic matter. One study found that
conditions recorded in their natural habitats are: Temperature 27– the diet in the late-dry season was mainly based on detritus (with
38°C; pH 5.0–7.1 and Conductivity 6–120 µS/cm. This indicates associated unidentified organic material) and small quantities of
that this species has a preference for warmer waters. chironomid larvae and pupae, and algae; no micro-crustaceans
were eaten. In the early-wet microcrustaceans appeared in the diet
and detritus decreased in importance; aquatic insects also appeared
Keeping & Caring in the diet during this season. In the mid-wet season P. tenellus ate
P. tenellus are a relatively short lived species in the wild and mainly microcrustaceans (particularly cladocerans) with smaller
most die in their first year, even if conditions are ideal. amounts of terrestrial and aquatic insects. By the late-wet—early-
Mortality becomes more predictable for most fish after the first dry season algae were the main component of the diet.
two years of life. Natural factors affecting them include
disease, parasites, predation and competition for food and An ideal diet for P. tenellus in captivity could include foods
space. Females may only spawn once, usually at around one such as live and frozen brine shrimp, daphnia, mosquito larvae,
year of age, rarely living to spawn a second season. Males bloodworms and microworms. Spirulina-based foods flake,
often live around two years. In captivity, life expectancy can and bite-sized pellets designed for ornamental fishes are also
increase up to four years if appropriate aquarium conditions are acceptable. Obviously, no single food will meet their needs at
provided. The key for successfully maintaining P. tenellus is all life stages, and the best way to ensure that they are getting a
excellent water conditions. This can be easily provided with well-balanced diet is to feed them as wide a variety of food as
regular partial water changes. possible.

Breeding Direct spawning activity involves the male raising his dorsal
Very little is known about the breeding biology of this species and anal fins while actively pursuing the female. Once the
in their natural environment. Most information is mainly based female accepts the male she will move into the spawning
on aquarium observations. In their natural environment, P. medium. The male follows beside and parallel or slightly
tenellus are most likely aseasonal spawners, breeding behind the female. During the egg release the females’ body
continuously at intervals throughout the year. However, a peak quivers as she releases 1 to 30 eggs. The male will remain
in reproductive activity usually occurs during the early-wet beside and parallel to the female, his fins erect as he fertilises
season from October to December. The spawning season will the eggs. During this procedure the colour intensifies in both
vary from region to region, but will usually coincide with the sexes. Males will often spawn with other females more than
conditions that offer the greatest amount of protection for the once a day; however females appeared to only spawn once a
eggs, and food and shelter for the newly hatched young. day. Spawning may continue over several days followed by a
Spawning in captivity usually begins when water temperature period of 1–2 weeks inactivity. A water change or slight
are maintained above 24°C. change in temperature will sometimes induce spawning after a
period of inactivity.
P. tenellus are an egg-scatterer, generally spawning amongst
aquatic plants and grasses. Ovaries examined in one study Eggs have adhesive filaments that attach to aquatic plants or
contained 33–45 eggs with a mean diameter of 1.0 mm. amongst the strands of the spawning mops, and sometimes
However, the number of eggs shed by a single female is even in the substrate. Spawned eggs are relatively large;
directly related to the size of the female. The total number of negatively buoyant in freshwater and average 1.2 ± 0.5 mm in
eggs released will increase with the maturity and size of the diameter, and are usually clear to light amber in colour.
fish.
Eggs are best left attached to the spawning mops to minimise
Breeding this species under suitable aquarium conditions is handling stress and removed from the spawning tank and
generally uncomplicated. Group spawning with multiple males placed in another aquarium for incubation and larval rearing.
and females is probably the preferred method for breeding. Maintain a constant temperature ± 1°C and gently aeration.
This will allow the females to choose their own mate and in Hatching will begin after an incubation period of around four
doing so; a variety of genetic factors will be passed on to the to six days at a temperature range of 25–30°C. Temperature is
next generation. Spawning pairs is possible but group one of the major factors that influences the embryonic period
spawning should provide you with more eggs. of blue-eyes.
Males commonly remained near a suitable site for spawning Although P. tenellus are only small their newly hatched larvae are
and exhibit territorial behaviour towards other males such as rather large at around 4 mm. Upon hatching the larvae swim at the
lateral fin-flaring displays and pursuits. The males swim surface of the water, generally within the upper 1-cm water layer.
parallel to each other in a circular pattern; frequently changing The mouth is well developed and functional, and they begin
direction. This display is a ritualised test of strength between feeding within hours of hatching. They can be fed finely powdered
the males and usually comes to an end when one of the males dry foods, newly-hatched brine shrimp, copepods, phytoplankton
retreats. The males do not actively care for the eggs other than and microworm. P. tenellus grow fairly rapidly and reach maturity
through defence of the spawning site. They may eat their own in about three months; at a size of around 18–24 mm. They can
eggs, or fail to defend the spawning site against other egg attain a length of 20–30 mm in around 4–5 months, and by the end
predators. They may also cannibalise their young and whilst of 12 months they should be around 40–50 mm. It has been
larvae may survive in a heavily planted aquarium it is a better reported that P. tenellus can attain a total length of around 19–28
to transfer the mops or spawning medium to a hatching mm in 144 days in captivity with a water temperature of 26°C. At
container or aquarium, at least until you have established a a size of 18 mm both sexes developed breeding colouration. The
sizeable population. Spawning mops are my preferred smallest male spawned successfully when 20 mm; the smallest
spawning method as better survival rates can be expected if the female spawned when 18.5 mm.
eggs are removed. Several spawning mops should be provided
to offer the males a choice of spawning sites and females a
Dave Wilson
choice of hiding places. The mops can be attached to a block of

styrene foam and floated in the water or alternatively, just drop
the bundle of loose thread into the aquarium.
In captivity, males displayed during the daylight hours with the

peak of activity occurring in the late morning and early
afternoon. Pre-spawning behaviour begins in an open area of
water adjacent to a spawning mop or floating plants. The male
approaches the female from the side as she either attempts to
flee or accepts the male as a suitable spawning partner. Non-
receptive females will move away and swim to the surface
remaining motionless to avoid detection, often in the corners of
the aquarium; begin schooling with the other fish or hide
amongst the aquatic plants or spawning mops.

Gunther Schmida
Searys Creek (Queensland)
Rhadinocentrus ornatus Stradbroke Island. Another coloured form on Stradbroke Island

showed a distinctive black striped pattern on the sides of the
Regan, 1914 body giving the fish an overall dark colouration of the body.
Ornate Rainbowfish
The actual location was not documented.
Species Summary Body colour can be variable throughout their range with
Rhadinocentrus ornatus is a sub-tropical species that were first different colours, shades, or patterns. Most populations have
collected from Moreton Island, a sand dune island off the south their scales outlined with black that form an attractive
Queensland coast in Moreton Bay. The type description of R. latticework pattern over the body. However, some populations
ornatus was from six specimens collected from a pond on only show the scale pattern on the dorsal half of the body while
Moreton Island by the signal station operator at Cowan Cowan. the lower half can be either scattered with rounded or oblong
They were described by Charles Tate Regan at the British markings, or completely clear. The body can be blue overall or
Museum of Natural History in 1914. They are the only species a translucent light brown or olive colour with just a hint of
currently recognised within the genus. In earlier times they were either blue or red. Some males are completely red on the
commonly known as the ‘Moreton Island Sunfish’ and were very posterior third of the body. The dorsal fin can have a red outer
popular with early native fish enthusiasts. border with black rays or black outer border with blue rays.
The caudal fin is usually blue or reddish with a central dark
R. ornatus is a small, slender and relatively elongated species, sector. The anal fin usually has a black margin. The blue form
with two dorsal fins that are very close together; the first much is usually light brown on top of the body and fades ventrally to
smaller than the second. They exhibit considerable colour various shades of blue that increase towards the tail. Fish from
variation over their geographical range. Generally the body is dark tannin-stained waters can often be very dark. Generally,
semi-transparent with two rows of black scales in the mid- the difference between the blue and red forms is just that the
lateral region. The iridescent scales immediately below the blue colour is replaced by red. All have scattered iridescent
dorsal fin and above the lateral line can be either red or metallic neon-blue spangles of varying densities that run along the back
pale blue. The dorsal, anal and caudal fins are generally blue and nape. The different coloured forms can often be found in
(sometimes red) with black edges. In 1995, ANGFA (Qld) the same habitat. A third form does not have the black lateral
members reported collecting an unusual golden yellow lines or scale pattern and only has iridescent blue scales along
coloured form of R. ornatus in the Key Hole Lakes system on

Gunther Schmida
Evans River (New South Wales)
Gunther Schmida
Searys Creek (Queensland)

Leo O’Reilly
Leo O’Reilly
▲Teewah Creek ► Searys Creek (Queensland)

the nape. This form is usually smaller than the other varieties. Today we know that R. ornatus have patchy distribution along
Females are not quite so highly coloured. Males, apart from the narrow coastal drainages of southern Queensland and
their brighter colours, can be distinguished from females by northern New South Wales. Its range is nearly continuous
having more elongated rays in the second dorsal and anal fins. amongst the unconnected coastal river catchments from the
Males also display a red nuptial stripe running from the Nambucca River in the south to the Mary River in the north.
upper lip and along the nape to the second dorsal fin during North of the Mary River there is a break in the distribution of
spawning activities. over 350 km to a disjunct northern population in the Byfield
region (Water Park Creek) near Yeppoon. Their distribution
A phylogenetic study (Page et al. 2004) found that R. ornatus includes lake and stream habitats on Bribie, Fraser, Moreton
exists as four separate populations. These populations correspond and Stradbroke Islands, a group of islands off the southern
to: Queensland coast. Many of these lakes have never been
connected to the ocean. The fish that are present have
1. Byfield (Water Park Creek) south to Tin Can Bay and presumably been introduced as eggs on the feet of birds.
Fraser Island.
2. Searys Creek (Rainbow Beach) population. Although not endangered, R. ornatus has a restricted
3. Noosa River south to Brunswick River in NSW, distribution. Their distribution has likely contracted as a
including Bribie, Moreton and Stradbroke Islands. consequence of urban and rural development and the attendant
4. Northern New South Wales south of the Brunswick altered hydrology and water quality. Habitat alteration and
River. urban development are still having negative impacts in several
areas. Extensive sampling in rivers and streams of the southeast
R. ornatus can grow to a maximum size of around 7–8 cm Queensland mainland over the last few years has yielded
total length, but are usually more common at around 5–6 relatively few individuals. R. ornatus was a rare find during a
cm. In captivity they have been reported to grow somewhat survey of the Nerang River in 2007. Individuals were found
larger at around 10 cm. However, that is more the exception both above and below the Heinz Dam. Nevertheless, they can
rather than the rule. They tend to develop humped backs still be found in reasonably numbers in the Sunshine Coast
and faded colours as they get older and larger. region north of Brisbane.
The introduced mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki), which are

Distribution & Habitat tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions may
A 1924 survey of Moreton Island, noted that R. ornatus were displace native species such as R. ornatus. Gambusia holbrooki
found in swamps and unnamed streams south of the lighthouse. have been reported to prey on their eggs and larvae. R. ornatus
The first report of R. ornatus being found on the mainland that have also been observed to switch from areas of open water to
I can find was in an Aquarium & Terrarium Society of refuge areas in the presence of Gambusia. Furthermore,
Queensland excursion report in 1927. At that time they were experiments under captive conditions have shown Gambusia to
known only from Moreton Island. They were found in Belmont exhibit aggressive behaviour towards R. ornatus.
(Bulimba Creek), an outer southside suburb of Brisbane. Later
that same year they were reportedly found in the Pimpama R. ornatus congregate in small schools and occupy small,
River catchment (Pimpama Island) on the Gold Coast in slowly moving creeks and marshy swamps, usually over a
southeast Queensland. Members of the Aquarium & Terrarium sandy substrate. The water temperature range has been reported
Society were also the first to discover R. ornatus on Stradbroke from 12–32°C. However, they are known to survive water
Island. They were found in “a little freshwater creek a few temperatures as low as 8°C. They are most abundant in
miles north of Myora”. A description of the creek from the unpolluted streams, lakes or swampy areas amongst emergent
secretary, Amandus Rudel, in 1930 follows: vegetation and reeds of the ‘wallum’, which is low, sandy,
coastal heathland of southeast Queensland and northern New
“The water in this particular creek is very soft and of a slightly South Wales. These waterbodies are usually very soft and
brownish colour. Except for a slimy sort of algae, the creek has acidic (pH: 3.9 to 6.8), either clear or more often stained brown
no under-water plants of any description. No snails or other or black by prolonged contact with high accumulations of leaf
small insects were to be found and how Rhadinocentrus gets a litter and other terrestrial material. The dominance of humic
living is rather a puzzle. The creek is rather narrow but very acids among this organic material and the relatively low pH
deep in places and winds its way through a very flat piece of are not conducive to bacterial degradation, so particulate
country on the Island. It’s really more of a bog and one never and dissolved humic compounds are metabolised very
knows when the ground gives way. Ferns and sphagnum moss slowly. The dark colour of the water severely limits
grows all over the flat. Tracks of Kangaroos and Wallabies penetration of light, which, together with low
lead to the creek from all directions, and take it all around it's a concentrations of inorganic ions, restricts photosynthetic
very interesting piece of nature.” activity in aquatic plants. Limited photosynthesis and slow
bacterial degradation results in low zooplankton and
A description of the fish was given as follows: “Back dark red phytoplankton development.
with a row of blue shining scales. Body yellowish with two
rows of black scales and black spots distributed all over body. R. ornatus have also been found in clear rainforest streams
Dorsal fin red with black edges and the same colour on the anal with dense overhanging vegetation and leaf litter. In these
fin. Tail whitish edged black.” streams they are usually found around marginal vegetation,
submerged logs, or branches. They may be found on their

Neil Armstrong
▲▼ Carland Creek (Queensland)
Leo O’Reilly
Barry Meiklejohn
Keyhole Lakes [Stradbroke Island, Queensland]
own or with other small-bodied native fishes. Many habitats suitable for most aquarium species. However, they will survive
occupied by Rhadinocentrus ornatus also contained individuals best if maintained at a temperature range of 20–28°C; pH 6.0–
of Nannoperca oxleyana and Pseudomugil mellis. 7.0; and water hardness from 5–100 ppm. They will display
their best colouration when maintained in a well-planted
A dietary analyses of their natural foods showed that the main aquarium of their own, and in a group of around 10 to 20
components of their diet are terrestrial insects (29~34%), Aquatic individuals, particularly if maintained under aquarium
dipterans (16–24%), Copepods (8–11%), Cladocerans (0–6%), conditions that will show their iridescent reflective colouration.
Ostracods (5–9%), Decapods (0–2%), algae or pollen, mostly
pollen (6–32%), seeds (0–1%), aquatic acarinids (0–1%), and Breeding R. ornatus is similar to most rainbowfishes in
miscellaneous organic matter (0–7%). captivity. Females spawn small numbers (3–5) of eggs each
day. The total number may range from around 20 to 80 eggs
over several days. Hatching occurs in about 6–10 days at
Keeping & Caring temperatures between 23–28° Celsius. Hatched larvae are well
Very little is known about the natural life history and ecology developed and competent swimmers. Upon hatching the larvae
of R. ornatus in the wild. Most information is mainly based on swim at the surface of the water, generally within the upper 1-
aquarium observations. In their natural environment spawning cm water layer. The mouth is well developed and functional,
usually occurs during the warmer period of the year (Spring- and they begin feeding within hours of becoming free-
Summer) when water temperatures are around 24–32°C. Eggs swimming. They can be fed commercially available fry foods,
and larvae have however, been found in the upper Orara River newly-hatched brine shrimp, copepods, phytoplankton and
in northern New South Wales during Spring at temperatures of microworm.
16–17°C. Eggs adhere to fine-leaved plants or among the roots
of floating vegetation. R. ornatus characteristically display a considerable range of
growth rates, depending on conditions such as food, space,
R. ornatus have been a popular aquarium fish with Australian numbers, competition and water temperature. Growth rates of
native fish enthusiasts for many decades. They are a fish that 20 mm in 3 weeks and 30–40 mm in 10 weeks have been
requires a little more attention than most other rainbowfishes. reported in captivity with maturity at about 9–12 months. Life
They can be maintained and bred in water conditions that are expectancy in captivity is around 3–4 years.

Silke Prinage
Gunther Schmida
Rhadinocentrus ornatus (Spawning)

Gunther Schmida
Scaturiginichthys golden-yellow. Males are generally larger than females with
larger fins. External morphology separating S. vermeilipinnis
vermeilipinnis from other blue-eyes include a narrow rounded caudal fin,
Ivantsoff, Unmack, Saeed and Crowley, 1991 lower position of the pectoral fin and frequent absence of
Redfin Blue Eye ventral fins which may be an adaptation to a very shallow
habitat.
Species Summary
Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis were originally collected from S. vermeilipinnis is Australia's most endangered freshwater
a number of artesian springs located on Edgbaston Station, a fish and share their habitat with another endangered species
sheep and cattle property located 35 km north-east of Aramac Chlamydogobius squamigenus, the Edgbaston Goby.
in central-western Queensland in 1990, and were scientifically
described in 1991. The scientific name is a reference to the Although population numbers in individual springs have
unique habitat (scaturginis is Latin for spring; ichthys, pertaining to varied since their discovery, specific population trends are
a fish) and the red colouration on the margins of the dorsal and not well known and they have disappeared completely from
anal fins (vermeil - old French red or vermilion; pinnis, Latin for a number of springs. It is estimated that their numbers may
fins). range from a few hundred to a few thousand individuals.
Their continued existence is being threatened by the
S. vermeilipinnis is Australia's smallest freshwater fish introduced mosquitofish Gambusia holbrooki and habitat
reaching a maximum total length of around 28 mm. They have destruction caused by harvesting water from the Great
a translucent silvery to golden body that becomes darker Artesian Basin; trampling and grazing by stock and feral
dorsally and around the head region with a plainly visible swim animals, and modification of springs to provide for stock
bladder. Iridescent scales are visible above the anterior watering. The Great Artesian Basin Bore Rehabilitation
midlateral line. Opercles iridescent; eyes silvery-blue with a Program may have some long-term benefits in terms of
dark vertical stripe through the orbit. The males’ unpaired and increased water flow to the springs. Bores are been capped
pelvic fins are edged with red, hence their common name of and drainage canals are being replaced with pipes to reverse
Redfin Blue Eye. Fins are clear to faintly yellowish in juveniles declining groundwater pressures and water levels; this has
and females. Juveniles have the posterior half of the body led to the restoration of some spring wetlands.

The fragile nature of the springs at Edgbaston implies that Edgbaston Springs are a complex of artesian springs
extinction of these truly unique features of the arid Australia scattered across an alluvial plain and supporting an unusual
landscape and the associated aquatic fauna is very real. A habitat type, which is distinct from the surrounding arid
recent survey has found that sub-populations of this species region. The actually wetland area is small; the total surface
are not healthy and potential threats are increasing. area of known habitat varies seasonally between approximately
6 to 8 km². At least 44 springs have been identified at
S. vermeilipinnis was originally recorded as naturally Edgbaston Springs, but only about 30 have permanent
occurring in eight separate springs. Since its discovery in water, some of which have become extinct. They are
1990, five populations have been lost and subsequent derived from faults allowing water to flow from thin
colonisation has occurred in two springs. In 1994 five confining beds of the Great Artesian Basin aquifer. They are
naturally occurring populations were known, plus a permanent artesian springs, with some evaporation and
translocated population (from one of the above springs). A associated reduction in extent during the summer months.
‘Species Recovery Plan’ was prepared for the Australian Most of the springs are very small, shallow, and marshy.
Nature Conservation Agency (now Environment Australia) Some springs lower in the catchment are occasionally
in 1995, although it was generally not implemented. When connected by floodwater.
the springs were visited in 1998 the five springs still
contained existing populations. At the most recent survey in Water depth varies throughout the springs with depths
2005, redfins were present in five relatively small shallow between 3 and 7 cm. Some springs have associated pools
springs. They appear to have become extinct from three of which are usually less than 20 cm deep but may be up to 50
the larger deeper springs. The cause of their demise has not cm. Temperatures recorded in the region show an average high of
been clearly established. 29–30ºC, average low of 14–16°C. Temperature extremes have
been recorded of -3°C and 51°C. Annual rainfall average is 117–
161 mm, with a recorded high extreme of 543 mm and a low of 30
Distribution & Habitat mm. Water chemistry of the springs have been reported as
S. vermeilipinnis are endemic to the Edgbaston Springs follows: Conductivity 560–3270 mS/cm; TDS 478–2597 mg/L;
complex near Aramac, which is located 67 km north of pH 7.1–9.1; Alkalinity: 235–1380 mg/L.
Barcaldine (about 930 km west-northwest of Brisbane).
Aramac is one of those tiny little settlements in western The water of the springs that contain S. vermeilipinnis is
Queensland which has outlived its original purpose and now generally clear with a pH 7.8 to 8.0 (average 7.93) and high
stands forlornly in the middle of nowhere supporting the alkalinity. Water temperatures are extremely variable from
surrounding pastoral properties and sustaining the few people spring to spring and within each spring. In May 1990 the
(approx. 300) who continue to live in this inhospitable, hot and temperatures varied from 7 to 28° Celsius. During May
dry environment. The area was first explored by Europeans and 1991 at 7.00 am water temperatures of 7 to 20°C were
settled in the 1850s. The town was named after Robert Ramsay recorded in different parts of the springs. While at other
Mackenzie who, at the time, held land leases totalling 1536 times of the year minimum and maximum water
square miles. Mackenzie, really nothing more than a land temperatures of 3 and 38.5°C have been recorded. S.
speculator, was Queensland’s first treasurer and future premier. vermeilipinnis are usually located in areas of the springs
He was of limited talent and left no great impression on the public where the temperature is above 16°C.
life of the newly formed colony. William Landsborough
explored the area in 1859 and called a nearby watercourse S. vermeilipinnis may be found throughout all areas of a
Aramac Creek. In a letter he explained “The Aramac, as spring. Adults generally occur in the deeper areas of the
many wrong reasons for the name have been given, I may springs, while newly hatched fry and juveniles are usually
say here I named, in honour of the late Sir R. R. Mackenzie, found in the shallower areas. When approached they form
‘Ar-Ar-Mac’, who was so well known in Queensland, and large schools, which is probably a predator avoidance
who had acted in a very friendly way to me”. response. If undisturbed the fish disperse into smaller
groups, and begin feeding and displaying.
Edgbaston Springs are located in the upper reaches of
Pelican Creek within the Thomson River system in the Lake Edgbaston Springs contains a diverse endemic fauna (fishes,
Eyre drainage about 31 km north-east of Aramac. Pelican invertebrates) which rivals that of Dalhousie Springs.
Creek is ephemeral although some waterholes may persist Increasing evidence of extraordinary endemism in some
between rainfall events. Pelican Creek (35 km) merges with groups (especially molluscs and crustaceans) shows that
Aramac Creek. Aramac Creek flows through Boundary many taxa are confined to single springs or groups of
Waterhole and Middle Waterhole on its way to joining the springs. Plant communities include Eryngium fontanum,
Thomson River. The following creeks flow into the Aramac Sporobolus pamelae, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Utricularia,
Creek: Curlew Creek, New Year Creek, Emu Hills Creek, and Eriocaulon carsonii. The spring's distinctive fauna
Gum Creek, Sandy Creek, Pelican Creek, Politic Creek, Ibis suggests they have been isolated for a very long time.
Creek, Corinda Creek, Middle Creek, Willoughby Creek,
Four Mile Creek, Langharne Creek, Mountain Creek, Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis may have had a much
Tommlins Creek, Tuaburra Creek, Rodney Creek, wider distribution in other artesian springs throughout the
Scarrbury Creek, Neil Creek and Gambling Creek. Lake Eyre region at one time.

Gunther Schmida
Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis in natural habitat
Adrian Tappin
Edgbaston Springs habitat
▲ ▼ Edgbaston Springs habitats
Adrian Tappin Gunther Schmida

Adrian Tappin
Biology During the period I maintained this species I had for the
Not a lot is known about the biology of S. vermeilipinnis in most part provided them with bottom substrate mops. I had
their natural habitat. Most information has mainly been thought that coming from such shallow water in their
based on aquarium observations. They probably possess natural habitat they would be bottom spawners particularly
both eurythermal and euryhaline characteristics, which are when I was maintaining them in water around 30–35 cm
acquired by many desert fishes in response to a changing deep. This belief was further enforced by the numerous
environment. Males defend variable territories against other observations of males displaying to each other and driving
males, usually around emergent vegetation and will display the females into depressions in the gravel or algae mat that
to any female that enters their territory. During spawning covered much of the gravel substrate. More than one male
the colouration of the male's fins intensifies to a bright red would be involved in this behaviour and sometimes as many
colour, the overall body colouration becomes much darker as three were observed with one female. Although no eggs
and the fish develops a dark stripe that runs vertically were actually seen being spawned, I firmly believe that they
through the eye. The female undergoes only minor changes were definitely spawning.
with her body becoming slightly darker. Eggs are released
either onto the globular algae on the substrate or vegetation. I used reasonably large bulky substrate mops and on a
Territorial males, eggs and juveniles have been found number of occasions had observed a couple of dead
throughout the year but are more common in warmer specimens among the strands of the mop. After testing the
months. water quality, I really didn’t give it much thought, and had
convince myself that it must just be old age, as this species
The natural diet of Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis is doesn’t have a very long life span. However, something
unknown. Individuals have been observed taking a mouthful must have clicked in my mind and I thought perhaps that
of substrate, expelling matter from the mouth and then they were being entangled in the mops and subsequently
picking particles from the expelled cloud. They have also died.
been observed picking particles directly from the substrate,
from the surface of submerged vegetation and from the I decided to change the bottom substrate mops for smaller
water column. floating ones. The results were a surprise – not only did egg
numbers increased, but also there was a major reduction in
soft eggs. Although, this may have related to the existing
Keeping & Caring water chemistry, which was as follows: temperature 25–30°
I first obtained this species in April 1994, and although I C, pH 8.5, hardness 160 mg/L and alkalinity 150 mg/L.
encountered some difficulties, I managed to maintain a Almost all the eggs collected from the floating mops were
captive population of around 40–60 individuals. However, laid in the upper extremities of the mop, just below the
as I progressed through the numerous generations, the water surface, and often in small clusters of 2–4 eggs. In
overall population was declining. The major problems addition to the above results, I did not find any dead
encountered were reduced egg numbers and a large specimens in any of the floating mops.
percentage of ‘soft’ eggs, resulting in a rather small number
of young fish. Under normal aquarium conditions water- I had also suspected that soft egg production may have been
hardened eggs are firm and can be rolled between the caused by a lack of environmental calcium. However, upon
fingers without any problems. The “soft” eggs however, testing the calcium level it was in the range of 25–50 ppm,
would burst under slight pressure. which is consistent with Brisbane tap water. I then decided
to try an increased alkalinity level and used a product called
Forty years of experience as an aquarist and breeder has “Aquasonic KH Generator” to increase the alkalinity to
taught me that “natural” conditions are not necessarily the around 250 ppm. I found that using the kH generator greatly
most favourable for maintaining captive specimens. S. increased the number of eggs and the general health of the
vermeilipinnis have probably experienced extreme changes fish.
of both water temperatures and chemistry during their
evolution. This adaptability to different water conditions is Over the six-year period that I maintained and bred S.
presumably why they have survived in this uncharitable vermeilipinnis they were mostly kept in small (130-L)
environment. Therefore, I experimented with various water aquariums, although later they were transferred to a 175-L
conditions to see what conditions were most suitable for S. aquarium. The fish were fed twice daily at 07.00 and 16.00
vermeilipinnis, and managed to breed and raised them under hours. Their diet consisted mainly of newly-hatched
the following water chemistry ranges: Temperature 20–31° brineshrimp, microworm, frozen bloodworms, homemade
C, pH 6.8–9.0, Hardness 100–160 ppm, Alkalinity 20–200 fish food and a commercial fine powdered larvae diet. They
ppm, and 415–975 µS Conductivity. were also fed the occasional sprinkle of powdered spirulina.
I was not happy with the results however, and continued to The spawning mops were checked twice a day, at 07.00
investigate other possible causes. I thought perhaps that hours and 16.00 hours. Any eggs were picked from the
inbreeding or something similar was causing the problem. mops by hand and placed into a hatching container. Eggs
Fortunately, I managed to obtain additional wild-caught collected were visibly different in size; probably due to the
specimens in October 1997. These were added to the size difference in the females (Fry were also clearly
population, but still no improvement was forthcoming. different in hatching size).

During a period of 21 days, egg collection and hatching Remarks
rates were recorded. Eggs were hand-picked from the mops A draft ‘Recovery Plan’ for S. vermeilipinnis was being
morning and night (07.00 and 16.00 hours). The collected prepared back in 2005-06 for the Department of the
eggs were placed in a 4-L plastic hatching container with 2- Environment and Heritage, Canberra and the Queensland
L water and 12 drops of methylene blue as a fungicide. The Parks and Wildlife Service, Brisbane. What happened with
container was then floated in a 135-L raising tub. As the that ‘plan’ is not known to me. However, a paper was
eggs hatched, the fry were carefully transferred to the published in 2007 (Fairfax et al.), but no recovery plans
raising tub. Water in the raising tub was maintained at a were outlined. It did mention that “The failure of attempts to
temperature of 30°C, pH 7.6 to 7.8, TDS 275 mg/L, maintain captive breeding populations suggests that an
hardness 120 mg/L and alkalinity 50 mg/L. intensive and dedicated effort would be required with due
consideration given to water quality, population structure,
The total number of eggs collected during that period was microhabitat and diet”.
178, with the maximum number of eggs collected in one
day being 23. Fry survival from the 178 eggs was 89. The There was an earlier suggestion that establishing a population
survival rate was a lot lower than I would have anticipated, in an artificial wetland at Edgbaston Station may have greater
but it was evident during the egg collection process that likelihood of success than off-site aquaria. Groundwater is
some eggs had not developed. Some eggs burst during available from a low-volume permanently flowing house
collection, giving me the impression that they had not bore. Using this supply, an outdoor tank or artificial wetland
water-hardened. This was before using the kH Generator. that would exclude gambusia, feral pigs and other threats
Later spawnings gave a much improved hatching rate than could be designed and established to maintain a reserve
reported above. population of S. vermeilipinnis. This population could be
used, if necessary, to restock springs and could also provide
In captivity, S. vermeilipinnis usually spawn when the fish stock for ex-situ experiments if field studies prove
are around 12–15 mm in length. Spawning has been unsuccessful.
observed at water temperatures between 20–32°C. The
spherical, opaque eggs are about 1.0–1.5 mm in size and The conservation of their natural habitat alone, of course,
have filaments that attach to vegetation or the substrate. The would be useless if developments in the region seriously
eggs take between 10–14 days to hatch, depending on water depleted groundwater stocks and flows. To this end I would
temperature (at 28°C, eggs hatch in eight to ten days). The also like to see them become established in the aquarium
larvae hatch at between 4–5 mm in length and begin feeding hobby. However, I doubt if anyone will ever be given the
within 24 hours. opportunity again? I also don’t have much faith in the idea
of Government agencies being able to secure their future.
Fry grow rather quickly and may reach 15 mm in six to ten Australia does not have a good record in regard to the
weeks. The colour of the fry is unusual, with the front third protection of the nation’s biodiversity. Governments and
of the body blue and the rest golden-brown, but this changes their policies change – when funding runs out - that’s the
to adult colours as they grow. They normally swim near the end of the story. That’s what happened with the first
surface of the water until about 10–12 mm in length when recovery plan. No more funding - no more work, and
they are found at lower levels in the aquarium. everyone involved just went on to do other things. That is
also why I put a little extra time and effort into maintaining
Spawning activity is similar to other blue-eyes with males my captive population. However, it needs a number of
displaying to passing females. Males develop a smoky dedicated people for total success.
golden-brown body and more intense red colouration in the
fins. Sometimes the males can be quite aggressive and will Before aquarium hobbyists can become involved in species
actively pursue the female. The spawning display involves maintenance programs we have to get ‘runs on the board’ and
the male swimming around the female with outspread fins. show these Government Agencies that we can manage captive
If the female is receptive the pair will come together and stocks. However, I’m afraid that we failed miserably with S.
swim side by side. Eggs are then released amongst the vermeilipinnis. Several aquarists in Australia and internationally
spawning mops or over the substrate. had captive populations of S. vermeilipinnis at some time.
However, most captive populations were lost due mainly to
From my experience it was obvious that S. vermeilipinnis inadequate aquarium keeping practices or inexcusable neglect.
spawn either late evening or at daybreak (or both). Also,
most of the eggs hatched during daylight hours. This is Within Australia at least 32 attempts involving 26 aquarists
different from most other blue-eyes that I have bred as they are known. Of these, the outcome of eight is unknown but
usually hatch during the night. I believe the night-time suspected not to have lasted beyond F1. Sixteen resulted in
hatching probably affords a certain amount of protection for no breeding, two bred but not beyond F1, three went to at
newly hatched larvae. Due to their isolation, perhaps such least F1, two to at least F2 and one went to F4~F6. Only two
protection is not required by S. vermeilipinnis as they do not breeders are known to have had more than 100 individuals at
appear to have any natural predators. any one time. In 2000, at the time of deciding to retire from
fishkeeping, I had approximately 100~150 adults and fry of
various sizes. Today, there are no S. vermeilipinnis left in
captivity anywhere in the world.

Gunther Schmida
I believe that the real secret of keeping them in captivity is In July 2008, Edgbaston Station was purchased by Bush
that they need your personal attention at all times. You need Heritage Australia. Bush Heritage Australia is a not-for-profit
at least 2 or 3 dedicated breeding aquariums and continuous organisation that protects Australia’s unique animals and
collection of eggs. You also need at least 4 raising tanks or plants and their habitats. It owns and manages thirty-one
tubs as the older ones will eat the smaller fry so you need to conservation reserves throughout Australia. The purchase of
have raising tanks that can hold fry in various stages of Edgbaston Station was assisted by a significant contribution
growth. They need live foods as they are not all that fussed from the Australian Government’s ‘Maintaining Australia’s
on prepared foods. They also require good water conditions Biodiversity Hotspots’ program. Such support was in
with regular water changes. I do believe that the alkalinity recognition of how critical these properties are to the protection
level has some effects, but just what, I really don’t know? of threatened species and systems of high conservation value in
Australia.
The tank size I would use now if I ever kept them again
would be at least a 120 cm square tank but only about 30 Work has now commenced on restoring the unique terrestrial
cm deep. In this I would only keep maybe 3–4 males and 6– and aquatic environments present at Edgbaston Station. Of
8 females? I would set up at least 3 of these tanks. In these particular concern is the future of the two critically endangered
tanks I would use 4–6 small floating mops that reach down fish species, S. vermeilipinnis and C. squamigenus. Both
to the gravel. Raising tubs of about 135 litres should be species have suffered extensive range reductions since their
adequate with maybe 4–6 of these. discovery in 1990, and this is generally thought to be due to
invasion of the springs by Gambusia holbrooki. Gambusia
I believe that the survival of S. vermeilipinnis is going to control using physical and chemical methods has now
depend not only on those who care enough to preserve their commenced at Edgbaston, as have relocation events seeking
natural environment but also to committed aquarists who to expand the distributional range of these species. In concert
are willing and capable of maintaining viable populations in with breeding programs scheduled to begin in early 2010, the
captivity. Collectively, it may be possible to prevent its on-ground measures at Edgbaston Station aim to preserve
extinction. the dwindling populations of these unique fish species that
are restricted to one of Australia’s most isolated spring
complexes.

Rainbowfishes
Disease Prevention & Control
The information provided herein is intended as a guide to the most common

disease problems of rainbowfishes maintained in aquaria or ponds. Basic
treatment is also included; however, this information should not be substituted
for consultation with an experienced fish health professional.
Veterinary medicine is an ever-changing field. Standard safety precautions must

be followed, but as new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge,
changes in treatment and drug therapy may become necessary or appropriate.
Readers are advised to check the most current product information provided by
the manufacturer of each drug to be administered to verify the recommended
dose, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the
responsibility of the reader, relying on their own experience and knowledge, to
determine dosages and the best treatment for their aquarium inhabitants.
While all responsible efforts have been taken to ensure the accuracy of information
contained in the following section, neither the publisher nor the authors assumes any
responsibility or liability for any lose or injury and/or damage which may result from
an inaccuracy or omission, or from the use of information contained in this
publication.
Disease Prevention & Control
John Gratzek presented an overview of the diseases of ornamental Many diseases can be eradicated or kept to minimal levels by
fishes in 1980. He reported that most (60%) aquarists who careful management and a good knowledge of the basic biology
discontinue keeping fishes do so because the fishes die. He and natural history of the species (both fish and pathogen)
identified common problems with keeping ornamental fishes and concerned. Therefore, disease prevention and control are a
stated that the treatment of diseased fishes is the most common significant part of the rainbowfish hobby. For this reason, it is
problem. For new hobbyists this can be a major problem extremely important that you read and understand a practical book
compounding the fact that they have often not researched the on this subject. Several excellent choices are available and they
necessary information to be successful in their new hobby. Initial represent one of the best investments in time and money for the
purchases of fish are often done for aesthetic rather than practical serious rainbowfish keeper.
reasons and regularly, newly bought fish will often die resulting in
the hobbyist losing interest in ornamental fish altogether. Those Diseases causing organisms fall into two categories:
that get past this initial stage often find an appetite for becoming Obligate Pathogens: always cause disease when able to
better informed and often acquire greater knowledge than some invade the host’s bodies. They may however, only cause
“experts”. disease in certain circumstances.
Facultative Pathogens: don’t usually cause disease but can
The increasing popularity of rainbowfishes has resulted in a when their population explodes due to environmental
significant increase in the number of commercial operators conditions or for instance because a fish’s immune system is
breeding, rearing and distributing rainbowfishes. This increases the depressed, the water quality is diminished or the fish skin has
potential for dissemination and exacerbation of infectious diseases. been damaged. Most fish pathogens fit this description and
The increased interest in keeping rainbowfishes has also increased are very opportunistic rarely causing disease in healthy well-
awareness of and experience with pathogens that affect their managed aquariums.
health, growth, and survival. Rainbowfishes maintained in
aquariums and ponds are entirely dependent on our management Fish disease usually occurs as a result of adverse interactions
of their environment to maintain their health. Health or disease is a between the fish and their environment. The natural environment
complex balance between pathogens, the fish or other organisms of rainbowfishes is vastly different from that of an aquarium. Most
and the aquarium environment. aquarium environments are completely devoid of structure. They
are generally featureless, monotonous enclosures with little
A wide range of pathogens (bacteria, parasites, etc), environmental opportunity for the inhabitants to display any natural behaviour.
factors (water quality, etc), and even aquarium keeping methods, They bear no resemblance whatsoever to the fish’s natural
can cause disease problems in aquaria. Often these factors are environment and densities can be up to 100 times greater than
linked in disease outbreaks. Mismanaged aquariums allow those in nature. Reductions in density alone will produce healthier
opportunistic organisms to cause disease. For example, a decline in fish. When fish that are already over-crowded in the aquarium are
water quality associated with poor aquarium keeping practices further stressed; for example, by inappropriate aquarium
may lead to an increase in the incidence of bacterial infections. conditions, nutritionally inadequate feeds, or the nature of captivity
Another important source of pathogens is new fish obtained from itself, their natural immune system may be weakened and the
other hobbyists and suppliers, both these sources need to be ability of the fish to protect itself against infectious diseases is
appropriately screened to ensure that introduction of pathogens to reduced.
your aquarium is minimised.
A variety of parasites and pathogens can and do infect
Despite what you may read elsewhere, reproducing the intricacies rainbowfishes. Most are naturally present in low numbers and
of the natural aquatic ecosystem of rainbowfishes in an aquarium normally do not cause problems. However, disease is rarely a
is not only a very difficult task, but almost impossible to simple association between a pathogen and a host fish. Usually
accomplish with overall success. It is not as simple as having the other circumstances must be present for active disease to
water at a particular temperature or pH. Water chemistry develop in a population. These circumstances are generally
(hardness, nitrates, alkalinity), suspended particles, levels of grouped under the umbrella term “stress”. There is a wealth of
oxygen/CO2, parasites, prey and predators, symbionts, wet and dry scientific research suggesting that captive fish populations
seasons, light (intensity, cycle, spectrum), droughts, floods, water suffer from stress. There are publications with in-depth
flow, substrate, vegetation, woody debris, sound, space, shelter, chapters on disorders associated with general ‘stress factors’ in
etc., etc., are all variables that are either difficult to replicate or are fish. Stress is the response of the fish to a ‘stressor’ (external or
difficult to control in a captive environment. In consequence, internal) and is a normal feature of life, serving important
something is likely to go wrong—at the very least occasionally— adaptive functions. The stress response consists of a
making the captive aquatic animals become chronically or acutely combination of four general biological responses: behavioural,
ill. Opportunistic bacteria and parasites can cause dermal and autonomic, neuroendocrine and immunological. The nature of
systemic infections. Intestinal nematodes can cause chronic this biological response varies between individuals and is
wasting (anorexia) and considerably damage to the intestinal influenced by factors such as previous exposure, genetics, age
lining. Additionally, water moulds and fungi may also present and physiological state.
disease problems in poorly managed aquariums.

The concept of biological stress was first introduced by Hans Fishkeeping practises directed at limiting stress are likely to be
Selye who described it as the non-specific responses of the the most effective in preventing disease outbreaks. Simple
body to any demand. The idea for stress arose from the concept measures like increasing filter performance, providing dark
of homeostasis: a relatively constant steady state maintained backgrounds, natural substrate material, aquatic plants,
within certain tolerable limits and the concept of a milieu submerged items such as rocks or driftwood, and overhead
intérieur or internal environment of the body in which cells are cover (floating plants) will improve the aquarium environment.
nourished and maintained in a state of equilibrium. Since its If you want your rainbowfishes to survive and grow, then it is
original introduction, the concept of stress has evolved and our imperative that their aquarium is maintained under conditions
ideas about stress continue to change. More recently stress has conducive to good health. Well-nourished rainbowfishes
been described as the physiological cascade of events that maintained in highly favourable environmental conditions will
occurs when an organism is attempting to resist death or re- be resistant to most pathogens.
establish homeostatic normality in the face of a perceived
threat.
Diagnosing Disease Problems
Regardless of the combination of biological responses, the Monitoring your fish and aquarium is the most important
result is an alteration in the fish’s normal biological function as part of early identification and management of disease
it attempts to adapt to or cope with the stressor, behaviourally problems. Since the fishes cannot simply tell us that they
and/or physiologically. In most cases, this altered biological are feeling sick or uncomfortable we must educate ourselves
function has a minimal effect on the fish’s wellbeing; the as to their normal and abnormal behaviour so that we can
stressor is either brief or it is eliminated, so biological function have a functioning ‘early warning system’ before the
soon returns to normal. However, if the stress is not alleviated majority of the population becomes affected. In captivity,
or if the stressor is large enough, the fish is forced into a pre- rainbowfishes frequently exhibit behaviour which may be
pathological state that makes it vulnerable to disease, described as abnormal because they are not known to be a
abnormal behaviour, reduced growth, reproductive failure, feature of the natural/wild behaviour of the species, or
immunosuppression or some other type of undesirable shift because they appear inappropriate in time or frequency of
in biological function. Although a stress response is performance. Under suitable aquarium conditions, healthy
necessary to enable an organism to adapt and overcome the rainbowfishes display “normal” behaviour. As aquarium
threat, under conditions of chronic stress, the adaptive value hobbyists, we should become familiar with the normal
of the stress response is typically lost, as indicated by behaviour of our fish.
reduced health and fitness.
Changes in behaviour may vary considerably, from stress
Identified stressors in fish are numerous and include sudden due to their housing conditions—or the nature of captivity
and extreme changes in the physical environment (e.g., itself—but some of them are symptoms of specific diseases.
temperature and water chemistry), animal interactions (e.g., These symptoms may include reduced or cessation of
predator avoidance, being kept with the wrong species or feeding, lethargy, floating near the water surface and/or
individuals, aggressive interaction, parasitism, competition for swimming in an oblique position with the head directed
space, and spawning), aquarium practices (e.g., netting, toward the surface. Increased or laboured respiration (as
handling and transport) and water quality (e.g., high ammonia, indicated by “gasping”, flaring of opercula or rapid opercula
organic pollutants, etc.). Light (excessive or rapid changes in movement) and breathing at the surface. Staying relatively
intensity), noise and other disturbances can also stress fish and still in one place in the aquarium, often accompanied by
should be minimised. Rainbowfishes will often dash frantically shimmering or shaking. Flashing—every now and then an
about the aquarium injuring themselves, in response to individual will swim towards the bottom and then suddenly
normally harmless stimuli such as turning on the fishtank light move forward, turning on one side and appearing to rub one
in a dark room. flank on the substrate or some other object. Fish will often
injure themselves when they do their “flashing” against
Although temperature can be considered a stressor, it is sharp rocks or other objects, and will often lose scales in the
considered separately as the effects observed differ from other process. Generally this is a sign of ectoparasite infestation.
stressors. Temperature regulates their metabolism and is a Usually the fish will flash repetitively as opposed to just
major environmental factor in determining growth rate, once. Poor water quality can also be the cause of flashing
metabolism, and nutritional efficiency. In fact, temperature will behaviour.
influence all biological and chemical processes in an aquarium.
The temperature tolerance of fish can be further defined as Physical chances may also become apparent, such as
stenothermic or eurythermic. Stenothermic species are those abnormal growths, lesions, loss of some scales and
that thrive in a very narrow temperature window. Eurythermic cloudiness of eyes. Fins may become tattered or eroded.
fish are those that can tolerate a fairly broad temperature range. The gills may become pale; clogged with mucus and the
In addition to its direct effect on animal health and filaments may appear swollen or fused together. Change of
immunocompetence, many infectious diseases occur in very body colour that does not match expected changes due to
specific temperature ranges. The growth of parasite populations maturity, courtship or reproduction. This may involve a fish
is also at least in part attributable to how quickly they can becoming dark in colour or lost of colour, with decreasing
complete their lifecycle, which is closely linked to water intensity over the entire body.
temperature.

Most of these behaviours are difficult to assess based on a mortalities occur, then you should seek professional assistance.
quick glimpse of the individual fish in the aquarium, and it However, the cost of treatment may exceed the value of the
is only the accustomed eye of the experienced aquarist that fish in the aquarium or pond. An aquarist with a large-scale
can detect them. The clinical signs of fish disease that can breeding set-up stocked with valuable, rare or endangered fish,
be directly observed by the eye are generally quite indicative for example, would probably be wise to spend the money on
of the disease group. However, fish diseases often have proper diagnose. On the other hand, if the loss only involved
clinical signs that can be easily mistaken for a number of common species, then spending a lot of money for a fish health
diseases. Visible examination of the skin and gill tissue may professional may not be economically sensible. Therefore,
be sufficient to detect the presence of common parasitic economics and other factors will determine the appropriateness
infections (some fungi, protozoans and metazoans). However, of treatment.
identification of many pathogens, especially bacteria,
requires the skill of a specialist using specialised analytical Following any disease outbreak, infected fish should be
techniques. immediately removed from the main aquarium and isolated in
a quarantine or treatment tank. Infected fish can shed
If one is certain that a problem exists the next step is to pathogens, even when they show no signs of diseases, but
determine if the problem is related to environmental or especially when they are either morbid or dead. Pathogens tend
biological factors. Any time you observe a problem with your to leave dying and newly dead fish as they are no longer any
fish; always check the temperature, pH, ammonia and other use as hosts! However, it is acknowledged that this is not
water parameters. Far more rainbowfishes die from always possible. If treatment is undertaken in the main
inappropriate aquarium conditions than disease. Water quality aquarium, a large water change (50–75%) together with
problems may be alleviated by dilution or changing with fresh thorough gravel cleaning in order to remove any waste (faeces,
water. Quite often, a simple water change will result in the uneaten food, detritus, etc.) from the substrate should be
recovery of the fish. However, treatment of infected fish with a undertaken. This includes the removal of algae from tank walls
therapeutic drug or chemical may ultimately be necessary. If and particulate matter from the filter (change filter wool or
treatment is indicated, it will be most successful if it is wash sponge etc.).
implemented early in the course of the disease while the fish
are still in good condition. Most aquarium medications are affected by variations in water
chemistry such as pH, carbonates, chlorides and dissolved or
particulate matter. In water that is high in dissolved organic
Responding to Disease wastes the chemicals will oxidise the wastes rather than
Regardless of how diligent one is, if you keep rainbowfishes attacking the disease causing agents. This has the effect of
long enough you will inevitably encounter a disease problem. lowering the effectiveness of the chemical dosage. Failing to
When a disease problem develops, quick and effective ameliorate water conditions while treating sick fish with
response is essential. Many disease problems of rainbowfishes medication will usually either prevent the medication from
begin as external infections. If uncontrolled, the infections may being effective or will cause the disease to recur after the
become systemic, resulting in death of the fish. Correct use of treatment is completed. Most chemicals used to treat fish
chemical treatments can effectively control many bacterial, diseases can be toxic to nitrifying bacteria at therapeutic levels
parasitic and fungal agents before systemic infections become for fish. Antibiotics are generally toxic and have a severe
established. In general, an experienced fish health professional detrimental effect on nitrifying bacteria. Therefore, it is
should carry out treatment for all but the most common disease advisable to take biofilters off-line during treatment and to do a
problems that your fish experience. However, even large (75%) waterchange prior to re-establishing the filtration
veterinarians with laboratory diagnostic experience cannot system.
make an accurate diagnosis of some problems without
microscopic examination of the fish or cultivation for bacteria.
Chemical Treatment
Without professional assistance, any diagnosis is purely an It is important to keep in mind that all fish medications are
educated guess based on yours or someone else’s experience. toxic to fish and treatment should not be undertaken without a
This usually means that any medications or procedures used to thorough understanding of the potential problems that can
attempt to cure the disease are chosen on the basis of the type occur. Fortunately, it usually takes a higher concentration of
of behaviour and physical appearance of the fish, as opposite to the drug to harm the fish than it does to harm the pathogens.
decisions made on the basis of diagnostic tests. In most cases a Nevertheless, subtoxic doses for the fish are still stressing, and
‘shotgun’ approach using some medication or combination of repeated doses can build up to toxic levels. The toxicity as well
medications will be used. The downside of this idea is that in as successful use of chemicals frequently depends on dosage,
most situations the majority of the chemicals given to the sick abiotic parameters (e.g., temperature, hardness, organic load or
fish are useless in terms of efficacy, since they are not targeted pH, the species, and the developmental stages of fish.
at the desired pathogens.
When using any treatment for the first time, a bioassay (a test
Experienced aquarium hobbyists can and do make accurate, to determine safe concentration) should be conducted on a few
presumptive diagnosis’s based on examination and assessment fish before large numbers of fish are exposed. Over treatment
of the clinical signs, and then apply affirmative control with chemicals can cause serious damage to fish. Fish species
measures. Nevertheless, if abnormal behaviour persists and/or can react differently to various concentrations of the chemical;

therefore, fish undergoing treatment must be monitored closely When faced with a tank of sick or dying fish, usually the
for adverse reactions. If the fish react negatively to treatment, person is more concerned with how to treat the problem rather
the chemical should be flushed immediately from the system, than with resolving what is the cause of the problem. A
or the fish should be moved to fresh water. However, fish that common mistake of many hobbyists is misdiagnosing disease
do not improve as expected should be rechecked and retreated problems and treating their sick fish with the wrong medication
if necessary. or chemical. When the chemical doesn’t work, they will try
another, then another. Selecting the wrong treatment because of
Before applying chemicals double-check the chemical you are misdiagnosis may be more detrimental to the fish than no
using and the concentration to be delivered. Proper calculation treatment at all. Successful aquarists learn by experience.
of concentration is contingent upon accurate determination of
volume of water to be treated. If you are uncertain as to the
volume of water to be treated then take the time to measure the Obtaining Medications
size of the aquarium so that volume can be accurately As anyone who has visited an aquarium store knows, there is
determined. no shortage of commercial medications available for treating
fish disease. However, medications sold and used in the
A popular means of medicating fish is to place a chemical into aquarium hobby vary in quality and effectiveness. In fact, some
the water with the fish. However, the addition of chemicals to fish medications simply do not work. In 1974, Trust and
water containing fish must be done carefully so that the entire Chipman tested eight products marketed for the treatment of
chemical is mixed uniformly throughout the water column. If bacterial diseases in aquarium fishes. The products contained
the chemical is not thoroughly mixed, areas of high erythromycin, neomycin, nitrofuran, penicillin, sodium
concentration of chemical may be formed which can damage sulfathiazole, sodium sulfamerazine, sodium sulfamethazine,
or kill the fish. To ensure uniform application, chemicals can streptomycin or tetracycline. When used at the concentration
be pre-dissolved in water prior to application. Aeration can be recommended by the manufacturer, the products failed to
used to help distribute chemical throughout the water column. inhibit the growth of bacterial species known to be potential
If treating in an aquarium with undergravel filtration remove pathogens of aquarium fishes. Furthermore, one of the more
the airstones or powerheads from the uplift stacks and place effective antibacterial formulations was toxic to the fish. The
them in the aquarium proper to prevent the medication from results also showed that markedly higher levels of the
passing through the gravel. Remove any activated carbon from formulations also failed to significantly decrease the numbers
filters but maintain flow for maximum water movement. of viable bacteria in the aquarium water.
Any time a water treatment is utilised, attention must be paid to Medications for the aquarium can be found as dry ingredients
the concentration of the chemical applied and the duration of (crystals or powders), or in liquid form (solutions). Sometimes, the
exposure to that chemical. There are three basic water chemical comes in pre-packaged amounts. One should follow the
treatments: dips (less then 1 minute), short-term (about 1 hour), manufacturer's instructions for treatment, as different
and prolonged treatment (indefinite). The difference between manufacturers use different chemicals and concentrations of the
these treatments is the concentration of the chemical applied active ingredients. It is advisable to use only those fish medications
and the period the fish are in contact with the chemical. If too that list the active ingredients on the label so that you know what
little chemical is added the treatment will be ineffective; if too you are using.
much is added or if the fish are left in contact with the chemical
too long, they may become stressed or die. Many popular fish medications sold in pet stores will
simply not work when used as directed. The delivered dose
Antibiotics are drugs that are usually taken internally to control of active chemical is often below that recommended in the
bacterial infections. Therefore, medicated feed or injection, are scientific literature - many don’t even state the active
preferred for treating systemic (internal) bacterial infections. ingredients. However, it is NOT a safe practice simply to
Dose rates are based on fish weight and are expressed as increase the dose rate, and in fact, such measures can have
weight of chemical per weight of fish per day for a specified disastrous results. In addition to this, many aquarium
number of days. Improper doses may result in ineffective chemicals can cause problems with established biological
treatment or mortalities. Water treatment with antibiotics filtration. It is worth noting that control of disease in
should only be considered when treating primarily external aquariums may further be complicated by the presence of
bacterial infections of the skin and gills of fish. However, the filtration (biological and chemical), sand, gravel, plants, and
effectiveness of antibiotic therapy for aquarium fishes has been organic matter, since these will reduce the efficiency of the
inconsistent and, as a consequence, mortalities continue to chemical compound by direct inactivation. Therefore, you
occur. need to be well informed on the subject of aquarium fish
medications and should always seek out the most reliable
Antibiotic efficiency has been declining for various reasons, aquarium specialists when attempting to treat a problem
not least the development of bacterial resistance. Antibiotic unknown to you.
susceptibility testing on fish isolates is rarely performed, and
resistance appears to be highly dependent on the infecting Medications have an expiration date beyond which they may
species and strain. Resistance to commonly used antibiotics is lose their effectiveness. Light, moisture and elevated
an emerging problem in the ornamental fish industry. temperatures are factors that may dramatically accelerate this
rate of degradation. Unfortunately, many remedies available in

pet stores do not carry any expiration date, nor are kept under the public, the fish and a volume of their aquarium water is
acceptable storage conditions. Warm temperatures, moist generally transferred to a plastic bag. Although this allows the
environment, or stored on shelving under bright lights are fish to be transferred to the purchaser’s aquarium, it also
factors that will affect commercial preparations sold in the represents one means by which the aquarium fish could be
hobby. Other times it is the hobbyist who decides to use old exposed to pathogenic organisms. The aquarium water supplied
products! These situations should be avoided. with ornamental fish purchased at retail outlets may contain
significant numbers of a wide variety of pathogens.
Unless you have a very large number of aquaria, do not buy
medications “just in case”. Few treatable conditions require an Avoidance of exposure to disease is the primary method of
immediate use of medications, and in most cases it is better to prevention and the first consideration in preventing fish disease is
start with water changes or just careful observation; then buy a effective quarantine. Proper and appropriate quarantine is a vital
fresh package of the exact medication that you need. Here are component of any successful fish health management program.
some useful tips to consider on the subject of purchasing and There are several beneficial reasons for using quarantine before
keeping medications: placing rainbowfishes into their final aquarium. First of all, newly
arrived fishes can be isolated so their overall health condition can
Buy medications from a shop that has a high volume of
be properly and thoroughly evaluated and examined. Secondly,
sales and stores them under acceptable conditions.
prophylactic measures can be taken and already diseased fishes
can be isolated to prevent further spread of the problem. A
Stay away from dusty or moisture-stained packages.
quarantine tank also provides an easier way to treat diseased fishes
Sealed containers are preferable to boxes or bottles that rather than treating them in the main aquarium.
can be easily opened and contaminated.
The term quarantine is defined as “isolation imposed on
Formulations with an expiration date and a clear label persons or animals that have arrived from elsewhere or been
explaining contents and concentrations are much more exposed to, and might spread, infectious or contagious
reliable than those with unknown or poorly described disease.” It is derived from the Italian quarantina, which means
content. forty days. Quarantine (that is a forty-day period of isolation)
can be applied to any animal, but was originally applied to
Store medications in a cool and dry place. humans and warm blooded animals. The expectation was that
forty days (or other period of time stipulated by law) would be
If you opened an airtight container, it is unlikely that longer than the incubation period of serious diseases like small
after a few months the content will still be viable, and pox or rabies. Thus any infected animal would become
you should dispose of it in a safe place. identifiably unwell in that period.
Keep you aquarium medications out of the reach of Fish are not warm blooded, and their diseases do not have
other pets or children. incubation periods that are similar in all conditions. Fish adopt the
temperature of the water that surrounds them. If their environment
is temperature stable, then the incubation period of a disease may
be predictable. However, most fish are subject to quite wide
Disease Prevention fluctuations in temperature, and there are wide differences in
Successful fish health management begins with prevention incubation periods for diseases across this temperature range.
of disease rather than treatment. Fish health management
can be as challenging and complex as the actual control of The length of quarantine should reflect the length of time
existing diseases. Prevention is accomplished through good required for disease entities common to the species to be
water quality management, nutrition, and cleanliness. detected, either via diagnostic procedures or clinical
Without this foundation, it is impossible to prevent manifestations. Ideally, new fishes should be held in quarantine
outbreaks of opportunistic diseases. Even the use of for at least 30 days. A period of at least 30 days should be
sterilisation technology; for example, ultraviolet sterilisers adequate for most parasite problems to become apparent, as
and ozonisation, does not eliminate all potential pathogens well as those caused by most bacteria. The same applies to
from the aquarium environment and will not prevent the plants, rocks and driftwood, which may also carry fish
spread of pathogens within the system. Key elements of pathogens. Nevertheless, it must be recognised that certain
disease prevention include the reliable detection of disease species or disease problems may require more time.
carriers, knowledge of how pathogens are transmitted, and
development of effective methods to limit the entry of Furthermore, to avoid or improve the possible consequences of
pathogens or carriers into uncontaminated aquariums, and environmental and physiological stress, an acclimatisation
the capability to provide environmental conditions conducive period may be useful. An acclimatisation period will let the
to good health. fishes adjust to the new environmental conditions.
Acclimatisation of new fishes should ideally begin before they
Direct contact between fish is, except at breeding and during arrive. This may involve acclimatisation to the temperature of
territorial disputes, rare in nature. In captivity, dense stocking the water, the light intensity, the pH, the chemical condition of
in aquarium systems or transport bags and catching fish in nets the water and their new environment. It is important to know as
may mean direct contact is an important route of disease much about the quality (i.e., temperature, pH, hardness, etc.) of
transmission. When ornamental fish are sold by retail stores to the water from which the fishes are coming.

This way the environment in the quarantine tank can be particles, most bacteria and parasites remain contained to the
adjusted to match the old environment. If need be, once the quarantine tank until proper treatment eliminates them.
fishes have settled in, these parameters can be changed in small
steps. Acclimation can be considered complete when the  More gradual acclimatisation of the new fish.
measurable parameters are the same (or at least similar) as those in
the main aquarium. Disturbing the fishes as little as possible and  A display tank is often a highly competitive environment
keeping the lighting low will help reduce stress. where new fish are at disadvantage.
A quarantine system should be very simple so that fish are readily  Administration of medication or chemicals is convenient.
accessible for observation and handling, water can be easily
changed, and treatments readily administered. A quarantine tank  Quarantine tanks are often smaller than the display tank, and
should be bare, with just a few plastic plants if the fish requires fewer chemicals are needed (if dissolved in water).
cover to prevent or reduce stress and a pre-cycled sponge filter.
Quarantine tanks can be intrinsically more unstable than an  Less organic material that may inactivate the active
established tank, and the importance of adequate water changes medication.
should not be underestimated, unless contraindicated by the Nevertheless, many aquarium hobbyists are not convinced
treatment therapy being used. The walls and bottom of the tank of these benefits and show no interest in using or
should be kept as clean as possible. Even apparently minor slime developing quarantine protocols. It should, however, be
coating (biofilm) on the glass can hide massive amount of understood that while quarantine procedures greatly reduce
microorganisms which are capable of causing health problems. A the problems associated with the acquisition of new fish,
reliable and adequately powered heater with easy-to-adjust there is no guarantee that any problems will be eliminated.
temperature settings should also be used. Ideally, rainbowfishes Some diseases may have such a prolonged incubation
should be quarantined at a temperature of 22–25° Celsius. period that it takes months before symptoms appear. In
other cases, a new fish may simply be an asymptomatic
A suitable quarantine tank should be available at all times. Such a carrier of an infectious disease. This means that the carrier
tank doesn’t need to be any larger than 50 litres and can be set up does not show signs of the infection although a potential
and maintained just like any other aquarium. This has to be done in pathogen is present, and the quarantine is completed
such a way, as to prohibit physical contact, to avoid splashing and without any problems. However, other fish later infected by
water contamination, or aerosolisation. Aeration and splashing the same pathogen in the main aquarium may start to
creates small water droplets than can become suspended in the air manifest symptoms.
as an aerosol. Aerosols can contain small pathogens such as
bacteria and viruses. Particularly in humid environments aerosols
can be long lived and thus act as a transmission agent for diseases General Maintenance
between holding systems. Ichthyophthirius multifiliis and Cleanliness is one of the cornerstones of fish health
Aeromonas salmonicida have been shown to be transported by management. Accumulation of organic material, often
aerosols. Aerosol droplets persist longer in damp or humid associated with inappropriate feeding and stocking rates,
conditions. Aeromonas bacteria have been known to spread at least creates an environment where opportunistic bacteria, fungi,
seven metres in aerosols. That was the size of the room in which and parasites can flourish. To minimise this, water exchange
the experiment took place and may not represent the distance that should be adequate for the stocking densities and feeding
could be travel in ideal conditions. rates. Be sure to precondition the water before adding it to
your aquarium. Particulate matter (faeces, uneaten food,
The quarantine tank should remain empty to receive new arrivals dead plant material etc.) should be removed on a regular
for the purpose of quarantine, and to take in any diseased fishes basis. This includes removal of debris by syphoning,
from the main aquarium(s) should the need arise. As a precaution manual removal of algae from tank walls, and regular
against transmission of diseases, nets, syphoning equipment, cleaning and removal of particulate matter from the filter.
buckets, and any other equipment used in the quarantine tank Any sick or dead fish should be removed promptly, as they
should not be utilised for any other tank. are an important means of transmitting infectious disease to
other fish in the system as well as adding to the organic load
Benefits of Quarantine: if they are left to decay.
 Evaluation of the health condition of the new fish.
Faeces can provide a survival capsule for some fish
 Diseases in stage of incubation may become manifest days or pathogens. Faeces is made of what remains of a fish’s food
weeks after an apparently healthy fish is acquired. after digestion, mucus, cells lining the gut that are shed
continually, dissolved chemicals such as ammonia and
 A quarantine tank allows a more effective observation of the harmless (and even helpful) bacteria naturally found in the
fish than a display tank. gut and pathogens. Lipids (fats) can create a waterproof
coating on the outside of the faecal material, thus the
 Reduction of disease transmission risk to pre-existing fish. contents, including any pathogens present, are at least for a
time insulated in a cocoon of material that is conducive to
 Although pathogens may be transmitted to other tanks by their survival. In recirculation aquarium systems little
contaminated equipment (nets, etc.) or even by air-borne dilution or dispersion can occur. Thus not only is infection

passed to “clean” fish, but the infected fish are subject to Quaternary ammonium products are cationic surfactants
reinfection. While a fish may be able to deal with a small with strong bactericidal but poor sporicidal properties. They
dose of a pathogen, if subjected to continual re-infection a are also questionable fungicides and their germicidal
disease may be caused. This is especially so as in an untreated activity is suppressed in the presence of organic matter.
recirculation or under gravel system, the amount of the disease Chlorine compounds are traditionally the most popular
causing organism in the water rises and often the water quality disinfectants because of their rapid killing ability against
falls, both of which make the fish more susceptible to infection many microorganisms. Although its activity is deceased by
and disease. even small amounts of organic matter.
It is probably wise to regularly empty and disinfect breeding Regular control and monitoring of water quality is imperative
and raising aquariums to try to ensure that pathogens cannot and will greatly reduce the likelihood of a disease occurrence.
build up in a system. You may choose to do this at the end of a Critical water quality parameters include temperature
breeding session to ensure any pathogens are not lying in wait (particularly sudden and dramatic shifts), dissolved oxygen,
to infect new fish placed in the aquarium. When disinfecting a pH, alkalinity, hardness, nitrogenous wastes, and toxic
aquarium system, remember to clean all parts including filter substances. Water quality should be monitored frequently and
and water return lines. It is important that syphon hoses, nets, corrective measures initiated if conditions become unfavourable.
brushes, and other equipment used to clean tanks should be Aim to keep your ammonia and nitrite at zero levels, and
treated with a sterilising solution when used in different tanks. nitrate down to a minimum. Nitrate levels over 20 mg/L
An easy way to achieve this is to have a plastic container into (ppm) can cause problems with excessive algae growth and
which equipment can be dipped or placed between uses. can lead to fish health problems in the longer-term.
Equipment should then be removed, and thoroughly rinsed
with fresh water, before being stored dry. Chemicals used Optimum water conditions must be maintained at all times.
should be minimally toxic to fish yet be effective at removal of Sub-optimum conditions, while not immediately lethal, may
infectious particles and other organic debris likely to stress the fish, resulting in delayed mortality. Therefore, it is
accumulate on equipment. important to become familiar with water testing and have the
necessary test kits available.
Solutions of chlorine are effective for disinfecting equipment
by submersion at concentrations of 200 mg/L for 30 to 60 The use of a good quality food will provide the fish with all the
minutes. Concentrations of 10 mg/L for 24 hours are effective nutrients that they need to remain healthy and to grow. Poor
for disinfections of tanks. However, repeated use and extended nutritional health can greatly enhance the progression and
exposure of the silicon sealant to high chlorine concentrations severity, and reactivation of disease. Rainbowfishes fed a
will destroy or render the adhesive bond ineffective on glass nutritionally complete diet are better able to cope with stress
aquariums with disastrous results. Also, certain materials may and to resist disease. However, you should note that even good
deteriorate after repeated exposure to chlorine. Chlorine will quality food will deteriorate if improperly stored or kept too
dissolve sponge filters and cause mesh nets to rot. Rubber and long. Storage time for most commercial fish foods will vary
synthetic or natural fibres may degrade rapidly, but most depending upon environmental conditions; however, as a rule
plastics are unaffected. of thumb, 90 days is normally the maximum safe storage time
for fish feed. Fish foods should be stored in a cool and dry
If using chlorine for disinfecting equipment or tanks which are place (refrigerator), and used within 30 days of opening. Never
not in use, but which are in the vicinity of others housing live feed mouldy, discoloured or clumped feed. Moulds on feed
fish, the granular form (Calcium hypochlorite) should be used. may produce aflatoxins, which can kill fish.
Granular chlorine does not volatilise as readily as liquid
chlorine (Sodium hypochlorite). In a poorly ventilated Diets consisting of material derived from the wild, such as fish
fishroom, fumes from liquid chlorine can cause fish kills in fillets or wild caught foods such as daphnia, mosquito larvae,
adjacent tanks. Chlorine fumes can also be harmful to the tubifex, etc., are often perceived as having great nutritional
respiratory system of aquarists. Always wear eye protection benefits as they are believed to contain many macro nutrients
and rubber gloves when handling large quantities of chlorine. essential to the good health of the animal. However, there is an
Chlorine residue can be neutralised by using 7.4 mg/L Sodium inherent risk in using “wild diets” as they may introduce
thiosulfate for each 1 mg/L chlorine present in solution (7.5 pathogens to the aquarium fish. These may take the form of
grams of sodium thiosulfate will neutralise the chlorine present parasites that use an intermediate host to enter their final host,
in 5 litres of a solution of 200 mg/L). or simply be concentrated by the feeding of the prey item to
form an infectious particle which when ingested can establish
Commercial sanitisers such as benzalkonium chloride, the infection.
iodophores, or quaternary ammonium compounds are often
used. Sanitisers are compounds effective against all types of Potentially the highest risk here is the use of wild fish in diets
infectious agents including bacteria, fungi, viruses and which can, under appropriate conditions, be a very high risk
protozoa and differ greatly in their physical, chemical and factor allowing large amount of pathogen to enter the diet if the
biocidal properties, mode of action, trade names, composition source material was infected. Zooplankton samples collected
and availability. All should be used according to label from the wild can carry diseases or parasites. Artemia cysts can
instructions. Iodophores are effective against a broad range of carry bacteria such as vibrio and live collected daphnia,
bacteria and fungi and their spores. Although iodophores can mosquito larvae and oligochaetes have been found to be
stain plastic components. contaminated with mycobacteria.

Biofiltration bacteria populations. Should this happen then there is little option
It is not the aim of this section to explain how filters work to but to sterilise the biofilter with hypochlorite or something similar
improve water quality. However, it is worth reiterating the point to remove the pathogen before restocking occurs. Some may argue
that the stress caused by poor water quality does create the that this should be done after any serious disease outbreak as
conditions in which pathogens are likely to cause disease. Fish part of the control regime.
kept in good quality water are better able to resist pathogen invasion
because it is more likely that their immune system is in better
condition. That said, biofilters can act as a means of reducing pathogen Handling Specific Problems
loads but care is required as they can also harbour pathogens. There are two broad categories of disease that affect fish,
infectious and non-infectious. Infectious diseases are caused by
A well established biofilter can reduce the population of pathogens pathogenic organisms present in the environment or carried by
in an aquarium or pond system. The reasons for this are very other fish and are broadly categorised as parasitic, bacterial or
complex and poorly understood; however, one of the most fungal. They are contagious, and some type of treatment will
important consideration is the interaction between the bacteria and be necessary to control the disease outbreak. In contrast,
protozoa that colonise a biofilter. The normal flora of a biofilter environmental problems, nutritional deficiencies, or genetic
consists of a well established population of bacteria and a varied anomalies cause non-infectious diseases, they are not
population of protozoa either living in, on or in close association contagious and cannot be cured by medications.
with the filter media. These organisms are very well adapted to
their environments and: It is impracticable to cover all the diseases that rainbowfishes
are capable of catching in an aquarium. There are many good
Produce enzymes that digest other bacteria and viruses from books readily available on fish diseases and their treatment.
the water column However, I will cover some of the common diseases that you,
Feed on bacteria or viruses directly (in the case of protozoa) or rather your rainbowfishes, are likely to encounter. Fish
Produce aggressins that mop up micro-nutrients from the disease outbreaks are often complexed, involving both
surrounding environment, for example chemicals known as infectious and non-infectious processes. Therefore, appropriate
siderophores, take up iron directly from the environment. therapy often involves medication and changes in husbandry
Aggressins are released to starve competing organisms. practises. Often assistance from a qualified veterinarian or
Produce natural antibiotics to prevent the new microbe aquarium specialist will be required to help you treat disease
becoming established. outbreaks and develop a management program.
They also have two other minor roles acting as a: Compared to mammalian diseases relatively little (and in most
cases very little) is known about individual fish diseases. The
Reservoir for bacteriophages (a type of virus) that can kill biology of most fish diseases (how they can spread, how
pathogenic strains of bacteria infective they are etc.), especially those of rainbowfishes, is
Mechanical filter trapping bacteria, viruses and parasites little understood, and thus assessments of and solutions to the
either in the media or on the biofilm. problems they can cause is, at this point of time, based on
incomplete information.
The biofilm is a very hostile environment to new bacteria, each
bacterial species that has already colonised the filter is competing Fish health has been a relatively small discipline of veterinary
for nutrients with each other; less aggressive species starve to attention in the past because of many factors, the most
death and, in turn their organic components are recycled. In important of which is the perceived value of aquarium fish.
addition to this the protozoa are consuming microbes continuously Other reasons include the failure of pharmaceutical companies
and again their waste and any dead protozoa will be recycled. All to become involved in ornamental fish health, or a failure of
of these defence mechanisms used by the established bacteria can the standard of health care to keep pace with improvements
make it a slow process for a new species of microbe to become seen in the care of other companion animals. This though is not
established in a filter. An obvious example of this is the long the fault of veterinarians. As more people invest in expensive
period of time it takes for a biological filter to mature from the species, such as koi and various reef species, the demand to
ineffective filters colonised initially by bacteria such as provide a higher level of care for these animals is increasing.
Pseudomonas spp. to a bacterial flora dominated by Nitromonas, This trend is also evident in the commercial food and bait fish
Acetobacter and Nitrosomas species. In an established system a industry, where aquaculture producers are expecting improved
mature biological filter can significantly reduce the level of standards of care for populations of fish that are worth millions
circulating pathogens. of dollars. With increasing numbers of aquarium and
aquaculture operations, veterinarians will be expected to have
As always there has to be a word of warning with this approach to the abilities and knowledge to diagnose and treat aquatic
reducing pathogen load. The pathogen may become established in species and provide a standard of care commensurate with
the filter and ultimately act as a reservoir of pathogen continually other commonly treated animal species.
shedding pathogen into the environment. This can happen when
the load of pathogenic bacteria is so high that it out competes the
established bacteria in the filter. The pathogen will have its own Parasitic Infections
suite of aggressins that it uses to survive in the filter biofilm. If Most of the commonly encountered fish parasites are
present in sufficient numbers it can out-compete established protozoans and can cause disease in their own right. In a

confined setting such as a home aquarium or pond, parasites with plants and other aquarium objects. Although they are not
can impair growth and reproduction and cause substantial problematic in low numbers, heavy infestations can cause
morbidity and mortality. Parasites of the gills can cause epithelial damage resulting in anorexia, loss of body condition,
irritation, leading to hyperplasia and increased mucus and low-level mortality.
production, which may result in decreased respiration and ion-
exchanging capabilities. On the skin, parasites can cause Several larval trematodes infecting fish causing what is
defects that predispose the affected fish to osmotic imbalances commonly known as “black spot” because of the characteristic,
and serve as a portal of entry for viruses, fungi, and bacteria. In small (about 1–2 mm in diameter) dark brown or black spots
the intestine, parasites compete for nutrients and cause which develop in the muscle and on the body, fins, gills and
ulcerations, inflammation, and emaciation. Several parasites eyes of infected fish. They are easily visible to the naked eye.
actually physically carry pathogens. They may ingest infected When the parasite infects the fish it forms a cyst (metacercaria)
materials and carry them to their next host. within the host tissue. The cyst then becomes surrounded by
pigment cells, giving it the characteristic dark colour. “Black
Parasitic infections can be among the easiest to identify, and spot” infection is often found infecting wild-caught rainbowfishes
are usually the easiest to control. Protozoans are single- but occur in several species of freshwater fish. Galaxiids and
celled organisms, many of which are free-living in the Retropinna semoni appear to be particularly susceptible to
aquatic environment. Their reproduction cycle is infection.
temperature dependent, which affects treatment. Typically,
no intermediate host is required for the parasite to reproduce There are several species of trematodes which have larval
(direct life cycle). Consequently, they can build up to very stages which cause black spots; these species have yet to be
high numbers when fish are crowded causing weight loss, identified. These trematodes usually will not harm the fish and
debilitation, and mortality. Most protozoans do not seem to will not progress unless the fish is consumed by an appropriate
bother the host fish until numbers become excessive. primary host animal. The adult trematode is generally found
Uncontrollable or recurrent infestations with protozoans are infecting fish-eating birds. There is no practical treatment or
indicative of a fishkeeping problem. Many of the parasites control of these parasite available at this time. If the
proliferate in organic debris accumulated in the bottom of metacercaria are not too numerous, they can be removed safely
the aquarium or pond. They are easily transmitted from tank with a clean scalpel.
to tank by nets, hoses, or on the fishkeepers’ wet hands.
The larvae (glochidia) of freshwater mussels are parasitic on
The major ectoparasitic pathogens and the diseases fish. They are released into the water by adult mussels and,
affecting rainbowfishes in captivity are Ichthyophthirius when a fish passes close enough to disturb them, the glochidia
multifiliis (Ichthyophthiriasis), Piscinoodinium pillulare attach themselves to the skin or gills of the fish by means of
(Piscinoodiniasis) and Trichodina sp. (Trichodiniasis). their barbed valves. Irritated host tissue then grows and forms a
These diseases probably account for almost 80% of all parasitic cyst over each glochidium. Development from glochidium to
infections reported. Because of the lack of information on small mussel takes about 10 weeks, at which time the mussel
protozoan parasites of rainbowfishes, most cases are not bores through the cyst, leaves its host and settles to the
identified or more often, are simply misdiagnosed. There is substrate. The presence of a glochidia infestation is indicated
almost nothing known about freshwater parasites that affect by numerous white or greyish “bladders” on the gills, skin and
rainbowfishes in their natural environment. Langdon et al. fins of the fish. Fish may be severely stress by the attachment
(1985) reported mortality of Melanotaenia tatei due to the of large numbers of glochidia, particularly when the infestation
ciliate protozoan Chilodonella hexasticha in the Finke River, affects the gills and may greatly impair respiration. Glochidia
central Australia. Rainbowfishes in captivity are also subjected are able to affect most native species but are not known to
to common fish parasites from ornamental species imported affect introduced species.
into Australia. However, there is such poor data on Australian
fish parasites that there are doubts about what is endemic and Leeches are occasionally seen on wild or pond-raised
what is translocated or introduced. rainbowfishes. Leeches resemble trematodes but are much
larger and have anterior and posterior suckers. They have a
Ciliates such as Tetrahymena, Ichthyophthirius and direct life cycle with immature and mature worms being
Chilodonella can cause gill and skin lesions and may give rise parasitic on host’s blood. Pathogenesis varies with number and
to more serious disease if they invade internal organs. size of worms and duration of feeding. Heavily infested fish
Infections often appear as small, white patches on the skin, often have chronic anaemia. Fish may develop secondary
especially around the eye. Because these organisms can survive bacterial and fungal infections at the attachment site. Dips in
off the host, the environment must be cleaned and disinfected 3% (30g/L) saltwater are effective in controlling leeches.
in addition to treating the fish. Fish can develop severe osmotic Ponds with heavy leech infestation require drainage, treatment
imbalance due to parasitic damage to the skin and gills. with chlorinated lime, followed by several weeks of drying.
Dinoflagellates such as Piscinoodinium are commonly found This will destroy the adults and their cocoons containing eggs.
on the gills but may also affect the skin, fins, and
gastrointestinal tract. In severe infections, the skin may become Monogenean flatworms such as Dactylogyrus and
velvety gold in appearance (velvet disease). Mortality is Gyrodactylus are also fairly common. These parasites may
attributed to severe osmotic imbalance. Trichodina species are be found on the gills and skin, but Dactylogyrus are
usually indicators of poor water quality or overcrowding. They generally found on gill tissue. The life cycle is direct; the
can survive off the host for 1 or 2 days and can be transported eggs of dactylogyrids hatch into free-swimming larvae that

locate a fish and begin maturation. Gyrodactylids, on the Bacterial Infections
other hand, bear live young that spread to other fish through Bacterial disease is the most common infectious problem for
direct contact. Large numbers of these organisms can be aquarium fishes. Most cases require scientific identification of
lethal to fish, as both the attachment of the parasite by the bacterial types involved and selection of a specific
hooks and/or suckers and its feeding activity cause physical antibacterial agent under guidance of a veterinarian. The most
damage to the skin and gills. common bacterial infections in aquariums are caused by
organisms such as Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Mycobacterium
Digenean trematodes have indirect and often complex life and Flavobacterium. They can cause diverse pathological
cycles involving two or more intermediate hosts. They are conditions that include both acute systemic and/or chronic
generally found in the gastrointestinal tract or musculature diseases. The effects on the fish are as varied as the signs.
of the host. As they cannot complete their life cycle without
intermediate hosts, these parasites are often an incidental External signs of bacterial infection are variable and include
finding in aquarium fish. However, they may cause severe shallow reddened ulcers with irregular edges; loss of tail
internal damage in large numbers. Intermediate hosts (e.g., and finnage; missing or raised scales; haemorrhagic areas
mollusks) should be removed from the environment to on the body, in the fins, and on the mouth; protruding eyes
prevent fish-to-fish transmission. Final hosts (e.g., birds) (exophthalmia); dropsy; and a protruding and inflamed vent.
should be deterred from outdoor ponds. Dropsy is a distention of the abdomen, giving the fish a “pot
belly” appearance. This is a strong indicator of disease
Lernaea (anchor worms), Ergasilus, fish lice, and isopods problems which may include swelling of internal organs
appear as tiny pill bugs or crab-like creatures. In low (liver, spleen or kidney), the build up of body fluids,
numbers, they may cause local inflammation and ulceration parasitic problems, or other unknown causes. At this stage,
that can lead to secondary infections. Most of these the infection has usually become systemic. External lesions
parasites are rarely a problem in aquaria but can be common expose the body surface to secondary invaders as well as
on wild-caught or pond raised rainbowfishes. Some of these serve as sites for the loss of salts and body fluids. Fish stop
organisms can be seen with the naked eye and removed feeding and abnormal swimming may become pronounced.
manually. When diagnosed early, treatments available from an
aquarium fish specialist may help.
Other parasites that cause clinical disease in rainbowfishes
can be encysted in various tissues or reside in the
gastrointestinal tract or other organs (e.g., gallbladder). Fungal Infections
These parasites include various species of cestodes, Fungi are a group of organisms that require living or dead
nematodes, acanthocephalans, and coccidia. They include matter for growth and reproduction. In most cases, fungi
harmless free-living types, such as roundworms, serve a valuable ecological function by processing dead
tapeworms, and trematodes. However, others have larval organic debris. Fungal problems appear as cotton-like tufts
stages that live in lymph ducts and blood vessels, and they on the body or fins of fish. Fungal infections are rare in a
are difficult to treat without dangerous side effects. Most well-kept aquarium and are very seldom primary causes of
worms do not pose a serious health risk to rainbowfishes disease. In most instances, fungus infections are secondary
because they often have complicated life cycles in which or tertiary infections. Unless the primary problem is solved,
the fish may serve as only one of possibly several even an effectively treated fungal infection is likely to
intermediate hosts. Rainbowfishes with internal worms may return. Most fungal infections of rainbowfishes and their
appear completely healthy, exhibiting no symptoms of eggs are probably associated with the fungi genera
infestation. Saprolegnia and Achlya, although other groups are
undoubtedly also involved. Achlya is commonly found on
Although specific therapeutic options vary for each wild-collected rainbowfishes, which have had skin/scale
organism, chemical treatment is of temporary value if water damage during the collecting process. Epizootic Ulcerative
quality and management are poor. Aquarium conditions Syndrome or ‘red spot’ disease has been identified in
should be improved first. Many parasitic infections of fish rainbowfishes from a number of river systems in the
are treated with medicated baths (e.g., formalin, Northern Territory. This condition is frequently fatal to
praziquantel, metronidazole, etc.) or altered salinity. Copper juvenile fish.
sulphate is very effective for treatment of some parasitic
infections. Lufenuron baths have been used to control
crustacean parasites. Intestinal parasites are readily removed
with various drug treatments. Gastrointestinal parasites may Picornavirus in rainbowfish
be treated by incorporating medication in a gel food form, Turquoise rainbowfishes (Melanotaenia lacustris) that
but only if the animal is eating. Gel food can be homemade exhibited whirling symptoms and obvious impairment of
and is useful for administering common antiparasitic drugs the central nervous system were submitted by a producer for
(e.g., fenbendazole, metronidazole, praziquantel, pyrantel diagnostic evaluation. All were negative for bacterial and
pamoate). These drugs can also be given via gastric parasitic pathogens, Electron microscopy revealed
irrigation using an appropriate-sized rubber catheter. numerous picornavirus particles in the brain. Attempts to
Ivermectin should be avoided because it can cause grow the virus in cell culture were unsuccessful. No similar
neurologic signs and death in fish at therapeutic doses. cases have been reported since. Picornaviruses have been

observed as incidental findings in various freshwater fishes.
The significance of their presence is unknown. A similar White Spot Disease
virus has been found in crayfish in Western Australia with
associated mortalities, but the conditions under which Ichthyophthiriasis or white spot disease is regarded as one of
disease outbreaks occur are not understood. the most pathogenic diseases of freshwater aquarium fishes. It
is commonly known as “Ich” and has been a common problem
to aquarists for many years. Most species of freshwater fish are
Obtaining Information susceptible to infection by this virulent parasite, although some
Through the availability of books, magazines, the internet may be more so than others. Infections have been reported in
and aquarium clubs, the hobbyist has a wide range of both cold and warm water species. The mature parasite is very
information at their disposal. Problems arise though due to large, ranging in size from 0.5 mm up to 1 mm in diameter, and
incorrect information being handed out or correct becomes easily visible owing to the opacity of the cytoplasm in
information being ignored, as hobbyists will often seek the fish’s skin and the formation of a somatic cyst around the
advice on the same problem from several sources, and this parasite. Immature forms of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis are
advice may well vary. smaller and more translucent in appearance.
This problem occurs mainly on the internet with its wealth Severe damage of the skin epithelium occurs due to the break
of information - and misinformation; anyone can publish of the parasites through the host skin during infection and their
anything on the internet. Be very careful what you accept as release. This damage might lead to concession of
reliable information. Not everything in print on the Internet osmoregulatory process and ion regulation and might serve as a
is factual or correct. It could be the latest brilliant piece of portal of entry for secondary bacterial or fungal invaders,
science, effective practical tips or garbage; you have to leading eventually to death of the fish. If the disease is left
decide. For a variety of reasons information may be untreated, outbreaks can result in 100% mortality. Even very
misguided, misinterpreted or misrepresented. Information young fry (larvae) can be infected causing substantial
may become dated or what was thought to be fact is proved mortalities.
incorrect. Of course it may be that there are two or more
entirely reasonable interpretations of the “facts” and you In aquarium systems, ichthyophthiriasis outbreaks are more
must choose which to use. Today there is an increasing common due to the confinement of fish under “unnatural”
amount of information available from a variety of sources. condition and the exponential increase in parasite numbers.
Sometimes you need to do your own research and trials. Fish may maintain low, subclinical infection, while encysted
The following comments might be useful in evaluating tomonts may persist in the aquarium. Transition from non-
information sources: clinical enzootic to epizootic clinical infection is often stress-
related, prompted by adverse aquarium conditions such as
Scientific Journals: these may or may not be “peer reviewed”. overcrowding, improper feeding and poor water quality.
Information in “peer reviewed” journals has greater creditability
because the information has been read and edited by several
other scientists before being published. Life History & Biology
Ichthyophthiriasis is caused by the sub-epidermal ciliate
Textbooks: these may also be peer reviewed. They may also protozoan Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. The life cycle of
just reflect the author’s own ideas or their interpretation of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis is a direct one and requires no
others’ ideas and findings. intermediate host. Ichthyophthirius multifiliis have both fish-
associated and free-swimming stages. The life stages of the
Magazines: care should be taken when evaluating information parasite include a parasitic trophont, a reproductive tomont,
from this source. There may for instance be links between the and an infective theront. Theronts can penetrate the epithelium
article and the products sold by the author. This does not of susceptible fish within minutes thus completing the life
necessarily mean there is anything wrong just that a cautious cycle. Visible spots on the fish (the clinical sign for which the
approach may be best. disease is named) are individual parasites known as trophonts.
However, a single white spot does not necessarily represent a
Internet: more and more information is available electronically. single trophont, since aggregations of trophonts can occur in
You can now access encyclopaedias, dictionaries and other one large white spot as a result of multiple entries at single site.
traditional reference books online, as well as many journals,
magazines and newspapers. There are also databases which Invasion of the infective theront gives rise to the trophont
not only provide citations to thousands of articles in scientific (parasitic feeding stage) that grows inside the host epithelium.
and other journals, but often have links to the full texts of those By maturity, which is reached in 2 days at 25–28°C (3–4 days
articles. at 21–24°C), the parasite evacuates the host tissue and settles
within 2–6 hours on a substrate (gravel, plants, aquarium glass,
One final note on searching for information, whether in print or etc.) to form a cyst-encapsulated tomont (reproductive stage).
online: unless you are looking for a simple answer and find it Parasites evicted from the tissue before the scheduled time for
right away, always check more than one source. That way you their spontaneous departure, fail to develop into tomonts and
not only get more information but also ensure greater accuracy. eventually die. Within the cyst, tomonts undergo successive
binary fissions with a resulting yield of 250–2000 theronts

(infective, free swimming stage), which after release will seek near the water surface. Death is likely after about 10 days.
a suitable host. The division of tomonts into theronts, in Skin scrapping under a microscope will revealed the presence
temperatures of 25–28°C, is completed within 15–20 hours. of different developmental stages of Ichthyophthirius
After being released, the free-swimming theronts can infect a multifiliis. The most predominant stage will be the mature
new host or re-infect the same host, thus compromising its trophont with the C-shaped macronucleus.
health status.
Invasion of theronts (20–50 µm long) into the host integument Treatment

is facilitated by the excretion of a sticky substance. In the The first step in the successful treatment of ichthyophthiriasis
absence of a suitable host, theronts will lose their infective disease in aquarium fishes is early recognition and proper
potential within 24 hours at 24–28°C. Higher temperatures diagnosis. The organism can only survive if live fish are
hasten trophont maturation and tomont division, but at lower present for completion of its life cycle. If only one parasite is
temperatures, slower development allows the growth of larger seen, the entire system should be treated immediately.
trophonts (0.8–1.0 mm in 5–10°C vs. 0.5–0.7 mm in 20–24°C), Ichthyophthirius multifiliis is an obligate parasite and capable
yielding tomonts with higher numbers of theronts. In lower of causing massive mortality within a short time, and in severe
temperatures the survival of the theronts is prolonged, thus, cases, control may be impossible. Because both trophont and
allowing more time to locate a host. Low temperatures do not tomont stages are resistant to practically all externally applied
interrupt propagation; a full cycle is completed at 20°C in 3~5 antiparasitic chemicals, a single treatment is not sufficient to
days, at 15°C in 7–14 days and at 10°C in 21–35 days. Data on treat the parasite. Infection can be effectively controlled only
the effect of other environmental parameters is less conclusive, by destruction or elimination of the free dividing tomonts or
although it has been suggested that dissolved oxygen levels the tomites (theronts) they release. Repeating the selected
below 1 mg/L affect parasite reproduction. treatment every other day at water temperatures from 20–25°C
will disrupt the life cycle and control the outbreak.
Some researchers have reported that Ichthyophthirius multifiliis
can multiply directly by dividing underneath the fishes’ top Daily cleaning of the aquarium is also beneficial, as the
skin layer, bypassing the usual three-stage life cycle. When this encysted forms are physically removed from the environment.
occurs, one can see multiple cells of similar size lined up or in The use of one of the gravel-cleaning vacuum devices is
clumps underneath the thin layer of host cells. The disease is recommended. These are usually available at most aquarium
not treatable when it becomes established to this degree and stores. The design of the gravel vacuum ensures that even very
reproduces in this manner, because it does not need to leave the small fry are not drawn in or damaged by it, whilst retaining
host where it would ordinarily be vulnerable to treatment. sufficient suction and mechanical action to remove the cysts
and other debris. An additional benefit is that the vacuum is
also very effective at removing uneaten feed and faeces,
Diagnosis resulting in improved water quality and other environmental
Identification of the parasite is necessary to conclude that benefits.
the fish has an ichthyophthiriasis infection. Look closely at
the clear parts of the fins for cloudiness and/or white There are two main drugs which have been found to be highly
pinhead size spots. Rainbowfishes infected with this effective for treating Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in freshwater
parasite typically develop small white spots on the body, systems: malachite green and formalin. Formalin is a generic term,
fins and gills. If the infection is restricted to the gills, no which describes a solution of 37–50% formaldehyde gas dissolved
white spots will be seen. The gills will appear swollen and in water. These chemicals can be used separately, but are
be covered with thick mucus. In some cases, the small white particularly effective when used together, because they exert a
spots coalesce together forming larger white spots. synergistic effect; that is, together they give a greater effect than
Hemorrhagic patches appear on the bases of the fins, body the sum of their separate individual capabilities. The combination
and mouth. Fin rot sometimes appears on some affected of both chemicals is less toxic than either drug used separately.
fish. The presence of white spots along with associated Malachite green and formalin are toxic poisons. Malachite green
haemorrhages and behavioural changes is considered the acts as a respiratory poison, damaging the cell's ability to produce
ultimate indication for the presence of an infection with energy to drive vital metabolic processes. Formalin is a powerful
ichthyophthiriasis. disinfectant used to kill microorganisms or as a preservative for
biological specimens. It works by reacting with cell proteins and
Early warning signs include loss of appetite and listlessness. nucleic acids - altering both structure and function. Formalin is
The fish will scratch or flash on the sides of the aquarium or more toxic in soft, acidic water and also removes oxygen from
other objects. As the disease progresses the fish may water. Each 5 mg of formalin removes 1 mg of dissolved oxygen
congregate near the filter outlet or appear to gasp for air. from the water.
The fish may produce a thick mucous over the skin in an
attempt to protect itself. Occasionally the mucus will come The malachite green/formalin (37%) combination is used at a
off removing many of the Ichthyophthirius multifiliis cells concentration of 0.15 ppm and 25 ppm respectively for 24
and leave the skin dry. When this occurs, the outer defence hours. They exert a mild anti-bacterial effect but in most
against infectious invaders is removed and essential salts circumstances will not destroy biological filtration bacteria,
and body fluids are lost. Within six days, if left untreated, although they may have a slight effect for a short period.
the fish will stopped feeding, appear lethargic and swim

As you might expect both of these chemicals are affected by carbon. Use fresh carbon to remove the medication after
variations in water chemistry. Both can be deactivated by high treatment is completed.
dissolved and particulate organics such as fish waste, detritus (3) Do as large a water change as possible before starting the
and algae. In water that is high in dissolved organic wastes the treatment.
chemicals will oxidise the organic wastes rather than attacking (4) Add malachite green/formalin formulation at the
the parasites. This has the effect of lowering the effectiveness recommended dosage.
of the chemical dosage. It is a good idea to do a 50–75% (5) Re-treat as indicated (above) by the cycle of the
waterchange and a thorough cleaning of the aquarium to disappearance and reappearance of cysts (spots) on the fishes.
reduce the level of organic wastes before starting the treatment. Re-treat at least every 24 hours. Do large water changes prior
This includes the removal of particulate matter (faeces, uneaten to each re-treatment.
food, detritus, etc.); the removal of algae from tank walls and (6) Continue treatments and water changing for at least 24
the removal of particulate matter from the filter (change filter hours after the disappearance of all signs of the disease.
wool or wash sponge etc.).
Treat the fish every other day for a total of three to five Remarks
treatments. Change 50–75% of the water in between the Several alternative medications for treatment of ichthyophthiriasis
chemical treatments. In simple terms, treat on day 1, have been developed, but there has been some debate as to how
waterchange on day 2, treat again on day 3, waterchange on effective they are compared to the widely used malachite green
day 4 etc., etc. If the fish is heavily parasitised, you may not see and formalin combination. For many years, malachite green has
any remission of the disease until after the third treatment. been used (often in combination with formalin) to treat fish
Treatment effectiveness should be evaluated after the third infected by Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. In recent years, however,
treatment to decide whether to continue with the treatment there have been strong moves against malachite green application,
schedule. If you use the correct method and dose of malachite/ especially with respect to its use in food fish. This is because the
formalin and the fish do not show some signs of improvement chemical is believed to have potential teratogenic, mutagenic or
within 3 treatments, you may have misdiagnosed the problem. carcinogenic attributes. However, a recent study (2005) has shown
that most of the new treatments are not as effective as the
The chemicals must be at full strength when the theronts are malachite green and formalin combination. The study reported that
free swimming in the water. This is why it is important to with the exception of one treatment, all were less reliable than the
observe and be aware of the cycle of appearance and malachite green and formalin products they are supposed to
disappearance of the spots on the fishes. The treatments replace.
(including the water changes) should still be done when the
spots have disappeared or decreased in number. The study tested the performance of formalin, potassium
permanganate (KMnO4), chloramine-T, hydrogen peroxide and
It is often suggested that the temperature of the aquarium water two new chemicals called Per Aqua® and Desirox®. The latter two
be raised. This is because the free-swimming, infective stage products, which are mixtures of acetic acid, peracetic acid and
theronts are heat sensitive and raising the temperature several hydrogen peroxide, were also tested on their own, and in
degrees above the normal aquarium temperature tends to kill conjunction with formalin. The results showed that all of the
them. In addition, increased temperatures enhance the fishes’ chemicals were able to successfully lower the parasite burden so
immune responses. The treatment consists in increasing the that the mortality rate dropped within a month of the fish picking
temperature of water with infected fish to 30–32°C and up an infection. However, with the exception of one product, none
maintaining it there for ten days. After treatment, the water is were as good as the malachite green - formalin mixture. Large
allowed to gradually cool to the original temperature. However, differences in parasite burden and mortality occurred among the
given that temperature stress might have been a contributing replicates in all except the Desirox-formalin tests, which means
factor in the start of the disease it is not logical to change the that they were not as reliable as the malachite green – formalin
temperature again. Also, increasing the temperature, as many combination. It was also evident that the chemicals and their
aquarists do, might actually increases the stress on the diseased concentrations must be planned carefully to suit the conditions of
fishes. As the water temperature increases the dissolved each situation.
oxygen content is reduced proportionately. For instance,
increasing the temperature from 20 to 30ºC decreases the In Germany, as an alternative substance, peracetic acid
dissolved oxygen level by more than 17%. Additionally, the (peroxyacetic acid) was tested to treat the free invasive stage
metabolic rate of the fishes also increases as the temperature (theront) of the Ichthyophthirius multifiliis parasite. Peracetic acid
goes up. This causes the fishes to consume more oxygen at a concentrations of 0.3 ppm were able to kill all theronts in 120 min
time when the increased temperature causes a decrease in the in the laboratory tests. As a result of these investigations it was
oxygen concentration. recommend an interval-application of 0.3 to 0.5 ppm peracetic
acid for 30 to 150 min. This application should be prolonged for
two life cycles of the parasite. Biotic parameters as e.g., fish
Treatment Summary species, and age as well as abiotic parameters as e.g. temperature,
(1) Don’t increase the water temperature! pH and organic load of the water could possibly influence the
(2) Remove carbon and other chemical filtration media; efficiency of the peracetic acid application and should therefore be
thoroughly clean or replace the mechanical filtration media. taken into account when picking the dosage and length of the
Most aquarium medications are readily adsorbed by activated peracetic acid exposure.

Peracetic acid is an ideal antimicrobial agent due to its high Creek populations. When the highly susceptible Dirran
oxidising potential. It is broadly effective against Creek rainbowfish were crossed with rainbowfish from a
microorganisms and is not deactivated by catalase and fourth population, M. eachamensis (Lake Eacham), they
peroxidase, the enzymes which break down hydrogen produced hybrids with significantly higher resistance than
peroxide. It also breaks down to safe and environmentally pure-bred Dirran Creek, but not higher than pure-bred Lake
friendly residues (acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide). It can Eacham fish. Hence, intraspecific hybridization increased
be used over a wide temperature range (0–40°C), wide pH resistance to Ichthyophthirius multifiliis infection in M.
range (3.0–7.5), in hard water conditions, and is not affected eachamensis. Hosts from all three populations were much
by protein residues. less susceptible to infection on their second exposure to the
parasite. However, the Bluewater Creek population was
better able to acquire immunity to Ichthyophthirius
Other Treatments multifiliis than either the Dirran Creek or Lake Tinaroo
Sodium chloride (NaCl) populations. It was tentatively suggested that there may be a
A continuous well-aerated salt bath of 2–5g/L until disease link between the heterozygosity of populations of rainbowfish
controlled (may be for up to 20 days) has been reported as and their initial ability to resist infection by Ichthyophthirius
effective in controlling ichthyophthiriasis. One study found multifiliis.
that fish maintained at 4g/L salt for 23 days showed a
gradual reduction of white spots and survival was 100%. Although infection with Ichthyophthirius multifiliis is often
There appear to be significant differences among species lethal, a number of studies have indicated that sublethal
and possibly families in the tolerance of larval and fry infections in the host are able to induce an acquired resistance
stages to salt. against re-infection. Under laboratory conditions fish have
been routinely immunised by exposure to controlled numbers
The efficacy of salt in controlling and preventing of parasites. Serum and mucus antibodies from immune fish
ichthyophthiriasis in the silver perch (Bidyanus bidyanus) have immobilised free-swimming theronts in vitro, suggesting
was evaluated in aquaria. Concentrations of 2 or 3g/L salt several potential antibody-mediated mechanisms of protection.
controlled infestations of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, and
fish were free of both theronts and trophonts by day 8 at Spontaneous recovery from infection and resistance to re-
temperatures of 17.3–21.3°C and by day 6 at 19.2–23.5°C. infection of recovered fish indicates that fish are capable of
Fish treated with 1g/L salt remained infested and all fish in developing defence mechanisms against Ichthyophthirius
a control treatment (0 g/L salt) died. multifiliis. Spontaneous recovery has been observed in both
natural infections in natural habitats and in captivity. The
Copper sulphate (CuSO4) potential for spontaneous recovery varied with fish species.
Copper sulphate at concentrations of 0.1–0.2 mg/L have Infection in scaled fish regressed faster than in smooth skinned
been reported to control ichthyophthiriasis, but higher fish. After recovery, fish were resistant to reinfection or
concentrations of 0.25–1.0 mg/L were toxic to some fish retained a merely subclinical chronic infection. The infective
species, and 0.05 mg/L was ineffective. However, copper stages were also shown to be unable to penetrate the skin of
sulphate is for specialist use only as it is highly toxic and resistant fish or reacts in such a way which forces the parasite
requires removal from the aquarium after treatment. It is to leave the body without completing its life cycle in response
inadvisable to use this compound where other treatments are to the immune reaction.
available.
The likelihood of maternal immunity could be raised as
Sometimes three to four daily transfers of fish to clean tanks another assumption for the mild infection in some fish
will effectively reduce infection, while enabling the fish to species. It is well documented that maternal antibodies
develop tolerance to reinfections. Maintain temperature at passed from mothers to their offspring directly via eggs or
around 24–28°C. Management techniques such as alleviate indirectly in mouth-brooding fish via mucus of the buccal
stressing conditions by improving water conditions, cavity.
reducing stocking densities, etc., can also be helpful.
Another line of reports assumed the presence of more than
one strain of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis which differ in their
Research pathogenicity to different fish species. This assumption was
Increasing reports are continually being published indicating based primarily on the wide distribution of the parasite,
that different fish species and populations have significance subtle variation in cell morphology and serotypic variations
difference in their resistance to Ichthyophthirius multifiliis. among isolates based on immobilisation antigens. In 2006 a
These differences in susceptibility were attributed primarily to team of parasitologists from the Department of Infectious
environmental factors and/or genetic make up of the host Diseases at the University of Georgia's College of
(Gleeson et al., 2000). Wild-caught rainbowfish originating Veterinary Medicine studied two forms of Ichthyophthirius
from three isolated populations were infected with a multifiliis and found that one of them killed all of the fish
quantified dosage of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in a infected while the other only killed half.
controlled environment. Melanotaenia eachamensis from
Dirran Creek were much more susceptible to ichthyophthiriasis
than were M. splendida from the Lake Tinaroo or Bluewater

trophont is up to 160 µm long and has an amber or yellowish-
Velvet Disease green colour, visible on heavily infected fish.
Piscinoodiniasis or velvet disease is quite common in aquarium The life cycle of Piscinoodinium pillulare is comprised of a
fishes. Outbreaks tend to be of an explosive nature, and large parasitic feeding stage (trophont) which attaches to
numbers of fish can succumb to the disease within the course integumentary epithelial cells, and an encysted dividing stage
of a few days. The parasite appears to be non-specific and (tomont) which is detached from the host. Mature trophonts
indiscriminately infects various fish species invading skin, fins drop of the host’s surface, sinks to the bottom and becomes a
and gills. Occasionally, the occurrence of trophonts is reported tomont. Tomonts undergo successive binary fission and divides
from the oesophageal epithelium and intestine, and even in the successively into 64 or 128 small cells. They divide again to
subcutis. It has historically been responsible for a large number produce 128 or 256 cells which differentiate into free-
of fish mortalities. However, aquarium hobbyists rarely have swimming infective dinospores. The division of tomonts into
infected fish closely examined to confirm that the infection is dinospores, in temperatures of 23–25°C, is completed within
consistent with Piscinoodiniasis. 4–6 days. At 15–17°C, the process of division is lengthened to
11 days. After being released, the free-swimming dinospores
Piscinoodiniasis is often confused with ichthyophthiriasis can infect a new host or re-infect the same host, thus
(white spot disease). It is caused by the dinoflagellate compromising its health status.
Piscinoodinium pillulare, formerly known as Oodinium
pillularis. Dinoflagellates are (unicellular) protists that exhibit a There is some evidence that suggest fish recovering from the
great diversity of form; this group includes gill and skin epizootic infestation through a gradual decrease in infection
parasites that can cause serious disease of freshwater and develop immunity against re-infections, and specific antibodies
marine fish e.g., Amyloodinium (saltwater), Crepidoodinium have been demonstrated in the blood serum of infected fish.
(estuarine and marine) and Piscinoodinium (freshwater). All
three genera have been traditionally classified as belonging to
the family Oodiniaceae. The relatedness of species belonging Diagnosis
to these three genera is primarily based upon a similar mode of The diagnosis of cases of piscinoodiniasis is based on the
attachment to the host, i.e., attachment disc with holdfasts. clinical signs observed, and detection of the typical trophonts in
Their life cycle is also similar, with each having 3 stages: a wet mounts from the gills or the skin. Trophonts, when
parasitic trophont; a reproductive tomont; and a free-swimming reaching the final stage of growth, are visible to the naked eye
infective dinospore. (80–100 µm diameter) as white spots (similar to that seen in
ichthyophthiriasis). On the body surface, an increase in mucous
The first dinoflagellate parasite recorded on a fish host was production, scale loss, suffusion, ecchymosis, petechiae, and
Amyloodinium (Oodinium) ocellatum in 1931, which was small ulcers may be observed. The gills may also present an
found on a marine fish. The first dinoflagellate found on a increase of mucous production besides epithelial hyperplasia,
freshwater fish was Oodinium limneticum, which was suffusion, petechiae, congestion, oedema, and brownish areas.
identified from aquarium fish in North America (Jacobs, 1946). Visible signs begin as a light golden dusting in oblique light
Schäperclaus (1951) described a second species, Oodinium and then progress to more severe infestation intensity
pillularis, from aquarium fish in Europe. In 1981, the genus associated with dense white dusting of the skin. This surface
Crepidoodinium was created for Oodinium cyprinodontum and sheen is easiest to observe by placing the fish in the dark and
Piscinoodinium was created for Oodinium pillularis and shining a beam of light through the water parallel to the surface
Oodinium limneticum. However, it is unclear as to whether of the skin.
Oodinium limneticum is a valid species.
Infected fish generally swim near the surface of the water or
Piscinoodinium pillulare is a sedentary parasite that attaches to gather near the filter outlets, and the fins may be folded. Fish
the skin, fins, and gills of fish. Infestations of the skin are with skin infections may exhibit ‘flashing’ behaviour. Fish
usually less serious than those affecting the gills. The rhizoids with heavy gill infections typically exhibit rapid respiration
of the trophont actively penetrate into the epithelium of the host (spreading opercula) as large numbers of parasites compromise
fish, which responds by means of a pronounced hyperplasia, gill function. Other clinical signs included dyspnea, lethargy,
often sufficiently intense as to entrap the parasites themselves. cachexia, localised secondary infections, and erratic swimming
Areas of haemorrhage and focal necrosis appear which are with loss of equilibrium. Mortalities progressively increase.
frequently invaded in a secondary manner by bacteria and
fungi. In the gills, the response ranges from desquamation and
separation of the epithelial layer to a manifest hyperplasia Prevention
affecting the entire length of the gill filament. Degenerative Successful fish health management begins with prevention of
changes and necrosis of the gills are frequently observed in disease rather than treatment. Regular control and monitoring
severely affected fish. of water quality is imperative and will greatly reduce the
likelihood of a disease occurrence. Without this foundation, it
Piscinoodinium pillulare is a dangerous ectoparasite of is impossible to prevent outbreaks of opportunistic diseases.
aquarium fishes and is most pathogenic to young fish. Piscinoodinium pillulare tend to be opportunistic pathogens of
Although young fish may die quickly from piscinoodiniasis, aquarium fish and outbreaks can be treated and also controlled
older fish may live for 2–3 months. The pyriform, sack-like by improving hygiene, water quality and reducing stocking

densities. It’s possible that the infective dinospore stages can be Copper sulphate (CuSO4) will kill both dormant (destroying
transmitted in aerosol droplets, particularly where tanks are the chloroplasts) and the free swimming stage as well.
situated in close proximity. Therefore, proper disease However, copper sulphate treatment can be unpredictable
preventative management should be observed. All syphon under certain aquarium conditions and is extremely
hoses, nets, brushes, and other equipment that has been in dangerous to some species of fish, plants, shrimp and snails.
contact with the infected fish should be disinfected. Copper sulphate may be used as a bath for up to 10 days
duration, at a concentration of 0.15 ppm of copper ion.
Treatment Copper sulphate should never be used without testing the

Parasites numbers on individual fish can be rapidly reduced by alkalinity of the water, carefully measuring the volume of
osmotic shock (e.g., altering either temperature or salinity the aquarium or pond to be treated, and weighing the
beyond that tolerated by the parasite) if the fish can tolerate amount of chemical to be applied. The concentration of
such treatment. It must be remembered that salt tolerance by copper sulphate to apply is usually calculated by
fish may vary with the species and age. Baths in sodium determining the total alkalinity of the water and dividing
chloride at 35 g/L for three to ten minutes are effective in that number by 100. For example, if the total alkalinity of
dislodging the trophonts, but care should be exercised to avoid the aquarium is 100 mg/L, then 100 ÷ 100 = 1 mg/L copper
reinfestation when the fish are returned to their aquarium. sulphate. Do not use copper sulphate if the total alkalinity is
less than 50 mg/L. If you are unsure how to measure the
The life cycle of this parasite can be completed in 10–14 days alkalinity of your water, or have never used copper
at 22–25°C, but lower temperatures can slow the life cycle. sulphate, then do not use it. Copper can also bind to the
Also, the cyst stage is highly resistant to chemical treatment. substrate in the aquarium and leach back into the water for a
Therefore, several applications of a treatment may be necessary long time. In addition, copper levels must be monitored
to eliminate the parasite. The free-swimming dinospores are frequently if good results are to be expected, and this may
usually the stage that is most susceptible to a variety of not be practical for the average hobbyist. Therefore Copper
interventions including chemotherapy. sulphate is best used by aquarium specialists.
Chloroquine phosphate (15 mg/L prolonged bath) has been When using a commercially formulated copper cure, always
reported to be effective. Other treatments include malachite follow the label instructions for dosage rates. Chelated
green (at 0.05 to 0.1 mg/L), formalin (at 15 to 25 mg/L) or a copper will stay in solution longer than copper sulphate and
mixture of both malachite green/formalin (37%) combination appears to be safer to fish. You can create your own
used at concentrations of 0.15 ppm and 25 ppm respectively. chelated copper by using two parts citric acid to one part
The malachite green/formalin mixture has been shown to be copper sulphate, by weight. Combine both in distilled water
more effective and less toxic than either drug used separately. and dissolve them together. It is important to remember that
Formalin baths are somewhat effective against trophonts but you will be treating with the copper sulphate and not the
required rather prolonged immersion and may not completely citric acids, so when weighing the formula, use only the
kill the tomonts, which may resume development once the weight of your copper sulphate in calculating dosages.
formalin has dissipated. Quinine hydrochloride (at 30 mg/L),
or a combination of quinine hydrochloride and malachite green Most fish are extremely sensitive to copper. Concentrations
(at manufacturer’s recommendation) has also been used with of copper as low as 42 µg Cu/L were found to be acutely
some success. toxic to Denariusa bandata. Melanotaenia inornata and
Ambassis species have been found to be sensitive to copper;
Under laboratory conditions (Schmahl et al. 2006), the half of the individuals tested died at copper concentrations
ionophoric polyether salinomycin given in the fish diet was between 120 and 200 µg Cu/L. The freshwater shrimp
shown to be effective against the skin-inhabiting trophozoites genus, Caridina, is extremely sensitive to copper, dying at
of Piscinoodinium pillulare. Experimentally infested levels of only 2 µg Cu/L. Macrobrachium species were
swordtails (Xiphophorus hellerii) were fed once a day ad found sensitive to copper with half the individuals dying at
libitum food pellets containing either 60 or 90 ppm 160 µg Cu/L. Snails are also known to be very sensitive to
salinomycin for a 16 or 19 days period. The efficacy of the copper.
treatment was monitored by counting the numbers of
trophozoites of each fish at day 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 16 and 19, It is important to keep in mind that all fish medications are
respectively. As revealed by transmission electron microscope toxic to fish. Fortunately, it usually takes a higher
investigations, the damages in the trophozoites caused by the concentration of the drug to harm the fish than it does to
treatment consisted in malformation of the trophozoites, harm the pathogens. Nevertheless, subtoxic doses for the
aggregation of droplets within the cytoplasm, and the fish are still stressing, and repeated doses can build up to
formation of electron dense bodies along the limiting toxic levels.
membrane. Following a prolonged treatment period, ruptures
in the trophozoites limiting membranes were seen and the
rhizocysts were no more detectable. Under the experimental
conditions described, fishes showed no signs for adverse
effects.

surface with continuous lethargic swimming motions. A
Trichodiniasis “tattered” appearance of the skin and fins may be apparent,
with strands of mucous apparent. In mild infections,
Trichodiniasis is the disease caused by infection of the gills trichodinids graze over the epithelial surface feeding on
and/or integument by peritrichous ciliated protozoa of the particulate matter and detritus and cause insignificant damage.
family Trichodinidae. Trichodinidae are collectively known as However, in combination with inappropriate aquarium
trichodinids. They are recorded from freshwater fish species conditions, secondary bacterial infection and intercurrent
worldwide. The majority are believed to be non-pathogenic, disease, high mortalities may occur. Because of the lack of
whereas a few species are known to be primary pathogens of information on protozoan parasites of rainbowfishes, most
fishes causing considerable mortality particularly among cases of trichodiniasis are not identified or more often, are
juveniles. Infection is common in native and introduced simply misdiagnosed.
species, including aquarium species and occurs in both captive
and wild populations. Although trichodinids are commonly Although trichodinid protozoa commonly occur on native fish
found in low numbers on healthy fish in their natural in Australia, most genera and species remain to be described.
environments, the presence of any trichodinids on aquarium In a research project (Dove & O'Donoghue, 2005) freshwater
fish warrants treatment. fishes were surveyed across eastern Australia. Trichodinid
ciliates were collected on an opportunistic basis during the
In general, trichodinids are ectocommensal; however, some survey for other parasites that encompassed 58 sites throughout
species are certainly primary pathogens and are parasitic on Victoria, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory
fishes. Some species may infect hosts other than fish, such as and Queensland. Twenty-one putative trichodinid species were
amphibians. They are characterised by the presence of a ring of recovered from the 33 fish species examined. Trichodina
interlocking cytoskeletal denitcles, which provide support for heterodentata, T. mutabilis and T. reticulata were the exotic
the cell and allow for adhesion to the surfaces of the fish. species recovered regularly; a single specimen matched a
Trichodinids have a simple direct life cycle. That is, they have fourth exotic species, T. acuta.
a single host and do not use alternation of generations or mass
asexual replication off the host. The reproduce by binary Two new native species were also described: Trichodina cribbi
fission, literally cell-splitting. This produces daughter cells with from Hypseleotris galii, H. klunzingeri, and Hypseleotris sp.
half the number of denticles of the parent cell. The full (Lake's Carp Gudgeon); and T. bassonae from Selenotoca
complement of denticles is restored by synthesis of new multifasciata. The native fishes of Australia harbour a species-
denticles from the outer edge of the cell, working inwards. rich fauna of native trichodinids, with at least 17 species of
undescribed trichodinids detected from 33 species of native
Trichodinids are typically found on the gills, skin and fins of fishes examined from survey sources. It is estimated that the
fishes, though some species parasitise the urogenital system. A Australian trichodinid fauna may include up to 150 as yet
range of invertebrates is also host to trichodinid infections, undescribed species.
including the surfaces of copepods and the mantle cavity of
molluscs. Transmission occurs by direct contact of infected and
uninfected hosts, and also by active swimming of trichodinids Treatment
from one host to another. Trichodina cells swim with the adoral Trichodina can be controlled with any of the treatments used
surface facing forwards. On surfaces, they move laterally, with for ichthyophthiriasis. Correction of environmental problems is
the adoral surface facing the substrate. Few trichodinids are necessary for complete control. It is a good idea to do a 50-
host specific and have been reported to survive up to 1-2 days 75% waterchange and a thorough cleaning of the aquarium to
off their host. reduce the level of organic wastes before starting any
treatment. This includes the removal of particulate matter
Trichodiniasis is usually a relatively mild disease with a low (faeces, uneaten food, detritus, etc.); the removal of algae from
morbidity and mortality, however, under certain conditions, tank walls and the removal of particulate matter from the filter
especially confinement of infected fish in aquaria, clinical (change filter wool or wash sponge etc.). Trichodina infections
disease and high mortalities may occur. The length of are often associated with monogenean trematode infections and
incubation (the time from infection to the appearance of the treatment has to be applied for both.
first signs of the disease) depends on susceptibility,
temperature, and severity of exposure. Infectious signs can Control of trichodiniasis has been successful using a long term
appear within 2 hours of initial exposure and attain 100% bath of malachite green added to aquaria at 0.08 mg/L. A
prevalence after 10 days. Larvae and fry are particularly Formalin bath at a concentration of 250 ppm for one hour, or
susceptible to infection. 40–50 ppm for a longer period has also been used with success.
Common salt (NaCl) at 2–3% concentration is another
In heavy infections, trichodinids attach firmly to the epithelium successful treatment for infected fish.
causing irritation and cell damage resulting in hyperplasia of
the epithelium and mucous secretion. Infected fish are However, a malachite green/formalin combination is probably
generally darker in coloration and may exhibit a whitish or the best treatment for aquaria. This combination exerts a mild
bluish-grey colouration of the skin. Fish may exhibited anti-bacterial effect as well, but in most circumstances will not
listlessness and lack of appetite. At advanced stages of the destroy biological filtration bacteria, although they may have a
infection, they adopt a vertical hanging position near the water slight effect for a short period.

WS3, a commercial medication containing malachite green, A very large group of fluke parasites infecting rainbowfishes
acriflavine and quinine sulphate has also been used as a bath have an intermediate live stage in molluscs and crustacea.
treatment combined with a salinity of 3‰. Some of these parasites cause problems in both wild caught
and captive rainbowfishes.
One should follow the manufacturer's instructions for treatment, as
different manufacturers use different concentrations of the active Monogenean parasites can be introduced into the aquarium
ingredients. from wild-caught fish. Although monogenean parasites are
commonly found on wild fish, they are rarely a direct cause of
Garlic (Allium sativum) and Indian almond (Terminalia disease or death in wild populations. Some destroy their hosts,
catappa) have been used as an alternative to chemicals to treat but most are specific for one species of fish or for two or more
trichodiniasis. There is a fast growing interest in screening closely related species. Because of high host specificity, most
antiparasitic substances from plants to replace chemical and Monogenea do not spread to other fish species when they are
antibiotic alternatives. In laboratory trials, the use of crude introduced with their hosts into a new environment. However,
extracts of garlic and Indian almond at 800 mg/L have been they may become more dangerous to their hosts in the new
reported to significantly eliminated Trichodina infections in surroundings. The establishment of exotic monogenean
tilapia. However, the amount of activity varies widely among populations on Australian native fishes via host-switching is
the different varieties of garlic and its use may prove to be considered less likely than for other parasitic groups due to the
unrealistic; the same may be said of Indian almond. generally high host specificity of monogeneans.
Transmission of monogenean parasites from fish to fish is

primarily by direct contact. Oviparous monogeneans release
eggs into the water which hatch and mature into adult forms
Gill & Body Flukes within 7 days, depending on temperature. Viviparous
monogeneans release live larvae which may attach to the
The monogeneans (flukes) are typically ectoparasites of the same host as the parent or be carried by the water
skin, fins and gills of many freshwater and marine fishes. Some circulation to another. This direct life cycle can contribute
species become endoparasitic by inhabiting the oral cavity, to population explosions under aquarium conditions. Under
cornea, nasal tissue, pharyngeal tooth pads, urogenital system the right conditions they can literally “bloom” like algae.
(cloaca, rectal gland, oviducts) and even the vascular system.
In all cases they are attached to the host’s surface by a Monogenean flukes can be devastating to aquarium fishes.
characteristic opisthaptor (an attachment organ) provided with They appear on the gill filaments as tiny dark spots about 600
hooks, suckers or clamps. With the exception of the members µm long. They are a group of parasites best described as
of the viviparous family Gyrodactylidae, monogeneans usually flatworms - the body is usually flat and oval. Most flukes are
have a simple life cycle involving hermaphroditic adults, eggs browsers, moving about the body surfaces, and feeding on skin
and larvae, and can proliferate rapidly on fish held in captivity. mucus and gill tissue. Most species are host and site-specific,
requiring only one host to complete an entire life cycle. In fact,
Unlike the other monogeneans, the larva of the viviparous some adults will remain permanently attached to a single site
family Gyrodactylidae is retained in the uterus until it on the host. Large numbers of flukes on either the skin or gills
develops into a functional preadult, inside which a second may result in significant damage and mortality. Therefore,
larva is already formed, with a third larva inside that and a knowledge and understanding of monogenean parasites is
fourth inside the third. The steps of this sequential important for aquarium hobbyists.
polyembryony are poorly understood. After its birth, this
preadult larva begins feeding on its host and gives birth to Mortality of aquarium fish caused by excessive parasite
the second larva remaining inside it. Only then may an egg infestations is usually associated with inappropriate aquarium
from its own ovary become fertilised, repeating in a short conditions, undernourished fish or have been subjected to
time the development described above. Since this peculiar temperature fluctuations. Heavy infestations may elicit
embryogenesis does not involve a free-swimming infectious epidermal hyperplasia due to disruption by parasite attachment
larva, Gyrodactylidae depend on transmission of adults or and feeding; increased mucus production may also occur.
pre-adults from one host to another by direct contact. Secondary infections by protozoa, bacteria and fungi often
ensue and can cause deep wounds and ulcers. In severe
There have been very few studies of monogenean parasites infestations, death occurs, usually due to loss of osmotic
from Australian freshwater fishes. The group is morphologically regulation. A few flukes on a healthy mature fish are usually
diverse and identifying them correctly is often impossible. not significant; however, moderate numbers on a young fish
Up until 1998 twenty-six species had been described from can cause significant mortalities.
sixteen species of native freshwater fish. A study published
in 2004 (Corlis, 2004) described another nineteen new Freshwater fish infested with flukes become lethargic, swim
species. These were found on Melanotaenia splendida, M. near the surface or gather near the filter outlets, and subsequent
eachamensis, M. maccullochi, M. trifasciata, loss of appetite. They may be seen rubbing the bottom or sides
Rhadinocentrus ornatus, Cairnsichthys rhombosomoides, of the aquarium (flashing). The skin where the flukes are
Craterocephalus stercusmuscarum, C. marjoriae, attached show areas of scale loss and may ooze a pinkish
Pseudomugil signifer and P. gertrudae. serous fluid. The gills may be swollen and pale, respiration rate

may be increased, and fish will be less tolerant of low oxygen The eggs can be resilient to chemical treatment, which make
conditions, showing other signs of respiratory distress. Gulping the use of multiple chemical treatments appropriate to control
air at the water surface may be observed in severe respiratory this group of organisms. Praziquantel can also be administered
distress. in food at a dosage of 35–125 mg/kg for up to 3 days or as a
short-term bath treatment at a concentration of 10 mg/L for 3
hours.
Treatment
Prevention of fluke infestations by following appropriate Change 50–75% of the water in between the chemical
quarantine practices is preferable to treating the parasites after treatments. Fish, which are obviously weak and heavily
they have become established in the main aquarium. This can parasitised may not survive. Management to lessen the chance
be done by dipping fish prior to placing them into an established of infestation by these parasites includes maintaining the fish in
aquarium, and following a quarantine protocol whenever a good nutritional state and avoiding water quality problems
feasible. If quarantine is not possible, a simple way to minimise that might weaken the fish.
introduction of flukes, as well as other external parasites, is to
dip rainbowfishes in a saltwater bath (30–35 g/L) for three- to The effectiveness of the long-term use of Praziquantel has been
five-minutes. Dipping rainbowfishes in a salt bath will eliminate evaluated in ornamental fish. Cumulative doses up to 10 mg/L
many single-celled external parasites. This practice will not water were tolerated without side-effects by Angel Fish
completely eliminate the risk of introducing parasites to an (Pterophyllum scalare), Discus, and a variety of catfish species
established tank or that no parasites will be introduced with new (Ancistrus sp., Corydoras sp.). It was found appropriate to start
fish, but it will help minimise the numbers brought in. with a dosage of 2.5 mg/L and to add the same dosage every
other day several times. All adult parasites and larvae were
Ideally, rainbowfishes should be quarantined for at least four killed by this treatment. For the complete elimination of
weeks prior to being placed into a new system. While in Dactylogyridae populations in a closed aquarium system, 3
quarantine, prophylactic treatment with a broad-spectrum therapy-cycles (duration: 5–6 days, accumulated dosage: 2.5
parasiticide should be carried out. A quarantine system should mg/L/day) proved to be effective. It was important to interrupt
be very simple so that fish are readily accessible for observation the therapy-cycles with intervals without medication (1 to 4
and handling, water can be easily changed, and treatments weeks). However, there are reports that kissing gouramis
readily administered. (Helostoma temminckii) have been adversely affected by
Prazifish® (Praziquantel 98.5 mg/g).
Treatment of flukes is usually not satisfactory unless the
primary cause of increased fluke populations is found and Dactycid® is another effective treatment against flukes and all
alleviated. If the disease is not in the acute phase, a low salinity species of internal worms (hookworms and roundworms)
bath (5 g/L for 90 minutes) or (1 level tablespoon per 20 litres including Camallanus cotti, hydras and planarians. However,
of water) is often enough to solve the problem if combined with it can be toxic to snails and is harmful to sharks and rays.
water changes and general cleaning of the aquarium Flubendazole (15%) is unique and specifically designed and
environment. developed for aquatic use and approved by the Veterinary
Medicines Directorate under the small animal’s exemption
Praziquantel has been identified as the most effective “in water” scheme to be sold over the counter for public sale. This
treatment of infected fish. Praziquantel is harmless to fish of all medication will kill flukes, camallanus worms, tapeworms,
species, is non toxic to plants, and has no negative filter impact. anchor worms and other helminthics commonly found in
Praziquantel is a bitter tasting powder which shows good tropical and coldwater fish. It has also been used successfully
absorption directly from the treated water, and then admirable with ‘skinny disease’ in clown loaches.
clearance of various surface and internal flukes and worms in
fish. Praziquantel has been known to the hobby for many years. Organophosphates can also be used to treat monogenean
Praziquantel was traditionally available in the form of branded parasites, as well as leeches and crustacean ectoparasites
Droncit® tablets, for oral administration in dogs and cats, but is Argulus (fish lice) and Lernaea (anchorworm). Organo-
now available in a range of aquarium products. phosphates work by interfering with the nervous system and
thus affect vital physiological processes. However,
Praziquantel used at 2–3 mg/L is very effective for control of organophosphates are potentially dangerous to both fish and
both gill and body flukes and has a wide margin of safety for humans and, for a variety of reasons; their use in fish disease
fish. Praziquantel is toxic to flukes on contact, paralysing the control has been banned in many countries, although the use of
parasites within 15 seconds under laboratory conditions. organophosphates in aquaria is still practiced.
Praziquantel preparations must be dosed high enough and long
enough for effective treatment. Monogeneans can be persistent The two most commonly used organophosphates are
in aquarium systems necessitating regular treatments. In cool dichlorvos and trichlorfon. The concentrations of active
water, the parasites move through their life cycles slowly, so it ingredients vary in the different preparations. Historically,
is important to medicate long enough to intercept the emerging trichlorfon was used at a concentration of 0.25 mg/L active
larvae. When temperatures are above 25º Celsius, treat once ingredient. When trichlorfon is added to water it degrades to
every 3 to 4 days for a total treatment time of 20 days. When dichlorvos, which then slowly degrades to less toxic by-
temperatures are between 20 and 25º Celsius, treat once every 4 products. The quicker it breaks down, the higher the initial
to 5 days for a total treatment time of 25 days. dose needs to be.

The rate at which it degrades depends on various factors:
light, high temperatures, aeration and high pH all speed up Bacterial Disease
degradation. In mild temperatures and moderate pH the
half-life can be several days, which means that it is active Bacteria can play both a beneficial and detrimental role in
for longer. In alkaline conditions and high temperatures the aquarium keeping. On the beneficial side they help break down
half-life can be as short as a day. Also, organophosphate ammonia, nitrite and organic wastes in the aquarium, which is
uptake and toxicity in fish is increased by low oxygenation a requirement for maintaining water quality. Conversely,
of the water. These factors result in variable response of fish bacteria can cause serious disease problems in aquarium fish.
to exposure to organophosphates, with levels greater than Only water quality problems exceed bacterial diseases in the
0.1 ppm being potentially toxic. Monogenean flukes can area of aquarium fish mortality. Nevertheless, they are among
reinfest fish between 5 and 30 days after treatment with the least known and understood elements of aquarium keeping.
organophosphates, depending on water temperatures and
degree of pond contamination with eggs. Up to three The ubiquitous nature of bacteria in aquatic environments
treatments, 21 days apart may be required to eradicate or provides ample opportunity for rainbowfishes to come into
reduce monogenean numbers to an insignificant level. contact with pathogenic and opportunistic bacteria. Such
contact may lead to infection which, depending on the species
Spinal deformities have been reported in rainbowfishes and the virulence of the strains encountered, may have life-
(Melanotaenia pygmaea) after treatment with trichlorfon, at a threatening consequences. Some bacteria are even capable of
rate of 0.5-2 ppm. Organophosphates exert their toxic effect by causing illness in fishkeepers who may acquire infections from
inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme involved in contaminated aquarium water.
terminating neurotransmission at cholinergic synapses in the
central nervous system, some peripheral autonomic junctions Aquarium systems support large populations of bacteria.
and neuromuscular junctions. In intoxicated fish that don’t die One study sampled water from an aquarium store and found
acutely from central nervous system dysfunction, the muscle a wide variety of potentially infectious organisms in every
spasms produced by excessive and prolonged stimulation of sample tested. Most of these are opportunistic and ubiquitous
neuromuscular junctions of the muscles of the body are thought in aquatic environments. However, some bacterial growth is
to be sufficiently severe to result in spinal fracture and lesions. inhibited by the presence of other bacteria, suggesting that
Other choices include potassium permanganate, formaldehyde competition is a factor limiting the growth of some
and maybe others. These chemicals can also be dangerous infectious bacteria.
when used incorrectly and should only be used by experienced
aquarists. There have been reports of flukes being resistant to Like other areas of aquarium keeping, bacteria have certain
certain types of treatment such as formaldehyde. environmental preferences. However, most species tolerate a
wide range of environmental conditions. An aquarium, with its
warm water, aeration, nutrients and surfaces for colonisation,
creates an environment where bacteria will flourish. Many of
these bacteria live in biofilms that are located on all surfaces
and in particular in the biofilter. Because the biofilter is full of
different microniches, it can support the growth of a variety of
microorganisms including pathogenic and opportunistic
bacteria. The use of granulated activated carbon provides a
readily available source of nutrient carbon for bacteria thus
encouraging the growth of massive numbers of bacteria on its
surface. However, bacteria are also present within the water
column, and are capable of living independently away from
their fish host.
Bacteria in biofilms are more resistant to a wide variety of

antimicrobials including surfactants, antibiotics, phagocytic
predators and drying. When conditions in the aquarium are
optimum for the resident bacteria, planktonic cells are
released from the biofilm and are capable of causing
persistent and recurring exposure to disease and the
presence of asymptomatic carriers.
In an aquarium, outbreaks of disease are usually associated

with overcrowding, high or sudden change of temperature,
handling, aggressive interactions, inferior water quality and
poor nutritional status. All these conditions contribute to
physiological changes and heighten susceptibility to
infection. These management problems must be corrected
for successful, long-term control of infections.

Avoidance of exposure to the disease is the primary method For the detection and identification of bacterial pathogens in
of prevention. Keeping aquarium systems pathogen-free is an populations of fish showing disease signs, ideal samples are
impossible task, but reducing levels of pathogens to below multiple (five or more) moribund fish or those showing clinical
infective levels, should decrease the chance of fish becoming signs typical of the disease outbreak. For the detection of
clinically infected. subclinical infections in populations of asymptomatic fish,
larger sample numbers may be necessary. Fish that are found
Bacterial organisms may be the primary cause of disease, or dead at the time of sampling are usually not acceptable for
they may be secondary invaders. Bacterial diseases can be bacteriological examination, unless they are known to be very
transmitted by discharge from the intestinal tract and fresh. Contaminating bacteria can grow quickly in dead fish,
external lesions on the skin. Parasite damage and fungal particularly in warm water.
infection may also allow entry and spread of the bacterial
infection. In captivity, rainbowfishes will gradually develop If the fish have a bacterial disease and the causative agent has been
resistance to some local strains of bacteria but may carry identified, a sensitivity test should be performed to ensure that the
virulent organisms to another aquarium when transferred. correct medication is used. The incidence of resistant bacteria is
high and a sensitivity test will show the resistance of the disease-
Fish can act as asymptomatic carriers of disease. In other causing bacteria to various antibiotics. When bacteria become
words, they may be immune to a specific pathogen but still resistant to a specific antibiotic, even high concentrations of that
be able to shed the organism into the water or transfer it to drug will not be effective. Certain antibiotics also have been
other fish by contact. Sick and dead fish are often major shown to suppress the immune system, potentially making
reservoirs of disease-causing organisms. For this reason, aquarium fish more susceptible to viral or parasitic infections.
sick, moribund (dying), and dead fish should be removed as
soon as possible from the aquarium to prevent continued Antibiotics are usually taken internally to control bacterial
shedding of the bacteria into the water. Equipment, infections. Therefore, medicated feed or injection, are preferred
including nets, siphon hoses and buckets, can also transfer for treating systemic (internal) bacterial infections. Dose rates
disease-causing organisms to another aquarium. are based on fish weight and are expressed as weight of
chemical per weight of fish per day for a specified number of
The most common bacterial infections in aquariums are caused by days. Improper doses may result in an ineffective treatment or
organisms such as Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Mycobacterium, mortalities. However, the effectiveness of oral antibiotic therapy
Flavobacterium and Vibrio. They can cause diverse pathological has been inconsistent and, as a consequence, mortalities continue to
conditions that include both acute systemic and/or chronic occur.
diseases. External signs of bacterial infection are variable and
include shallow reddened ulcers with irregular edges; loss of Fish often stop eating as a bacterial disease progresses, so early
tail and finnage; missing or raised scales; haemorrhagic areas diagnosis and treatment are essential to ensure that infected fish
on the body, in the fins, and on the mouth; protruding eyes consume the medicated feed. Medicated feeds may be
(exophthalmia); distended abdomen (dropsy); and a protruding unpalatable to the fish or the fish may be too sick to consume
and inflamed vent. Dropsy is a distention of the abdomen, the normal amounts. Withholding food for a few days prior to
giving the fish a “pot belly” appearance. This is a strong feeding medicated food may aid in acceptance. It has been
indicator of disease problems which may include swelling of suggested to enhance the food with cod-liver oil.
internal organs (liver, spleen or kidney), the build up of body
fluids, parasitic problems, or other unknown causes. At this If commercial medicated feed is not readily available, it is possible to
stage, the infection has usually become systemic. External mix your own feed in small quantities. A qualified fish health
lesions expose the body surface to secondary invaders as well professional should be contacted for help in calculating the
as serve as sites for the loss of salts and body fluids. appropriate quantity of medication needed before using this
Behavioural signs include a reduction in feeding and treatment.
listlessness. Fish stop feeding and abnormal swimming may
become pronounced. The effects on the fish are as varied as the The powdered antibiotic is combined with a binder and then
signs. added to the feed. Antibiotics can be introduced into artificial
feed by making a solution of 5% gelation, cooling the solution
to room temperature and adding the antibiotic. The gelatine-
Treatment antibiotic solution can then be mixed with the diet, which is
Many bacterial diseases can be successfully treated with then stored in a refrigerator at 4–6° Celsius. Vegetable or fish
medication when diagnosed early. An experienced fish health oil can work well as binders also. The feed and antibiotic must
professional should carry out treatment for all but the most be mixed thoroughly to assure even distribution of the drug to
common bacterial disease problems that your fish experience. all the feed. If you use the antibiotic to coat dry feed then the
Most cases will require scientific identification of the bacterial coated feed should be spread out to air dry. After several hours
types involved and selection of a specific antibacterial agent. of drying, the feed can be re-bagged and stored under proper
However, even veterinarians with laboratory diagnostic conditions. This can be a time-consuming process. In addition,
experience cannot make an accurate diagnosis of some a significant quantity of the antibiotic may leach out of the
problems without microscopic examination of the fish or homemade medicated feed before being consumed by the sick
cultivation for bacteria. fish.

Bacterial finrot is very similar to fungal finrot with much the
Fin & Tail Rot same symptoms. Fungal finrot looks like creamy or whitish,
hairy-like growths. Bacterial finrot is whitish or gray, and
Fin or tail rot is a common problem in aquarium fish. It although it causes the same amount of damage, the growths are
describes a variety of infections including lesions, erosion, not as prominent. Fungal finrot usually has a more uniform
splitting of fin rays, nodular thickening and extensive loss of infection attacking all areas at the same rate. Bacterial finrot
tissue. It can be caused by inappropriate aquarium conditions causes varying degrees of damage in some areas to little or no
which may increase susceptibility to infections. Often it is the damage in other areas.
result of aggressive interactions that cause fin damage and
secondary infection from a range of bacteria or fungal spores. Bathing in a salt solution or various proprietary medications
Fish having mild cases can completely regrow the soft fin ray will usually prevent further development. There are several
tissue if infection is resolved. medications available commercially to treat finrot. One should
follow the manufacturer's instructions for treatment, as
The most common bacteria involved are usually Aeromonas, different manufacturers use different chemicals and
Pseudomonas and Flavobacterium. These bacteria are often concentrations of the active ingredients. Malachite green at 1–3
natural inhabitants in the skin mucus of fish. However, mg/L of water for up to 1 hour has been effective in some
definitive diagnosis is by fish necropsy, culture and isolation of cases. Another effective treatment is immersion in a salt bath.
bacteria. Affected fish become anorexic, lethargic and dark in Salt (Sodium chloride NaCl) is one of the most commonly
colour. They generally have a rather gross appearance with used treatments for aquarium fish and is sometimes referred to
frayed fin edges and reddened caudal fin in the early stages. as “aquarium aspirin”. Most tropical fish can tolerate a salt
The tip of the fin becomes greyish, and then it becomes eroded concentration of 1–3 g/L, and this level is not harmful to the
and hemorrhagic. The lesions progress into fin rot or extensive biological filter. Short baths for 20–30 minutes at 10 g/L for
fin loss, and in more advanced cases, the caudal fin will erode fish species capable of tolerating certain salinity levels can be
back to the peduncle, with ulcerated tissue often exposing the used. Most adult rainbowfishes seem to be able to tolerate
skeletal structure. Eventually, even the muscle fibres will be salinities levels up to 17 g/L and juveniles 12 g/L. In a review
affected. Secondary fungal infection is common. A high conducted by Hart et al. (1989) the general conclusion was that
mortality rate may be observed within a few days unless rapid most freshwater fish species in Australia appear quite tolerant
identification of the disease-causing pathogen and treatment of of salinities up to 10 g/L.
the infected fish is undertaken immediately. Mortality increases
significantly once bacteria enter the circulatory system.
A research project in 2004 investigating 170 naturally infected Columnaris Disease

fishes with finrot revealed clinically progressive erosion,
congestion and haemorrhages of the body fins especially the Columnaris is the common name for disease caused by the
caudal and dorsal fins and oedema (dropsy) in some cases. The bacterium Flavobacterium columnare, which often gives the
post-mortem results of the infected fishes showed abdominal appearance of white fungal growth on the fish, but is actually a
ascites (accumulation of fluid in peritoneal cavity), bacterial infection. It is characterised by gill necrosis, greyish white
enlargement and congestion of the liver, kidneys, spleen and spots on the body, skin erosion, and finrot. It is mostly an external
intestine with distension and congestion of the gall bladder. infection but the bacterium is capable of entering the blood stream
The infected fishes revealed the presence of 468 bacterial and is often isolated from the internal organs. Fish may die
isolates related to 8 bacterial genera and species, such as however, without any clinical symptoms. The biology of the
Aeromonas hydrophila (198), Pseudomonas fluorescens (102), disease is poorly understood even though it is one of the oldest
Flavobacterium columnare (36), Klebsiella (48), Escherichia known fish diseases. Flavobacterium is a genus of gram-negative,
coli (24), Proteus (12), and Shigella (12). The pathogenicity of aerobic or facultatively anaerobic bacterium that consists of at least
isolated strains revealed that Aeromonas hydrophila appeared ten recognised species. They are highly heterogeneous and
to be highly virulent (100% mortality in infected groups) comprised of pathogenic and non-pathogenic species. Several
followed by Pseudomonas fluorescens (50%) and species are known to cause disease in freshwater fish.
Flavobacterium columnare (37.5%).
Flavobacterium columnare is ubiquitous (i.e., found in water and
Sensitivity test of isolated bacteria strains showed that soil), and on the skin of healthy fish worldwide. It was first
Kanamycin and Nalidixic acid were the drugs of choice described by Herbert Spencer Davis in 1922. It has been a
used for control and treatment of finrot disease. Kanamycin significant problem in many warm water fish species for decades
mixed with food has been reported as effective in curing and is among the most common pathogens in aquaculture,
finrot among ornamental fishes at 200–300 mg per 100 ornamental, and wild fish populations. Its name is derived from
grams of food. It has also been reported that Kanamycin is columnar shaped bacteria, which are present in virtually all
absorbed from the water by fishes. Dose rate: 2–5 gm/L for aquarium environments. It may be opportunistic or of a secondary
4–5 days. Afterwards make a 35–50% water change. infectious nature. References to the disease can be confusing. It has
Nalidixic acid (water soluble form) can be used as a one- to been referred to by different names including Bacillus columnaris,
four-hour bath at a rate of 13 mg/L, repeat if needed. Chondrococcus columnaris, Flexibacter columnaris, Cytophaga
However, the use of antibiotics should be considered columnaris, and most recently Flavobacterium columnare
carefully before any application. (Bernardet et al. 1996).

Flavobacterium columnare is generally of low pathogenicity form a characteristic, pale white, “saddleback” lesion. A yellowish-
although the pathogenesis of the disease is not all that clear. In white ulcer often develops in the centre of the “saddle” as the lesion
acute infections, hypoxia and death may result from extensive progresses. In advanced disease, extensive and deep skin ulcers may
damage to the gills. Columnaris disease is usually transmitted develop, exposing underlying muscle and bone. In scaled fish,
by direct contact with infected fish or contaminated water. The prominent gill and fin necroses are usually observed; however,
infection can be expected to spread most rapidly if water skin ulcers may also be present in the absence of gill and fin
conditions are less than ideal. lesions. Necrosis of gills and fins begins at the outer margins
and extends from the distal end toward the body. Gill necrosis
In most instances, bacterial infection occurs in fish that are is observed as yellowish-white spots on the tips of the primary
exposed to stressful conditions, such as high water temperature lamellae of the gills. Initially, the skin lesions are less
(~28°C), overcrowding, excessive handling, and poor water prominent in scaled fish but become obvious as the skin lesions
quality, especially high ammonia or nitrite concentrations or advance from mild hyperaemia to deep skin ulcers. The scales
increased organic waste content (~2 g/L) in the water. become loosened and slough off as the skin disintegrates.
However, spontaneous, natural infections with Flavobacterium Grossly, bacterial mats can be seen attached to skin and/or fins
columnare have been reported in the absence of any obvious and have a typical “cotton wool” appearance.
stressors. Spontaneous infections usually involve highly
virulent strains and are associated with high mortality. In aquarium fish species, inflammation of the mucous membrane
Mortality rates can be extremely high, with 60–100% mortality of the mouth is common. The mouth and inner walls of the oral
common. Several days elapse before mortality results from cavity may be covered with a yellowish-brown mucoid-like
infection by low virulence strains. High virulence strains cause growth. This condition is popularly called cotton-wool mouth,
death within 24–48 hours post exposure to the pathogen. High and fungi are frequent secondary invaders. The infection may
mortality (~100%) has been reported with acute involve the opercula, teeth, maxillae, mandibles, and the
Flavobacterium columnare infections in the absence of spongy bones of the head.
obvious clinical signs or lesions. The morbidity, mortality, and
course of disease depend mainly on the water temperature and The diagnosis of columnaris disease is based on cytological
virulence of the bacterial strain. examination of smears from skin, gills, and fins;
histopathology examination of tissues obtained during
In an experimental infectivity study, mortality did not occur at necropsy; and microbiologic culture, which is the most reliable
5°C or 10°C. In contrast, 25% mortality was observed at 15°C, technique for the definitive diagnosis of Flavobacterium
with a mean death time of 7 days, whereas 100% mortality was columnare infection. The lesions are characterised by the
recorded at 20°C and higher, with a mean death time of 1 to 3 presence of long, thin rods that exhibit flexing movement and
days. This study demonstrated that increasing temperature is are able to form columns. To verify the diagnosis, isolation of
associated with increased mortality during bacterial infection. Flavobacterium columnare is required. However, isolation is
Sudden changes in water temperature of 5°C or more pose often problematic, because the disease usually presents as a
significant stress, predisposing fish to infection by Flavobacterium mixed infection with numerous other opportunistic bacteria
columnare. The ideal temperature for the growth of belonging to the normal skin flora.
Flavobacterium columnare is 20–25°C, although it can grow at
temperatures ranging from 4–37°C. Good survival of the
bacterium occurs over a wide range of water pH and hardness. Treatment
Columnaris disease can be treated successfully, provided it is
The initial clinical signs of columnaris disease are nonspecific diagnosed early. Avoidance of exposure to the disease is the
and include listlessness, lethargy, inappetence, swimming near primary method of prevention. An aquarium that has had a
the water surface, and accelerated opercular movement. The columnaris outbreak should be completely disinfected before
disease can have different clinical manifestations, with various restocking if all the fish have been lost. In addition, all
combinations of gill, skin, or fin lesions. Columnaris disease equipment that has been in contact with the infected fish should
associated with primary gill involvement is acute, with be disinfected. This disease can be spread easily between tanks
mortalities occurring in the range from 2–5 days. Fish with from contaminated nets, shared equipment, etc.
peracute columnaris disease may be observed lying on their
sides. Characteristic skin discoloration and ulcers are not Because Flavobacterium columnare primarily attacks the skin
usually observed. Sudden and vehement onset of columnaris and gills, infections in the early stages usually respond to
disease is usually observed in younger fish that die within 1–4 treatment using surface-acting disinfectants. The in vitro
days without visible lesions. Fish with established columnaris growth of Flavobacterium columnare is reported to be
disease usually have lesions on the external body surface and inhibited at 10 g/L Sodium chloride (NaCl). A salt bath at 10 g/
gills. L of water for 20–30 minutes can be used. Stop the treatment
earlier if the fish show signs of stress.
The distribution of these lesions tends to vary with the species
of the fish. In scaleless fish, the skin lesions begin as areas of When treating systemic (internal) infections, medicated
discoloration, primarily at the base of the dorsal fin. However, antibiotic feed or injection, are the preferred methods. In such
lesions may also be seen on the head and craniodorsal part of cases an appropriate antibiotic can be given as an in-feed
the body. As skin lesions spread from the base of the dorsal fin, preparation. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration have
a pale white band extends laterally and encircles the body to approved the use of Florfenicol as a medication feed additive

for the treatment of Flavobacterium columnare. Dose rates are parasites and nutritional deficiencies. If these factors weaken
based on fish weight and are expressed as weight of chemical the fish or damage its tissue, fungus may infest the fish and
per weight of fish per day for a specified number of days. can, without treatment, lead to the death of large numbers of
However, the effectiveness of oral antibiotic therapy has been fish. However, there is supporting evidence that some fungi
inconsistent and, as a consequence, mortalities continue to may affect healthy fish in certain circumstances. They are
occur. commonly known to colonise plant and animal debris in
freshwater.
Antibiotics are only effective in treating bacterial diseases if
treatment is applied very early during the course of the The most commonly identified fungal pathogens of fish are
disease. Flavobacterium have shown resistance to Oömycetes (commonly called water moulds). Oömycetes are
chloramphenicol, streptomycin, ampicillin, tetracycline, like fungi. They have the same filamentous, branching,
chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, neomycin, nitrofurazone, indeterminate bodies and absorb food by excreting digestive
nalidixic acid, kanamycin and penicillin G. The resistance enzymes and absorbing the resultant mixture (absorptive
of Flavobacterium columnare to polymyxin and neomycin nutrition). However, Oömycetes are not considered to be ‘true
has also been reported by Fijan, Griffin, Bullock et al., fungi’ taxonomically, but have been placed in the phylum
Bernardet and Grimont. When bacteria become resistant to Oomycota. Within this phylum is the family Saprolegniaceae,
a specific antibiotic, even high concentrations of that drug containing among others the genera Achlya, Aphanomyces and
will not be effective. Saprolegnia, with some species being pathogens of fish,
crustaceans and plants. The Oömycetes are true aquatic
organisms, largely saprophytic and are considered ubiquitous
Fungal Disease in freshwater systems throughout the world. Although little
quantitative information is available, their cosmopolitan
distribution and ability to colonise a wide variety of substrates
Mycologists and others have given much study to aquatic suggest a role in the decomposition of organic materials in
fungal diseases infecting fish species, but the results have not freshwater ecosystems.
always been in agreement. They comprise tens of thousands of
species and an extensive number are associated with health Fungal infections of fish by water moulds are widespread in
problems in fish. The name saprolegniasis is used because it both wild and captive fish populations. It is known that the
relates particular disorders of fish much more succinctly to members of at least six genera are natural parasites of fish,
fungal infections than do such names as “fungused fish”. The fish eggs and crustaceans, including Saprolegnia, Achlya,
identity of the various organisms associated with fungal Aphanomyces, Pythium, Leptomitus and Allomyces.
diseases in fishes has long been a problem.
The most widespread species parasitising fish include members of
Fungi are a group of organisms called heterotrophs, meaning the genera Saprolegnia and Achlya. Saprolegnia is ubiquitous in
that they obtain their energy and carbon compounds from freshwater ecosystems and is the main genus of water moulds
organic nutrients. They are saprophytic (feed on decaying responsible for significant mycoses of freshwater fish and eggs.
organic matter) and parasitic organisms that require living or Saprolegnia parasitica is common on fish eggs and on fish skin.
dead matter for growth and reproduction. Unlike plants, they Saprolegnia ferax and Saprolegnia parasitica most frequently
are incapable of manufacturing their own nutrients by cause death of fish both in aquariums, and their natural
photosynthesis. Fungi are present everywhere – in most cases, environment. Saprolegnia torulosa has been encountered on the
they serve a valuable ecological function by processing dead eggs of freshwater fish species. Saprolegnia infects the eggs by
organic matter. adhesion and penetration of the egg membrane, and can spread
from dead eggs to live eggs. In warmer climates the role of
Almost every freshwater fish will be exposed to at least one Saprolegnia is largely taken over by species of Achlya. Achlya is
species of aquatic fungi during its lifetime. All fungi produce commonly found on wild-collected rainbowfishes, which have had
spores - and it is these spores which readily spread disease. The skin or scale damage during the collecting process.
spores of the fungus are always present and will take any
opportunity to grow and develop. Fungal spores are free- Saprolegniasis affects all stages in the life cycle from eggs
swimming in water and can therefore be introduced or through to adult fish. The fungus produces long filamentous
transferred between aquariums. Aquatic fungal infections are strands called hyphae, which grow on the surface of fish, eggs
considered difficult to prevent and treat, and are reported to be and organic material. The fungus looks like greyish-white
second only to bacterial disease in importance. Fungal wool-like growths of different sizes. New growths may be
infections are generally restricted to chronic losses. The difficult to distinguish; the older ones are usually greyish-
diseases they cause are almost always external in nature, rarely green. Microscopically, individual hyphae are evident that are
becoming systemic to include internal organs. nonseptate and about 20 microns in diameter. Older segments
of hyphae often terminate in zoosporangia containing
It is still widely believed that fungal infection of fishes is zoospores.
largely a secondary development. The hyphae (fungal
branches) start their growth on skin or gill lesions that are Reproductive motile spores are released from the ends of the
usually initiated by conditions such as bacterial infections, poor hyphae into the water and these quickly find other sites to
water quality, injuries associated with handling and social colonise. The rate of development depends on water
interaction, sudden changes in temperature, infestation by temperature and the condition of the fish. Up to 40 or 50% of

the body surface may be covered and the gills, nasal openings Your veterinarian can make a diagnosis of fungal disease based
and eyes may be infected. The tissue degeneration resulting on microscopic examination. Diagnosis is quick, accurate and
from the invasion of the fungus disrupts the osmotic balance of generally inexpensive. A biopsy sample is examined using a
the fish. Diseased fish become increasingly lethargic and lose microscope and the presence of thick (10–25 µm), nonseptate,
equilibrium shortly before death. Mortalities can range from 10 branching hyphae (fungal stalks) confirms fungal infection. A
to 50%. As the fungus radiates away from the focus of the number of other pathogens and saprophytes (opportunistic
infection, the hyphae penetrate and destroy the layers of skin, pathogens) including algae, crustaceans, helminths (worms)
and in some cases extend into the muscle. Very severe cases and protozoa commonly colonise the fungal tuft.
have been reported where the fungus blocked the pharynx of
first feeding fry and grew out over the gill lamellae preventing After evaluating the environment and history of your fish, your
feeding or normal respiratory functioning. veterinarian may or may not decide to implement a treatment
protocol. Several chemotherapeutic (drug treatment) options
Members of the genus Pythium are soil- or water-dwelling are available. Some lesions are treated topically with a
organisms. More than 200 species of this genus have been disinfectant like povidone iodine after the water mould and
described. They usually live as saprophytes, but several species necrotic tissue have been surgically removed. If the infection is
have been reported to cause disease in plants, fish and not severe, many fish will heal with supportive care (good
crustaceans. Pythium rostratum invades the eggs of many nutrition and clean water). In severe cases, death is frequently,
freshwater fish species. The genus Aphanomyces contains two due to impaired osmoregulation and the fish's inability to
specialist aquatic animal pathogens, Aphanomyces astaci and maintain fluid balance.
Aphanomyces invadens.
For many years infections have been largely controlled with
The latter species is associated with the tropical and subtropical malachite green. Unfortunately, the potential teratogenic or
fish disease Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (Red Spot Disease). mutagenic properties of malachite green have resulted in its
In Australia, red-spot disease has been reported in the Northern limited or curtailed use in many countries. The search for
Territory, New South Wales, Queensland and Western alternative chemical treatments or other means of controlling
Australia. It begins as a small area of reddening over a single fungal infections has resulted in many investigations being
scale, which subsequently spreads to involve a number of conducted. However, to date, only a limited number of
adjacent scales; this is the characteristic ‘red spot’. As the chemical compounds show any potential as fungicides and
condition progresses, the ‘red-spot’ expands and deepens, none are considered as effective as malachite green.
giving a deep ulcer, which sometimes extends into the
abdominal cavity. Some fish, especially Lates calcarifer Malachite green is extremely toxic to Saprolegnia parasitica,
develop unilateral or bilateral cloudiness of the cornea; these as this species is unable to infest new seeds when treated with
changes in the eye may or may not be accompanied by lesions as little as 1 mg/L for one minute. This undoubtedly explains
in the skin. Some cases of red-spot disease heal spontaneously, why malachite green is very effective in controlling certain
but many affected fish, especially juveniles, die. Aphanomyces fungus infections, many of which are due to this particular
invadens has been identified in rainbowfishes from a number of pathogen. Malachite green treatments for 24 hours at 5 mg/L
river systems in the Northern Territory. are sufficient to control most fungal infections. However,
when fish are exposed for longer periods, even to much lesser
Aphanomyces astaci, the causative agent of crayfish plague, is concentrations, malachite green can be highly toxic to some
an exotic disease to Australia. Few if any susceptible crayfish fish. Malachite green has also been recommended for use
survive outbreaks of crayfish plague. The fungus produces a concomitantly with another antifungal agent, formalin.
motile spore called zoospore. When released, the zoospore can However, the chemical evidently is not without its own
swim for up to two days, seeking another crayfish to infect. If a harmful elements. Some strains of water moulds implicated in
spore reaches a crayfish, it germinates, penetrates the hard, fungal infections supposedly are more resistant to malachite
outer skeleton - the exoskeleton - and forms a new infection. green than are others.
While precise identification of fungi species from lesions on Another common dye, methylene blue, is also effective against
fish requires a considerable level of familiarity with taxonomy fungal infections of fishes and may be used as an alternative to
of the aquatic phycomycetes, the detection of a significant level malachite green. It is particularly effective against Saprolegnia
of fungal infection does not require rigorous classification. by applying 3 mg/L in a long duration bath. Methylene blue
Once recognised, the growth of aquatic phycomycetes on can be used for the treatment of fungal infections on all ages of
lesions is difficult to confuse with any other aquatic disease. freshwater fishes at 2 to 3 mg/L in a permanent bath. It is safe
for use with fish eggs and fry. Methylene blue has a wide
safety margin and is non-toxic when used as recommended.
Treatment Fish tolerate relatively high dosages without side effects.
Avoidance of exposure to the disease is the primary method of However, it should not be used in recirculation systems that
prevention. The most effective strategy for controlling and preventing utilise biological filtration, as it will interfere with the normal
fungal infections is good fish keeping practices. It is imperative that biological processes of nitrifying bacteria. It can also interfere
aquariums are maintained under conditions conducive to good health. with normal plant growth. Also, be aware that this material will
Well-nourished fish reared in highly favourable environmental stain almost everything with prolonged contact.
conditions will be resistant to most pathogens.

Formalin (a solution of 37% formaldehyde) treatments are an species are Camallanus cotti and Camallanus lacustris, both of
alternative to malachite green but are not as effective, and it which produce live larvae. Female specimens can attain a length of
may have detrimental effects on the fishes it is intended to cure. up to 10 mm, while males usually only grow about 3 mm long.
The dose has to be adjusted according to water pH. Low doses They are commonly found infecting rainbowfishes maintained in
should be used at low pH and higher doses at higher pH values. outdoor ponds. Even if successfully treated, most rainbowfishes do
Oxygen depletion of the water is rapid at high temperatures. not recover fully and often die from other complications.
However, formalin is for specialist use only. It is inadvisable to
use this compound where other treatments are available. Camallanus are ovoviviparous with mature females releasing
motile infective larvae. Juvenile worms are vented with the fish's
A successful treatment formulated by Dr. Gerard Bassleer, a well- faeces and ingested by other fish. This can result in heavy
known fish disease expert, in 1983 consists of the following combined infestations in some situations. Camallanus infection will initially
ingredients: be noticed as red-coloured worms protruding from the anus of the
fish, most noticeable after feeding. Other clinical signs include
Formaldehyde (37%) = 1 litre [or 100 ml] wasting (anorexia), abdominal swelling, and extensive lesions in
Malachite Green (oxalate) = 3.7 gm [or 0.37 gm] the rectum mucosa. The worms attach to the wall of the fish’s
Methylene Blue = 3.7 gm [or 0.37 gm] intestines with their tiny jaws and suck its blood. This can cause
considerably damage to the intestinal lining, and a reduced
Dosage: 1.0–1.2 ml/100 litres water (25 drops/100 L). capacity of the fish’s ability to readily absorb nutrients.
Change the water (50%) after one day treatment and add Most Camallanus species reproduce by means of an intermediate
another dose. This medication can be more toxic in soft acid host, which can be small crustaceans such as copepods or various
water, and also at higher temperatures insect larvae. However, the species’ relatively frequent and
persistent occurrence in aquaria worldwide strongly indicates
The use of ordinary salt (or sea water) was among the first of flexibility in its life cycle, i.e. the ability to infect the final host
the methods proposed to combat fungal disease. Often, the directly. Research has shown that under aquarium conditions,
application of salt either directly onto the diseased part of without any presence of an intermediate host, Camallanus cotti is
individual fish, or as a solution in which to bathe the fish. Salt able to infect various fish species directly for at least three
can be used at 10g/L for 20 minutes for young fish and 25g/L generations. It was further shown that the infective free-living first-
for 10 minutes for older fish. A continuous well-aerated salt stage larvae may survive for more than three weeks in the
bath of 2–5g/L may assist in the recovery from fungal aquarium environment and that their host-attracting behaviour is
infections. However, there appear to be significant differences not precluding direct transmission to the final fish host. Therefore,
among species and possibly families as well in the tolerance of any treatment for Camallanus worms should be directed towards
the larval and fry stages to salt treatment. both individual infected fish hosts as well as the free-living larvae
on the substrate.
Worms Treatment
The simplest solution is to never get them in the first place by
Diagnosing worm infestation is not always a simple task for most eliminating all possible sources of infection. Take care when
fishkeepers and is at best, just guesswork. When a fish is eating feeding your fish any wild-collected live food, sterilise anything
well yet is still not putting on weight, intestinal worm infestation that you put in your aquaria (if possible), and be very careful from
may be suspected. Particularly when a fish eats regularly yet where and whom you obtain your fish. Also, make sure you
actually looses weight. This is usually seen as thinning along the quarantine any new fishes for 30 days before you put them in your
back on either side of the dorsal fin. In an extreme case, this may regular aquaria. If they are infected, you should eventually see the
result in a well-fed fish actually starving to death. red worms protruding from the fish’s anus.
Most worms found in aquarium fishes live in the intestine and can There are numerous recommended chemical treatments for
readily be removed with various drug treatments. However, others internal worms. Among them are Piperazine, Levamisole,
have larval stages that live in lymph ducts and blood vessels, and Fenbendazole, and some specific aquarium medications.
they can be difficult to treat. Most worms do not pose a serious However, mixed results have been reported using these drug
health risk for rainbowfishes because they often have complicated treatments and it is sometimes difficult to remove Camallanus spp.
life cycles in which the fish may serve as only one of possibly from infected aquaria. Some success has been reported using the
several intermediate hosts. Since the necessary intermediate hosts following treatment regimes:
are not usually found in an aquarium, transmission of the worms to
the fish does not readily occur. Therefore, worms are more likely Fenbendazole has been used to control intestinal worms in fish. A
to appear in wild-caught specimens or in rainbowfishes that are dosage of 25 mg/kg, delivered in food for 3-5 days, has been
bred or maintained in outdoor ponds. commonly recommended, but this regimen has not been evaluated
in controlled trials. Flubendazole 5% mixed with fish food at 100
However, Camallanus is one such species that can be found in mg/100 gm of food. Feed every second day for 5 days. On those
aquarium fishes and can cause considerable damage to the host days feed only once with the regular diet. Treatment should be
fish. Several species of Camallanus have been reported from repeated after 21 days.
freshwater aquarium species around the world. The most common

Hydra
Hydra are small aquatic invertebrates commonly found in most
unpolluted freshwater environments in both tropical and
temperate regions of the world. They belong to the same group
of animals as the marine jellyfishes, corals, and sea anemones.
Hydra are commonly found hanging inconspicuously from
drifting and stationary vegetation or from the waters surface
film in most freshwater habitats. They are often unintentionally
introduced to the aquarium with live foods, snails, driftwood,
plants, gravel and water collected from natural freshwater
environments.
Hydra are about 1 to 25 mm long and have a flexible

Camallanus worms protruding from the anus of a fish ▲ cylindrical body secured by a simple adhesive basal disc by
which the animal anchors itself to a surface. Gland cells in the
It is suggested to enhance the food with cod-liver oil and bind it
basal disc secrete a sticky fluid that allows for its adhesive
with gelatine or agar, since fish are quick to refuse food, which has
properties. On the opposite end are from five to twelve arms or
been medicated. Withholding food for a few days prior to feeding
tentacles, gently swaying in the water current. If the hydra is
medicated food may aid in acceptance. As a bath, it can be used at
disturbed the tentacles can be retracted to small buds and the
2 mg/L of water once a week for three weeks.
body column itself can be retracted to a small gelatinous
sphere, making them almost impossible to see. They are
Mebendazole is chemically related to flubendazole and
generally sedentary or sessile, but do occasionally move quite
fenbendazole. It is a benzimidazole derivative, and is a useful broad
readily. They do this by bending over and attaching themselves
spectrum anthelmintic; the drug of choice for mixed worm
to the substrate with mouth and tentacles and then release the
infestations. Some sources suggested that water soluble ivermectin
foot, which provides the usual attachment. The body then
might overtake mebendazole as the drug of choice for mixed worm
bends over and makes a new place of attachment with the foot.
infestations.
By this process of “somersaulting”, hydra can move several
centimetres in a day. Hydra may also move by amoeboid
Ivermectin 1% - Some studies have shown that ivermectin added
motion of their bases, or by simply detaching from the
directly to aquarium water has been useful in treating Camallanus
substrate and floating away in the current. They float at the
spp. in fish. The dose used was 0.7 millilitres of a 1% injectable
surface of the water buoyed up by gas bubbles given out by the
solution per 76 litres of water. The dose was added over a period of
basal disc. They remain in a free-floating stage until they find a
four days (0.1, 0.2, 0.2, and 0.2 millilitres). A solution of 1 part
spot that is suitable for their needs.
ivermectin 1% in 19 parts distilled water can be made and
administered as a split dose of 2 ml on day one, 3 ml on day two,
Hydra are strictly carnivorous, feeding mainly on small
and 3 ml on day three followed by a water change on day four.
crustaceans, insect larvae, worms or other tiny aquatic animals.
However, because this drug has a narrow margin of safety, some
In aquaria, they will thrive on any similar live food being fed to
veterinarians advise against any use of ivermectin for aquarium
rainbowfish larvae - including the rainbowfish larvae. Any
fishes.
aquarists who feed copious amounts of live brine shrimp
nauplii or similar live foods will eventually find colonies of
Concurat L (10% Levamisole) mixed with food at 1 gm/100 gm of
hydra in their aquarium. To capture these minute forms of life
food. Feed once daily over 5 days. If the fish are already weakened
hydra extend their body to maximum length and then slowly
and refuse to eat then you can try 30 mg/L of water dissolved in a
extend their tentacles. Despite their simple construction, the
little water beforehand. After 3 days do a 50% water change and
tentacles are extraordinarily extensible and can be four to five
dose again. After another 3 days repeat the waterchange.
times the length of the body, sometimes extending to a length
Levamisole is a widely used drug to treat nematode infections in
of 5 cm. Once fully extended, the tentacles are slowly swept
fish and has been reported to kill both the infective free-living
around waiting for contact with a suitable prey animal. Each
larvae and the fish parasitic stages of Camallanus cotti.
tentacle, or cnida (plural: cnidae), is embedded with highly
specialised stinging cells called cnidocytes. Cnidocytes contain
Praziquantel at 2-10 mg/L for 1 to 3 hours in a bath is effective in
specialised structures called nematocysts which look like
treating adult worm infections in fish. Praziquantel has been
miniature light bulbs with a coiled thread inside. At the narrow
identified as the most effective “in water” treatment of infected fish.
outer edge of the cnidocyte is a short trigger hair. Upon contact
Praziquantel can also be administered in food at 35-125 mg/kg for
with prey, the contents of the nematocyst are explosively
up to 3 days. Praziquantel was traditionally available in the form of
discharged; firing a dart-like thread containing neurotoxins into
branded Droncit® tablets, for oral administration in dogs and cats,
whatever triggered the release. Once stimulated, the
but is now available in a range of aquarium products. Praziquantel
nematocysts take only three milliseconds to release fully.
is usually harmless to fish of all species, is non toxic to plants, and
has no negative impact on nitrifying bacteria. However, there are
Judging from its incredible potency and speed of paralysis and
reports that Kissing Gouramis (Helostoma temminckii) have been
death, the poison is believed to be a nerve toxin. They have
adversely affected by Praziquantel (98.5%).

four different types of nematocysts, some stinging and A number of different species of hydra are known, and they
paralysing the prey, whilst others discharge threads which coil come in a variety of different colours such as green, grey, black,
round the prey and hold it. Small animals paralysed by the brown, pink, orange, and transparent.
stinging cells are brought to the digestive centre by the tentacles
and devoured. The mouth of the hydra is located at the centre of Hydra viridissima (formally Chlorohydra viridissima) is
the tentacles. The body is hollow and the inner layer of cells referred to as the green hydra due to the presence of a symbiotic
digests the food by engulfing it. With prey almost as large as green alga (Chlorella vulgaris) in the gastrodermal cells of the
itself, the hydra stretches so thin in getting its digestive gut animal. The algae make use of those substances that the hydra
around it that the prey animal appears to be covered with a thin would normally excrete, such as carbon dioxide, phosphates
transparent film; only the tentacles tell you that you are looking and nitrogenous substances in this symbiotic relationship. For
at a hydra, although they generally keep their tentacles coiled its part, hydra benefits by receiving the oxygen produced by
up. A hydra that has recently fed will be shorter and more photosynthesis. If there is a food shortage, the hydra will digest
rounded than one that is hungry. the plant cells and later ingest more living algae, which it does
not digest. Due to the presence of these symbiotic algae, this hydra is
In aquaria, hydra can be found attached to plants, gravel, stones, attracted by light, contrary to other species and can survive long
the sides of the aquarium, filter equipment, etc. They are most periods without food. Their distribution is considered ubiquitous
commonly found attached to the stems of waterplants or the throughout Australian freshwater systems.
undersides of floating leaves or plants such as duckweed.
Unless they occur in large colonies or are coloured, most hydra Hydra are considered to be hermaphrodites and reproduces both
in a normal aquarium will go unnoticed. However, within the asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction takes place in a
confines of a small fry-raising tank, these little monsters can be process known as budding; the hydra simply forms a bud on the
deadly, and can ingest a large batch of newly hatched side of its body. Buds are produced every two to three days
rainbowfish larvae in less than a week. Hydra can kill larvae up under favourable conditions. Hydra often has four buds at a
to a size of around 10 to 15 mm. Newly hatched larvae of time. These simple organs are no more than lumps attached to
rainbowfishes and blue-eyes are bite-size for the average hydra. the body of the female hydra. The embryo secretes around itself
Larger larvae may often pull away from the stinging tentacles, a hard, sticky shell and is carried by the female until the young
but will usually die in any case. Juveniles over 15 mm, hydra develop tentacles, and then breaks off, fully prepared to
however, generally don’t seem to have any problems. exist in its own. All hydra species have been observed to go
through occasional sexual phases. One thing that can cause
Hydra only seems to appear in fry-raising tanks being fed brine sexual reproduction is when environmental conditions become
shrimp nauplii or similar live foods. They don’t seem to appear unsuitable. They produce eggs which form on the external
in fry-raising tanks that are fed primarily a dry or liquid diet. surface of the stalk. The fertilised eggs secrete a tough outer
However, once you start feeding large amounts of brine shrimp coating and, as the adult dies, these resting eggs fall to the
nauplii, it isn’t long before hydra appear. Hydras have however, bottom of the lake or stream to await better conditions,
been known to feed on the organic material off the substrate whereupon they hatch into miniature adults.
when live food supply is insufficient. This behaviour however,
is not considered normal. Usually you do not notice them unless The growth rate of hydra populations is closely related to
a heavy infestation has become established. They are usually conditions such as temperature, water quality and quantity of
brown in colour or transparent and are not readily seen against a food. Habetha et al. (2003) analysed the population growth of
background of natural coloured gravel or on plants. The best Hydra viridissima fed Artemia salina. They observed that the
way to avoid introducing them into fry-growing tanks is to population fed daily doubled in 3 days; those fed once a week,
sterilise the tank and filter equipment with a chlorine solution in 14 days, and those fed once a fortnight, in 31 days.
before they are used.
Freshwater hydra as a whole, are relatively little known in Australia
Finding a few hydra in your regular aquarium doesn’t mean that in spite of being common organisms in most freshwater habitats. In
the aquarium is unhealthy. Actually, it means you have a Australia there are at least 4 species: Hydra attenuata, Hydra
normal healthy aquarium, since hydra will not live in water of hexactinella, Hydra oligoactis and Hydra viridissima.
poor quality.
The name “Hydra” is derived from a monster in Greek Treatment

mythology. One of the twelve tasks imposed on Hercules was In the past, the only way I found to eradicate hydra successfully
to slay the Hydra of Lerna. It had nine serpent-like heads, one of was to sterilise the tank with a chlorine solution. Some copper
which was immortal. So potent was its venom that even its medications claim that they will kill hydra but they can also be
smell was fatal to those who passed too close. Worst of all was deadly to the fry. Other treatments usually recommended
that for every head Hercules cut off, two more grew in its place. include ammonium nitrate, quinine sulphate, raising the
He finally triumphed by cauterising the wounds with a firebrand temperature to 40°C for 15 minutes or more, lowering the pH,
as he chopped away. Just like the legendary monster, a single or adding salt until the hydra are killed. An even more elaborate
hydra may be cut into many pieces and if each piece contains a treatment I read once was the use of a 9V battery connected to
portion of the two body layers, ectoderm, and endoderm, it will leads that fed into the aquarium water. Most of these treatments
develop into a complete animal. simply do not work and in addition, they can be harmful to the
young rainbowfish fry.

Dactycid® is a very effective drug treatment against hydra and
all species of internal worms (hookworms and roundworms) Planaria
including Camallanus cotti, flukes and planarians. Use
according to manufacturer recommendations. Flubendazole is Planaria are a free-living flatworm found in almost every kind
another veterinary drug and can be found under a number of of environment, on land and in fresh and salt water. They are a
synonyms: Fluvermal; Flubenol; Flumoxal and Flumoxane. very small black or brown flatworm that look very similar to
Flubendazole 5% is very effective in killing hydra and is very leeches and often appear in freshwater aquariums. They are
safe to use with small rainbowfish fry used at 1–2 mg/L. I have generally around 3 to 5 mm long, but some grow as large as 10
used both these products with rainbowfish fry only 10 days old, mm. In a normal aquarium situation they usually don’t cause
without any problems. Pre-dissolve the flubendazole 5% in a any problems and probably even go unnoticed. However, if
container with some aquarium water, and then pour it in the you get them in a breeding aquarium, they can destroy a whole
aquarium. After 5–7 days, following treatment, do a 50% spawning of eggs within hours. They are usually seen crawling
waterchange. Flubendazole is a “wettable powder” and as such around on the front of the aquarium after the lights have been
does not completely dissolve. It may leave a white residue in turned off. They feed on anything organic but can also infect
the aquarium, but this can easily be removed with following the mucous membranes of the fish’s gills.
waterchanges. Remove any deposit of white powder left on the
aquarium walls with a sponge and siphoning the bottom with a Planaria belong to the Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Turbellaria,
gravel siphon. I did not have any problems with the residue and and Order Tricladida. The genus Planaria, has apparently has been
it also had no effects on brine shrimp nauplii when fed to the replaced by an older name, Dugesia. Planaria come in a number of
fry. However, these chemicals can be very toxic to snails. species and strains, some of which are albino. The following species
have been reported from freshwaters, Dugesia tigrina, Dugesia
Flubendazole (15%) is specifically designed and developed for dorotocephala, and Dugesia tigra. Dugesia notogaea has been
aquatic use. This medication will kill flukes, camallanus recorded from northern Queensland.
worms, tapeworms, anchor worms and other helminthics
commonly found in tropical and coldwater fish. It has also They are carnivores and feed by sucking food through a tube
been used successfully with ‘skinny disease’ in clown loaches. called the pharynx located on the mid-ventral surface that
However, it can be toxic to snails and is harmful to scaleless opens into a blind gut, or gastrovascular cavity. Excretion is via
fish species. One should follow the manufacturer’s instructions protonephridia. Planarians have two protonephridia composed
for treatment, as different manufacturers use different of branched tubules that empty wastes through excretory pores
chemicals and concentrations of the active ingredients. on their surface. The protonephridia contain numerous bulblike
flame cells with clustered, beating cilia that propel fluid into
Flubendazole may not be available in Australia; I obtained the the tubules. These structures function in waste excretion and
chemical directly from Europe. However, a number of other osmotic regulation. The body is cylindrical in the small species,
products have been reported to have similar effects on hydra dorsoventrally flattened in the large ones. The epidermis is
and other worms. Panacur (fenbendazole) a similar chemical, ciliated. There is no blood vascular system and transport is via
has also been reported as an effective control for hydra used at diffusion, a mechanism made possible by the small body size
2 mg/L. This chemical is available in various formulations and and/or flattening. Food is delivered to the tissues by the
trade names. Praziquantel is another chemical that is very gastrovascular cavity. Oxygen diffuses across the body surface
effective for control of hydra used at 1–2 mg/L, while having a to the tissues, none of which are more than 1 mm from it. The
wide margin of safety for fish. It is available as an aquarium nervous system consists of a brain and longitudinal nerve
formulation under a number of brand names. However, before cords. There may be light-sensitive ocelli in various positions
using any of these products consult a veterinarian. on the body.
Planaria typically reproduces asexually by architomy. This is a

Hydra - photo: Gary Lange
type of fission is which the worm divides into two fragments
without any prior differentiation of new parts. A transverse
cleavage just posterior to the pharynx divides the worm into an
anterior, nearly normal, worm with head, mouth, pharynxm
and most of the gut, and an incomplete, headless posterior
mass of tissues, which must produce the missing parts. The
posterior portion remains immobile until it replaces most of the
missing structures whereas the anterior end behaves normally
and moves about.
Planaria are also able to reproduce by regeneration, producing an

entire new worm from a piece that has been cut off. If the head is
split, both halves will grow back the other half. Movement may be
accomplished either by muscular contractions of the body wall or
the use of cilia along the ventral surface. When using the cilia the
planarian appears to be gliding across the surface.

Hristo Hristov
Planaria [Dugesia sp.]
Spawning mops are commonly used by hobbyists for breeding gravel siphon. I did not have any problems with the residue and
many rainbowfish species. However, before using them in it also had no effects on brine shrimp nauplii when fed to the
different breeding tanks, it is advisable to always sterilise the fry. However, these chemicals can be very toxic to snails.
mops to kill any planaria, or other pests that may be present.
This can easily be accomplished by washing them in boiling Flubendazole (15%) is specifically designed and developed for
water. Another method is to soak them in a chlorine solution, aquarium use. This medication will kill flukes, camallanus
then thoroughly rinsing them before being sun-dried. This is worms, tapeworms, anchor worms and other helminthics
where spawning mops offer a significant advantage over live commonly found in tropical and coldwater fish. One should
plants as a spawning medium. follow the manufacturer’s instructions for treatment, as
different manufacturers use different concentrations of the
active ingredient.
Treatment
Flubendazole is a veterinary drug and can be found under a If you are unable to obtain Flubendazole there are a number of
number of synonyms: Fluvermal; Flubenol; Flumoxal and other products that have been reported to have similar effects
Flumoxane. Flubendazole 5% is very effective in killing on planaria. Panacur (fenbendazole) has also been reported as
planaria and is very safe to use with small rainbowfish fry used an effective control for planaria used at 2 mg/L. This chemical
at 1–2 mg/L. I have used both these products with rainbowfish is available in various formulations and trade names.
fry only 10 days old, without any problems. Pre-dissolve the Praziquantel is another chemical that is very effective for
flubendazole 5% in a container with some aquarium water, and control of planaria used at 1–2 mg/L, while having a wide
then pour it in the aquarium. After 5–7 days, following margin of safety for fish. It is available as an aquarium
treatment, do a 50% waterchange. formulation under a number of brand names. However, before
using any of these products consult a veterinarian.
Flubendazole is a “wettable powder” and as such does not
completely dissolve. It may leave a white residue in the A proprietary product called Dactycid® is also very effective,
aquarium, but this can easily be removed with following use according to manufacturer recommendations.
waterchanges. Remove any deposit of white powder left on the
aquarium walls with a sponge and siphoning the bottom with a

Mycobacteriosis
There are several diseases which can affect rainbowfishes. It is suspected that ovarian transmission from parent to
Opportunistic bacteria and parasites can cause dermal and offspring may occur. A report from an Australian fish hatchery
systemic infections. Intestinal nematodes can cause chronic in 1977 provided evidence of mycobacteriosis transmission
wasting (anorexia) and considerably damage to the intestinal from eggs to the F1 generation. This observation does not
lining. Additionally, water moulds and fungi may also present confirm that ovarian transmission takes place, as the egg
disease problems in poorly managed aquariums. However, one surface may have been contaminated by peritoneal fluid
of the most common and problematic diseases of captive containing mycobacteria. However, research in 1994
rainbowfishes is mycobacteriosis. confirmed the transmission of mycobacteria in Siamese
fighting fish (Betta splendens), via transovarian passage. Acid-
The increasing popularity of rainbowfishes has resulted in a fast bacteria were found in the ova of diseased female Siamese
significant increase in the number of commercial operators fighting fish, using the fluorochrome technique. Transovarian
breeding, rearing and distributing rainbowfishes. This increases transmission has also been reported in Xiphophorus maculatus.
the potential for dissemination and exacerbation of infectious The observation of mycobacteria in the fish’s eggs and tubercle
diseases, such as mycobacteriosis. Rainbowfishes are a highly granulomas in the ovary wall suggests that transovarian
susceptible species based on numerous reports and anecdotal transmission is a definite possibility.
observations. Perhaps rainbowfishes differ from other aquarium
fishes in their immunological response to mycobacterial organisms. Mycobacteriosis disease outbreak in aquarium fish is often
reported to be related to management factors. However, even
Two terms are used to describe the disease, either “piscine the healthiest aquarium can harbour the bacteria. A variety of
tuberculosis” or “mycobacteriosis”. Mycobacteriosis is bacterial pathogens are always present in an aquarium, even if
usually a sub-acute to chronic disease of fish where the the system is maintained in optimal condition. Most of them
etiologic agent is an acid-fast bacillus in the genus are ubiquitous in aquatic environments and the non-expression
Mycobacterium. Chronic proliferative mycobacteriosis is of their virulence could be ascribed to a good management of
characterised by the formation of granulomas, while the system and to a good physiological status of the fish.
subacute and acute forms of the disease are associated with Moreover, the presence of bacteria described as producers of
necrosis and acid-fast bacilli scattered diffusely among the inhibitory compounds, suggests that the indigenous microbiota
kidney, liver, spleen, and often all visceral organs. Under can control pathogenic organisms in aquarium systems.
pathology examination, mycobacteria have been found in
apparently healthy rainbowfishes. Often no external signs Although there is no firm evidence to confirm that
are present until advanced stages of the disease occur, at environmental stress can cause mycobacteriosis infection, it
which time non-specific signs present including emaciation, has been suggested that an unnatural environment, such as an
hemorrhagic and dermal lesions, lethargy, and death. Many aquarium, may actually promote the disease. Fish should be
Mycobacterium species are ubiquitous in the aquarium maintained under optimal conditions. Inappropriate aquarium
hobby and trade, making control by avoidance of these management can result in abnormal stress and a reduction in
pathogens very difficult. Furthermore, there is currently no the normal resistance of the host. Overcrowding, accumulation
effective treatment for mycobacteriosis in rainbowfishes. of waste and organic matter in the water and increasing water
temperature (above 28°C) may all be predisposing factors.
Beyond overcrowding and confinement, aquarium fish are also
Source of Infection subjected to other stressors such as handling, fluctuating
It is generally believed that infected fishes are the main temperatures, poor water quality, and social stresses. High
source and reservoir of mycobacteria in aquaria. The numbers of mycobacteria have been correlated with warmer
potential for infection among aquarium fish depends on the temperatures, low dissolved oxygen and pH. Such factors
contact rate among infectious fish. Under aquarium exacerbate the susceptibility of fish to disease and thus further
conditions, the frequency of that contact is vastly increased. increase morbidity and mortality in the population. Attention to
Mycobacteriosis can also be acquired through the ingestion water quality and good nutrition will assist the fish in fighting
of mycobacteria present in the aquarium environment, these chronic infections.
which usually have their origin in detritus derived from
dermal lesions, faecal material or exudates etc., shed by Poor nutritional health can greatly enhance the progression and
diseased animals that contain mycobacteria. The sources severity, and reactivation of disease. Once present in an
and modes of transmission in fish may be related to the aquarium, infection rates can vary from 10 to 100%. The
infection of invertebrates, such as freshwater snails, daphnia severity of the disease is influenced by a number of interrelated
and shrimp. The entry of mycobacteria through skin and gill factors, including bacterial virulence, the kind and degree of
lesions caused by injury or parasitic infection should also be stress exerted on the population of fish, the physiologic
considered. After the organisms enter the body, they may condition of the host, and the degree of resistance inherent
cause skin lesions or spread to other organs through the within specific populations of fishes.
circulatory or lymphatic system.

Prevention Chronic mycobacteriosis infections manifest themselves
Rainbowfishes should be obtained from specific pathogen-free primarily as swollen white patches or lumps on the body that
sources and quarantined when received. In addition, turn into red or pale lesions. Fish with only skin infections may
knowledge of the origin and aquarium practices of your source have several types of concealed lesions. Both the dermis and
can help you prevent future potential problems. Breeders epidermis are eroded and the underlying musculature becomes
should maintain separate young brood fish populations and severely necrotic. At this stage, the infection has usually
avoid using older brood fish. Breeders who breed from wild become systemic and the infection on the surface of the skin
stock don’t generally have a problem. may occur throughout the peritoneum and musculature.
Internally the liver, kidney, and spleen may be impaired.
A better understanding of the pathogenesis of mycobacteriosis,
including factors affecting host susceptibility, may enable Because of the slow progression of the disease, younger fish
aquarists to manage this pathogen and prevent potential disease infected with mycobacteriosis show no external signs. As fish
outbreaks through effective aquarium practices. The age or are stressed, the infection becomes more serious.
implementation of preventive measures in controlling chronic Nevertheless, mycobacterial lesions have been observed in
mycobacteriosis is particularly relevant, due to difficulties in rainbowfishes as young as three months old. It is difficult to
treatment, and different fish species probably have different specify the length of incubation (the time from infection to the
levels of sensitivity. appearance of the first signs of the disease). The incubation
period varies greatly and depends on susceptibility,
Clearly, prevention and appropriate routine disinfection should temperature, and severity of exposure. With rainbowfishes kept
be viewed as the primary means to control mycobacteria in in substandard conditions and at higher temperatures, it may
aquarium systems. The chronic nature of mycobacteriosis last only a few weeks or months.
means that it is often too late for any remedial action to be
taken once the first cases have been observed and diagnosed. If clinical signs develop, emaciation, cachexia (wasting, loss of
The same protocol can be used in quarantine systems, at least weight), exophthalmia (pop-eye), ascites (dropsy), skeletal
on a periodic basis, to prevent potential concentration of deformities (curvature of the spine), haemorrhagic and dermal
mycobacteria. Although fish should be quarantined for at least ulcerative lesions or loss of scales may be observed. Other
4–8 weeks before being placed in their main aquarium, most signs of infection can be seen in the gills, which are paler than
fish become clinically affected after a longer period of time. normal and show thickened areas on some filaments. Small
Direct lethal sampling of a quarantined population, with lesions may be observed around the mouth and vent. Changes
histopathology and culture, may be necessary to detect in cutaneous pigmentation include a fading of normal colour in
subclinical infections. aquarium fish or change in colouration. Affected fish generally
exhibit lethargic behaviour, isolation, abnormal swimming
Ideally all equipment such as nets, hoses, buckets, etc. that behaviour, floating impassively on the surface of the water,
comes into contact with stock (diseased or healthy) should be with concurrent loss of appetite. Poor growth, panophthalmitis
immersed into a strong biocide regularly (such as hypochlorite and retarded sexual maturation may also occur.
or iodophores), ideally after each use, to achieve sterilisation.
Quaternary ammonium compounds can also be used. All this Affected fish populations may show chronic low-level
products however, must be rinsed adequately prior to reuse mortality, and increased susceptibility to parasitic infection.
because all these compounds are toxic to fish. Any group of rainbowfishes showing chronic, low-level
mortality and spawning difficulties, regardless of whether they
show external signs of the disease should be submitted to a
Clinical Signs fish-health laboratory for investigation. Mycobacteriosis
Early signs of mycobacteriosis may be subtle or unapparent, probably predisposed the fish to other pathogens commonly
and visual clinical signs often do not develop until the disease found in the aquarium fishes.
has become widely systemic. Clinical signs of mycobacteriosis
are not specific to the disease and often resemble other
diseases. They can vary in occurrence and severity and infected Diagnosis
fish may manifest few or no external signs of disease. Clinical Unfortunately, there is no non-lethal method available to
signs can vary between fish species and the species of identify infected individuals, especially those in early to mid
mycobacteria can also influence the clinical symptoms stages of disease. Slow mycobacterial growth rates contribute
observed. to the late onset and chronic effects of mycobacteriosis. By the
time clinical signs and low-level mortality are observed, the
Mycobacteriosis is generally a chronic, slowly progressive disease may already be entrenched in the aquarium population.
disease. The acute form of the disease occurs rarely. It is Methods for detection of infected individuals have yet to be
characterised by rapid morbidity and mortality with few developed. The techniques for diagnosing mycobacteriosis in
clinical signs. The chronic form of the disease is most fish are continually evolving, but clinical signs and gross
commonly seen and it may take months to years for the pathology may give an initial indication of infection with
number of organisms to grow to readily detectable numbers. mycobacterial species. Most cases of mycobacteriosis are not
There is ample evidence that these organisms are capable of identified or more often, are simply misdiagnosed. It is
adapting to prolonged periods of dormancy in tissues, and that therefore recommended that infected fish be submitted to a
this dormancy is responsible for the latency of disease. laboratory for identification.

Hobbyists Diagnose Break down the original infected aquarium and any other tank
The most common bacterial infections in aquarium fish are use as a treatment or quarantine tank and disinfect them with a
caused by organisms such as Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, strong chlorine solution. Use Calcium hypochlorite 65% to
Mycobacterium and Flavobacterium. Aeromonas has been disinfect any tanks, which are in the vicinity of others housing
found to be the most common. All of them cause opportunistic live fish. Granular chlorine does not volatilise as readily as
skin infections often caused by injury or parasitic infection. liquid chlorine (Sodium hypochlorite). In a poorly ventilated
Mortality increases significantly once bacteria enter the fishroom, fumes from liquid chlorine can cause fish kills in
circulatory system. Aeromonas, Pseudomonas and adjacent tanks. Concentrations of 200–1000 mg/L available
Flavobacterium generally have short incubation period and chlorine for 60 minutes should be effective for disinfections of
rapid progression of infection. Clinical signs are generally tanks, substrate, and submersed equipment (keep filters
reached within one week of the initial infection of the disease. running during treatment).
On the other hand, mycobacteriosis is a chronic disease and it may Always use chlorine with caution as repeated use and extended
take a long time for infected fish to show any clinical signs. exposure of the silicon sealant to strong chlorine solutions will
Aeromonas infections can cause 100% mortality amongst fish in 21 destroy or render the adhesive bond ineffective on glass
days. The average mortality rate of Pseudomonas can be as high as aquariums with disastrous results. Chlorine will dissolve
50% during the first 21 days with continued mortality for another 7– synthetic material like sponge filters, but most plastics are
14 days. Within 36 hours of infection with Flavobacterium, fish will unaffected. Calcium hypochlorite is an oxidising agent and
show areas of greyish discoloration. Once established, the infection should not be exposed to intense heat, acids, or organic
can spread quickly and cause high mortality rates. In contrast, compounds because it is a fire hazard, particularly if wet. In
mycobacteriosis infected fish populations generally show low-level some cases, explosion may occur. Always wear eye protection
mortality. Therefore, if you have an infected rainbowfish with a and rubber gloves when handling large quantities of chlorine.
lesion that has not changed that much for more than 21 days, then I Chlorine can be neutralised by adding Sodium thiosulfate to
would suggest that in all probability it will be a case of the solution (7.5 grams of Sodium thiosulfate will neutralise
mycobacteriosis. the chlorine present in 5 litres of a solution of 200 mg/L).
However, disinfection is not always successful due in large part

Treatment to the resistance of many species of mycobacteria to common
Control of mycobacteriosis in aquarium systems is extremely disinfectants. Mycobacteria are resistant to many commonly
difficult once an infection has occurred. Unlike most other used bactericidal agents at standard dosage rates, including
bacterial fish diseases, there is no cure for mycobacteriosis and chlorine and quaternary ammonium compounds. Mycobacteria
it will progress despite your best efforts, resulting in chronic health can be highly resistant to chlorine disinfection. As much as
problems and eventually, mortality in the whole population. 10,000 mg/L available chlorine has been reported necessary to
kill some species of mycobacteria. Bacterial biofilm in an
Currently there are no satisfactory treatments for mycobacteriosis aquarium can harbour the organism even after aquariums and
and infections of aquarium fish should be considered non-treatable. equipment are disinfected; indeed, biofilm bacteria appear to
There are several reasons why systemic mycobacteriosis should not be more resistant to disinfection than free organisms.
be treated. There is a lack of information on the bioavailability of
most chemotherapeutic agents in aquarium fishes, as are successful Veterinarians at the National Aquarium in Baltimore, USA
well-documented clinical trials. In fact, no chemotherapeutic agent recommend using chlorine to clean the tank and substrate, etc.,
is approved for the treatment of mycobacteriosis in aquariums or and then spray 65–90% isopropyl alcohol onto the glass, and
aquaculture. Efforts to eliminate infection in affected populations allow it to dry. They recommend the alcohol as they found that
with antibiotics have not been successful as mycobacteria are mostly chlorine does not kill all mycobacteria. They use chlorine to
resistant to conventional antibiotics. Finally, mycobacteriosis has remove/oxidise organic material to assure the alcohol contacts
zoonotic potential. all mycobacteria in/on the tank. Remove all residues of
disinfectant from the aquarium before reuse. (Denise Petty
In most situations, the customary treatment for infected fish or DVM, pers. comm. 1998).
populations is euthanasia of the entire stock (especially in
breeding facilities), and the disinfection of the aquarium before
restocking. If several fish become infected in the same
aquarium, it is usually assumed that the others are carriers and
Personal Experience
Case # 1:
that they be treated accordingly. Fish that have survived an
In early 1997, I transferred some 4-year-old Goyder River
epizootic disease and have recovered may be latent carriers,
rainbowfishes from their present aquarium to a larger 600-litre
posing a significant risk to the entire population. Following
aquarium. I had raised 30 individuals and decided to split them
depopulation, the entire system, especially the filters and
in half. The 600-litre aquarium contained a mixture of fully-
substrate, must be thoroughly disinfected with a biocide. In
grown rainbowfishes. Most of them were more than 4 year old
addition, all equipment that has been in contact with the
with some specimens as old as 9 years. Over the ensuing weeks
infected fish should be disinfected. Gloves should be worn
the Goyder's, one by one, stopped feeding and started to ‘hang’
when handling infected fish or cleaning contaminated tanks or
just below the surface of the water. Apart from laboured
other equipment. Hands should be washed thoroughly
breathing, and looking as though they just had a very large
afterwards with 70% isopropyl alcohol and a bactericidal soap.
meal, no other symptoms were apparent - death followed soon

after. When only 3 individuals were left from the original 15 Stephen found that most of the fish had enlarged kidneys, which
that had been transferred, I decided that I needed some had a granulated pale colour and protruded beyond their normal
confirmation of their disorder. I took the remaining three fish to position. Granulomas were also present in the spleens and around
veterinarian, Dr. Stephen Pyecroft BVSc of Aquatic Diagnostic abdominal organs. Acid fast (Ziehl-Nielsen) stains were preformed
Services International Pty Ltd for examination. on impression smears from most of the affected organs and the
presence of acid fast bacteria was confirmed. The Diagnose:
Stephen's diagnose showed that “Disseminated caseating Disseminated granulomous inflammation - nephritis, hepatitis, and
pyogranulomatous inflammation possibly due to peritonitis.
Mycobacterium infection” and “Hepatic Lipidosis” (fatty liver
disease). He commented, “The severity and chronicity of the Stephen comments were “As we have discussed before, the
pyogranulomatous inflammation suggests this is the primary dark areas on the skin are most likely due to a malfunctioning
disease process. Special stains have shown the presence of in either the pigment cells or the nerves that control the
acid-fast bacilli consistent with Mycobacterium spp. These pigment cells in that area of the skin. The findings of a
organisms were found in the macrophages in the liver and generalised infection with Mycobacterium species would be
kidney. The hepatic lipidosis is quite severe and could well be suggestive that the localisation of the dark pigmentation is due
associated with hepatoencephalopathy although histological to the formation of local abscesses, which are then causing the
evidence of this was not detected in the brain sections expression of the major clinical sign. Most of these cases of
examined. The lipidosis was found in all those examined.” “blackhead syndrome” in rainbowfish that I have investigated
have had a primary infection with mycobacteria. There may be
“The fish I concentrated on for the histopathological other primary causes of this distinct clinical sign but in these
examination definitely showed the greatest degree of pathology fish it was piscine TB.”
and because of the diagnose of mycobacteriosis we must
suspect that the total clinical picture observed is due to this
problem. There is no ignoring the fact that these fish on the Zoonosis
whole were over weight and that the hepatic lipidosis present Mycobacteriosis is different from most other fish diseases that
would have eventually caused their demise had the TB not you are likely to experience in your aquarium. This is because
caused their final problems. The picture is still not that clear mycobacteria are capable of causing a wide range of dissimilar
and I personally believe that the nutritional imbalance leading symptoms in infected fish and its ability to cause disease in
to the lipidosis is the major management factor that will need to humans. Human infections caused by mycobacteria transmitted
be addressed. However the fact that a mycobacterial infection from fish or the aquatic environment is quite common.
is present must, in these fish, be accepted as the primary cause
of disease.” Mycobacteria have a well-documented zoonotic history. In
1951 it was found that this bacterium was able to infect people
What that means in layman terms is that the fish were who frequented swimming pools. For this reason, the skin
overweight and infected with mycobacteria. My conclusion infection was termed swimming pool granuloma. Since then,
from all this was that the 600-litre aquarium was the culprit and several authors have noted the association of the skin infection
knew somewhere down the track that I would have to destroy with aquariums and tropical fish and today is generally referred
all the fish and sterilise the tank with chlorine. This belief was to as “fish keeper’s disease”.
confirmed as I continued to have disease outbreaks in this
aquarium with some fish displaying similar symptoms while Although several hundred cases have been reported in the
others also developed external lesions. This aquarium was scientific literature, transmission from fish to human is rare. In
treated with a strong chlorine treatment and all fish and plants most cases the infected individual has been in contact with high
destroyed. It is interesting to note that the remaining 15 fish, numbers of mycobacteria, with a break in the skin at the site of
two years later and 6-years old, in the original aquarium were original infection. The most commonly infected sites involved are
still doing well, albeit on a somewhat reduced and modified the fingers and hands. Allergic dermatopathies have also been
diet, and showed no external signs of the disease whatever. reported on the skin of aquarists handling water in which affected
fish have been reared. Anyone who suspects they may have been
Case # 2: exposed to mycobacteriosis from handling infected fish should
About 8 months after the above episode I presented Stephen contact their physician and inform them of the nature of the
Pyecroft with six young (1-year-old) specimens of Melanotaenia exposure. Diagnosis and treatment may be difficult, especially in
oktediensis. All six specimens had what I refer to as view of emerging antibiotic resistance in fish pathogens.
“Blackhead Disease” in varying degrees. This disease exhibits
itself as a black darkening of one side of the head only. Two of However, “fish keeper’s disease” is not a focal infection of the
specimens also had small skin eruptions on one side of the skin. A case of mycobacteria infection contacted from mouth
body and one also showed the darkening skin colouration syphoning water from a fish tank has been reported. It concerned
along one side of the posterior portion of its body. The most an individual who experienced a throat infection that wouldn’t get
severely affected fish would swim with their head up and tail better, and was eventually diagnosed as fishtank granuloma
down and showed an increased respiratory rate. This disease (Practical Fish Keeping, Jan. 1998). So next time you do a water
(blackhead) seems to be common among rainbowfishes as I change and take a big suck on the end of the syphon hose - just
have seen it often and many other hobbyists have spoken to think of this article.
me about this problem. It also seems to be particularly
prevalent among Goyder River rainbowfish.

Chemical Treatments
A number of products are manufactured and marketed for the CHLORAMINE-T -- at a dose of 0.5 to 2 mg/L, this disinfectant
therapy and prophylaxis of fish diseases. Some of these has been reported as a successful treatment for a variety of
chemicals can be dangerous if applied incorrectly and should bacterial infections of aquarium fish; its action is based on the fact
only be used by experienced aquarium specialists. A very thin that it slowly breaks down to hypochlorous acid, releasing oxygen
line separates effective treatment levels from overdoses that and chlorine. Chloramine-T can be administered in a bath at the
will kill the fish. following dose rates for 2–3 days, using lower dose rates in soft
water with a low pH:
ACRIFLAVINE - this dye has both antibacterial and antiprotozoal
activity at a dose of 2 to 3 ppm. It will also kill aquatic plants, pH Soft Water Hard Water
colour the water yellow. Many organisms are resistant and it has 6.0 2.5 ppm 7.0 ppm
been largely replaced by more specific treatments. 5-10 mg/L in 6.5 5 ppm 10 ppm
water for several hours to several days. 7.0 10 ppm 15 ppm
7.5 18 ppm 18 ppm
ACRIFLAVINE NEUTRAL -- 5–10 mg/L in water for several 8.0 20 ppm 20 ppm
hours to several days.
This chemical is best used by aquarium hobbyists simply as a
ALKA-SELTZER -- several tablets in 17 to 34 ounces of water disinfectant for equipment.
for euthanasia of fish by CO2 toxicity.
CHLORAMPHENICOL -- Columnaris, Enteric Red Mouth, Fin-
ALUM (ALUMINIUM SULPHATE) -- dose “to effect” to rot, Furunculosis, Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Pasteurellosis, Ulcer
decrease pH in pools and aquariums. Disease, Vibriosis.
(a) 50-70 mg/kg of food/day for 5-10 days
ACETIC ACID -- 1000 to 2000 ppm dip for 1 to 10 minutes as a (b) 10-50 mg/L of water, as a bath
parasiticide for fish.
This drug should not be used for home aquaria because it is
BENZALKONIUM CHLORIDE -- this blend of quaternary unstable in water, and poorly absorbed by target fish; and, it
ammonium compounds is used at a concentration of 1 mg/L as a can cause fatal human aplastic anaemia if touched by a person
one-hour bath to treat susceptible bacterial diseases, especially gill who is allergic to the compound.
conditions where excess mucus production is a problem; it is also
utilised as a disinfectant for nets and other equipment. CHLORMON -- used to neutralizes ammonia, chlorine and
chloramines. Chlormon deals with ammonia instantly,
BENZOCAINE -- used for sedation of fish at a dose of approx. 10 destroying it completely leaving the tap water safe for
to 40 mg/L of aquarium water; for anaesthesia at a dose of approx immediate use. Chlormon used in fish transport water,
50 to 500 mg/L in the water or sprayed as an aerosol on the gills; eliminates ammonia as it is produced during transit, allowing
and for euthanasia “to effect”. for a longer and safer journey. May be added directly to a bag
of fish. Chlormon is also safe for invertebrates, no effect on
CALCIUM CHLORIDE -- used to increase water calcium marine salts. Quantitative dose rate 5 mL of Chlormon per 20L
concentration to insure proper egg hardening. Dosages used would neutralizes 0.75 ppm ammonia. 5 mL/20L also neutralises
be those necessary to raise calcium concentration to 10 to 20 ppm. chlorine and chloramines in tap water.
CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCO3) -- up to 150 ppm CHLORINE -- use household bleach equal to 5.25% sodium
indefinitely to increase the hardness of water for holding and hypochlorite as a disinfectant for aquarium equipment; chlorine
transporting fish in order to enable fish to maintain osmotic can then be rinsed off with sodium thiosulfate wash.
balance.
CHLOROQUINE DIPHOSPHATE -- this anti-malaria drug is
CALCIUM OXIDE -- used as an external protozoacide for effective against Amyloodinium at a dose of 40 mg/gal used as
fingerlings to adult fish at a concentration of 2000 mg/L for 5 a prolonged immersion of three weeks’ duration.
seconds.
COPPER SULPHATE (CuSO4) -- this “old-time” medication
CARBON DIOXIDE GAS -- for anaesthetic purposes in fish. has seen decades of use both as an effective algaecide and
an external parasite treatment, but there are much better
CHARCOAL (ACTIVATED CARBON) -- used in filtering preparations available today. Copper sulphate has also been
systems to eliminate chlorine, as well as antibiotics and other used with success as an algae control by aquarium owners at
impurities. Charcoal is sold by many aquarium supply companies the 0.1 to 0.2 ppm level, but some find the resulting water
in bags which fit inside individual filters, or as blocks which are chemistry too harsh to grow decorative plants and are
inserted into the lines of multi-tank filtering systems (200 mg/L). forced to remove it through charcoal filtration. Copper
sulphate is extremely toxic, particularly in water of low

alkalinity. Never use copper sulphate without testing the EPSOM SALTS -- (see Magnesium Sulphate)
alkalinity of the water, carefully measuring the volume of
the aquarium or pond to be treated, and weighing the FENBENDAZOLE -- used to control intestinal helminths in
amount of chemical to be applied. fish. A dosage of 25 mg/kg, delivered in food for 3-5 days, has
been commonly recommended, but this regimen has not been
The concentration of copper sulphate to apply is often evaluated in controlled trials. Also been reported as an effective
calculated by determining the total alkalinity of the water and control for hydra used at 2 mg/L. This chemical is available in
dividing that number by 100. For example, if the total various formulations and trade names.
alkalinity of the aquarium is 100 mg/L, then 100 ÷ 100 = 1 mg/
L copper sulphate. Do not use copper sulphate if the total FLUMEQUINE -- used for infections caused by susceptible
alkalinity is less than 50 mg/L. If you are unsure how to bacteria; most effective as a dip if the water pH is near neutral;
measure the alkalinity of your water, or have never used copper as a dip, use 50 to 100 mg/L for three hours.
sulphate, then do not use it.
FORMALIN -- used as a water treatment to control external
Because of its algicidal activity, copper sulphate can cause parasitic infections. It is extremely effective against most
dangerous oxygen depletions, particularly in warm weather. protozoans, as well as some of the larger parasites such as
Emergency aeration should always be available when copper monogenetic trematodes. Formalin effectively kills parasites on
sulphate is applied to your aquarium systems. Copper sulphate the gills, skin, and fins. It is not generally considered the
should not be run through the biofilter on a recirculation preferred treatment for external bacterial or fungal infections.
system, as it will kill the nitrifying bacteria. If possible, tanks Formalin can be used in a short-term bath at a concentration of
should be taken “off-line” during treatment with copper 175–250 mg/L if water temperature is greater than 20° Celsius
sulphate. If necessary, clean the biofilter manually to decrease for no more than 30–60 minutes. Treatment should never
organic debris and residual parasite load. exceed 1 hour even if the fish show no signs of stress. It can be
used as an indefinite bath at a concentration of 15–25 mg/L for
When using a commercially formulated copper cure, always up to 12 hours.
follow the label instructions for dosage rates. Chelated copper
will stay in solution longer than copper sulphate and appears to Formalin has a high level of toxicity and fish under treatment
be safer to fish. You can create your own chelated copper by must be followed closely for toxic signs such as respiratory
using two parts citric acid to one part copper sulphate, by difficulties. Under some conditions, fish may be stressed by
weight. Combine both in distilled water and dissolve them normal treatment concentrations. Heavily parasitised or
together. It is important to remember that you will be treating diseased fish often have a greatly reduced tolerance to
with the copper sulphate and not the citric acid, so when formalin. Such fish do not tolerate the normal tank treatment
weighing the formula, use only the weight of your copper regime the first time they are treated, and the time or dosage or
sulphate in calculating dosages. both may need to be reduced. If adverse reaction is observed,
fish should be removed from the treatment tank at once and
Most fish are extremely sensitive to copper. Concentrations of placed in clean well-aerated water. Careful observations should
copper as low as 42 and 17 µg Cu/L were found to be acutely always be made throughout the treatment period whenever
toxic to the Penny-fish (Denariusa bandata) and the Eel-tailed tank treatments are made.
Catfish (Porochilus rendahli) respectively. Melanotaenia
inornata and Ambassis spp. have been found to be sensitive to Formalin is a generic term, which describes a solution of 37–50%
copper; half of the individuals tested died at copper formaldehyde gas dissolved in water. Formaldehyde is a
concentrations between 120 and 200 µg Cu/L. The atyid colourless gas with a pungent, suffocating odour at room
shrimp, Caridina sp. is extremely sensitive to copper, dying at temperature; the odour threshold for formaldehyde is 0.83 ppm.
levels of only 2 µg /L. River prawns, Macrobrachium sp. were The chemical formula for formaldehyde is CH2O and the
found sensitive to copper with half the individuals dying at 160 molecular weight is 30.03 g/mol. Solutions of formalin for use as a
µg Cu/L. Snails are also known to be very sensitive to copper. fish medication should contain 10–15% methanol, which inhibits
For example the snail Physatra gibbosa (of New South Wales), formation of paraformaldehyde, a highly toxic substance.
succumbs at 31 µg Cu/L after 7 to 9 days.
Formalin can be combined with malachite green (0.1 mg/L
Copper sulphate is for specialist use only as it is highly toxic malachite green mixed with 25 mg/L formalin) to treat external
and requires removal. It is inadvisable to use this compound protozoans diseases. The two chemicals work well together and
where other treatments are available. are very effective for the control of various external parasites of
freshwater fishes.
DICHLORVOS -- (see Organophosphates)
The toxicity of formalin and therapeutical success is influenced by
DIFLUROBENZURON -- used to treat crustacean copepods water parameters and is falling out of favour as an aquarium
as a prolonged immersion at a dose of 0.11 mg/gal. treatment because of its undesirable qualities. It is a reducing agent
and thus lowers the available oxygen level in the water, which is
DOXYCYCLINE and MINOCYCLINE -- used against hardly favourable to fish being treated. Each 5 mg/L of formalin
susceptible bacteria as a prolonged immersion at a dose of 2 to applied removes 1 mg/L of dissolved oxygen. However, this can
3 mg/L. be avoided in aquarium systems by always supplying adequate
aeration whenever formalin is used.

Formalin toxicity is increased at high water temperatures. If water followed by a water change on day four. However, because this
exceeds 21° Celsius, the concentration of formalin delivered in a drug has a narrow margin of safety, some veterinarians advise
prolonged bath should be decreased. Formalin is carcinogenic to against any use of Ivermectin for aquarium fishes because it
laboratory rodents and causes contact dermatitis and lung damage can cause neurologic signs and death in fish at therapeutic
in people; it is volatile; and, it is a direct irritant to fish gills. doses.
Laboratory experiments have shown that juvenile fish exposed to
high concentrations died and fish embryos exposed to low LEVAMISOLE HCL -- used for the treatment of susceptible
concentrations were unable to hatch. nematodes at a dose of 10 mg/L of water as an immersion. 1
mg/L 1 to 2 days for skin and gill flukes; 2 mg/L once per
Formalin is for specialist use only. It is inadvisable to use this week for 3 weeks for Camallanus.
compound where other treatments are available.
MAGNESIUM SULPHATE -- used to treat external
FULLER'S EARTH -- used to reduce the adhesiveness of fish monogenetic trematode infestations and external crustacean
eggs to improve hatchability. infestations in fish at all life stages. Used in all freshwater
species. Fish are immersed in 30,000 mg/L MgSO4 and 7000
FURALTADONE -- related to nifurpirinol with which it mg/L NaCl solutions for 5 to 10 minutes.
shares antimicrobial activity; as an immersion, use 20 to 50
mg/L and treat fish for one day. MALACHITE GREEN -- used for treatment against parasitic
protozoans infecting the skin of freshwater aquarium fishes.
FURAZOLIDONE -- related to nifurpirinol with which it When used as directed, the medication will control or prevent
shares antimicrobial activity; as a prolonged immersion, use 1 the following common protozoan parasites: Ichthyophthirius,
to 10 mg/L and treat for 24 hours. Ichthyobodo, Chilodonella, Ambiphyra, Cryptocaryon,
Epistylis, Piscinoodinium and Trichodina. Malachite green is
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE -- use as a treatment of acute also effective against common external fungal infections of
oxygen insufficiency at a dose of 0.25 ml of a 3% H2O2 solution fishes and eggs, which include Achlya and Saprolegnia.
per litre of water. It can also be used to treat external protozoans at
a dose of 10 ml of a 3% solution per litre of water as a 10 to 15 Malachite green was originally developed in the 1920s as a
min bath. Used at 250–500 mg/l to control fungi on all species and textile dye. In its original form, it contained zinc, which is toxic
life stages of fish, including eggs. to fish. However, later variants came in a zinc-free form,
making it more applicable as a fish therapeutant. In the 1960s,
There are many different doses suggested in the literature for use in malachite green proved to provide the most effective treatment
aquarium fish. However, because there are hundreds of species of against protozoan ectoparasites, particularly Ichthyophthirius
ornamental fish, certain factors must be taken into account when using multifiliis. It became even more important when its
Hydrogen peroxide. It can be very toxic to some species, and certain effectiveness against Saprolegnia in fish eggs were
life stages may be more sensitive. Increasing temperature seems to demonstrated. Since then, malachite green has been extensively
increase the potential toxicity. Dosage and duration of treatment will used in controlling infections due to bacteria, fungi, protozoans
also determine whether fish being treated will live or die. Hydrogen and monogenetic trematodes on eggs, fry and adult fish. It is
peroxide can cause mortalities primarily by damaging the gills. used by itself, or in combination with formalin, salt or dimethyl
Therefore, toxic effects will often be seen related to gill damage, as sulphoxide (DMSO). Malachite green is also used in multi-
indicated by gasping near the surface, or increased ventilation rates. component treatment baths (malachite green in combination
with formalin, brilliant green, crystal violet, methylene blue,
Contrary to popular belief, in water with relatively low organic etc.). Malachite green combined with formalin (0.1 mg/L
content, the concentration of Hydrogen peroxide does not decrease malachite green mixed with 25 mg/L formalin) work well
significantly. Of course, any increase in organic loading will change together and are very effective for the control of various
this factor, but the bottom line is that Hydrogen peroxide does not external parasites of freshwater fishes. The most favourite
break down as quickly as some may think. Water changes are required multi-component preparation for aquarists is a mixture of
after treatment. formalin, malachite green and methylene blue known as FMC.
More work has to be conducted on the use of hydrogen peroxide, In recent years, however, there have been strong moves against
especially its safety, efficacy, and effects on biofiltration. More malachite green application, especially with respect to its use in
organics in the system lessen the likelihood that biofilter bacteria will food fish. In 2000, the use of malachite green for food fish was
be damaged or killed by these chemicals. However, too high an banned in the EU because the general public may become
organic load will render this chemical ineffective as a treatment. exposed to malachite green through the consumption of treated
fish. This is because the chemical is believed to have potential
IVERMECTIN (1%) -- Some studies have shown that teratogenic, mutagenic or carcinogenic attributes. While there
Ivermectin added directly to aquarium water has been useful in has been no evidence actually linking malachite green with any
treating Camallanus worms in fish. The dose used was 0.7 carcinoma, its use in food fish has been banned in many
millilitres of a 1% injectable solution per 76 litres of water. The countries. Studies have also indicated that malachite green may
dose was added over a period of four days (0.1, 0.2, 0.2, and have very long withdrawal times. Residues of malachite green
0.2 millilitres). A solution of 1 part Ivermectin 1% in 19 parts have been found in fry some 30 days after eggs were
distilled water can be made and administered as a split dose of disinfected.
2 ml on day one, 3 ml on day two, and 3 ml on day three

Despite its toxicity, it is commonly used to control parasitic water. The toxicity and hence of course its effectiveness are
protozoans on ornamental fish. Malachite green is used for primarily influenced by the reducing substances present in
treatment against parasitic protozoans infecting the skin of water, for example organic substances, calcium-ions, pH and
freshwater aquarium fishes. When used as directed, the temperature values. The toxicity of malachite green is reduced
medication will control or prevent the following common for example by humic substances in soft water. At lower water
protozoan parasites: Ichthyophthirius, Ichthyobodo, temperatures, the fish can tolerate slightly higher
Chilodonella, Ambiphyra, Cryptocaryon, Epistylis, concentrations of malachite green than at higher temperatures.
Piscinoodinium and Trichodina. Malachite green is also During the hot summer months the exposure time for malachite
effective against common external fungal infections of fishes green treatment should be decreased. Malachite green is also
and eggs, which include Achlya and Saprolegnia. An extensive more toxic at low pH. Malachite green has two forms
body of literature supports its use as an effective agent in the depending on pH. The initial strong green coloured prevails at
control of the above mentioned parasites. low pH (acidic), while in alkaline water it is converted to a
colourless carbinol form. So in alkaline water it may seem that
Malachite green is quite effective when used at concentrations it has disappeared, but it is still present, but invisible!
of 0.05 to 0.10 mg/L as an indefinite bath or 1–3 mg/L of water
for up to 60 minutes. It is also used to treat eggs against fungal For the above reasons, it is important to pay great attention to the
infections as a 2 mg/L wash for 30 to 60 minutes. This selection of malachite green to be used, take water parameters and
chemical can be extremely harsh on fish, particularly on gill temperature into account and also observe recommended dosages
tissue, so be careful not to overdose the fish. Lethal and exposure periods. One should follow the manufacturer’s
concentrations for fish and recommended therapeutic instructions for treatment, as different manufacturers use different
concentrations are sometimes very close to each other. Dosage concentrations of the active ingredients.
calculations should be double-checked before applying
treatment. Therapeutic concentrations could be different for MEBENDAZOLE -- Mebendazole is chemically related to
distinct species as well as for different developmental stages of flubendazole and fenbendazole. It is a benzimidazole
fish. It is usually applied at 0.01 ppm for postlarvae and 0.1 derivative, and is a useful broad spectrum anthelmintic, the
ppm for juveniles. It also seems to be more toxic to scaleless drug of choice for mixed worm infestations. ~ used to treat
fish than fish with scales when used at the same concentration, monogenean flukes; as a 24 hour immersion use 1 mg/L.
and should be avoided on these species.
METHYLENE BLUE -- used against ciliates infecting the skin
The progress of intoxication is very rapid. Typical clinical at 1 to 3 mg/L in a bath for 3 days, or 30 mg/L for a short
symptoms include restlessness and uncoordinated movements duration bath. Methylene blue may be used for the treatment of
of the fish in the tank. The fish move in the upper half of the Ichthyophthiriasis (white spot disease), skin and gill flukes,
tank, leap above the water surface, and gasp for air, which is velvet disease, Costiasis, Chilodonelliasis, Trichodina and as a
followed by the loss of balance, apathy, agony and death. The palliative medicine in all cases of disease of the gills, where
pathological anatomical picture of fish intoxication with fishes suffer from difficulty in breathing.
malachite green is characterised by greenish tinge of their skin
and increased production of skin slime. The gills are Methylene blue is a redox dye which raises the oxygen
oedematous, with excessive amounts of mucous matter, and consumption of cells. This means that the hydrogen to be
are discoloured by the agent. Vessels in the body cavity were oxidised is passed on to the oxygen. Each molecule of the dye
dilated, and muscle tissues and internal organs were often light- is oxidised and reduced about 100 times per seconds. Thus,
green in colour. while disinfection results from this, methylene blue is also
excellent against methemoglobin intoxication. The therapeutic
Large differences in the toxicity of malachite green in action of methylene blue on bacteria and other parasites is
dependence on its purity and varying concentrations of residual probably due to its binding effect with cytoplasmic structures
impurities that could render more or less toxic are another within the cell and also its interference with oxidation-
major obstacle in its application. High-quality grades of reduction processes.
malachite green can be produced by the inclusion of additional
purification stages in production, but even a nominal 100% Methylene blue is also effective against superficial fungal
malachite green dry powder by analysis can only contain 82% infections of fishes and may be used as an alternative to
(oxalate) or 95% (hydrochloride), the rest of the weight being malachite green for the control of fungus when it is known that
the acid component. Different toxicological properties of the fish to be treated are sensitive. It is safe for use with fish
malachite green were confirmed in a series of acute toxicity eggs and fry for the prevention of fungal infection. It is
tests on common carp and rainbow trout in which 10 types of particularly effective against Saprolegnia by applying 3 mg/L
malachite green obtained from different sources were for long duration. At a concentration of 2–3 mg/L, it can be
investigated. It follows from these experiments that lethal used as an indefinite bath for fish at all ages. When used
concentrations of some types of malachite green are very close against gill rot and other bacterial disease, the rate is at 8–10
to therapeutic concentrations. In one case the recommended mg/L as a bath treatment. It can also be applied during
therapeutic concentration of malachite green was even higher quarantine treatment of aquarium fishes by using an indefinite
than its lethal concentration. bath of 1 mg/L.
When treating fishes, it should be borne in mind that malachite Methylene blue has a wide safety margin and is non-toxic
green toxicity is significantly influenced by the quality of used when used as recommended. Fish tolerate relatively high

dosages without side effects. However, it should not be used in POTASSIUM CHLORIDE -- used as an aid in
recirculation systems that utilise biological filtration, as it will osmoregulation; relieves stress and prevents shock. Dosages
interfere with the normal biological processes of nitrifying used would be those necessary to increase chloride ion
bacteria. It can also interfere with normal plant growth. concentration to 10–2000 mg/L.
Methylene blue is best used in bare aquariums as porous
materials such as rock and driftwood will absorb the dye and it POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE -- for use against ciliates
may permanently discolour the silicone sealant. At the infecting the skin; use 4 mg/L in a bath for 30 to 60 minutes.
conclusion of treatment, a partial or complete water change
should be made to remove any chemical residues or use POVIDONE IODINE -- 100 mg/L solution for 10 minutes as
activated carbon in the filter. an egg-surface disinfectant during and after water hardening.
Methylene blue comes in various fish medication preparations PRAZIQUANTEL -- useful against tapeworms and monogenetic
available at pet shops, and these are more convenient to use flukes; at a dose of 2 mg/L, this drug has been shown to remove
than the pure form. One should follow the manufacturer's tapeworms within one hour, and external flukes within one day.
instructions for treatment, as different manufacturers use
different concentrations of the active ingredient. Praziquantel has been identified as the most effective “in water”
treatment of infected fish. Praziquantel is harmless to fish of all
METRONIDAZOLE -- used to control flagellated protozoans species, is non toxic to plants, and has no negative filter impact.
and can be delivered in a medicated food or as a bath if fish are Praziquantel is a bitter tasting powder which shows good
not eating. A concentration of ~7 mg/L can be administered absorption directly from the treated water, and then admirable
daily for 5 days. A daily water change a few hours after clearance of various surface and internal flukes and worms in fish.
treatment is recommended. Metronidazole can be administered Praziquantel has been known to the hobby for many years.
at 50 mg/kg delivered in food, for 5 days. Anecdotal Praziquantel was traditionally available in the form of branded
information suggests that excessive treatment (10 times the Droncit® tablets, for oral administration in dogs and cats, but is
recommended dosage for 30 days) with metronidazole may be now available in a range of aquarium products.
associated with reproductive failure in some fish.
Praziquantel used at 2–3 mg/L is very effective for control of both
MINOCYCLINE -- (see Doxycycline) gill and body flukes and has a wide margin of safety for fish.
Praziquantel is toxic to flukes on contact, paralysing the parasites
MS 222 (3-aminobenzoic acid ethyl ester methanesulfonate within 15 seconds under laboratory conditions. Praziquantel
salt) -- in carbonate buffered aquaria water. Rainbowfish can preparations must be dosed high enough and long enough for
be anaesthetised by bathing for 3 mins in a concentration of effective treatment. Monogeneans can be persistent in aquarium
150 mg/L. systems necessitating regular treatments. In cool water, the
parasites move through their life cycles slowly, so it is important to
NIFURPIRINOL -- this nitrofuran compound is commonly medicate long enough to intercept the emerging larvae. When
used, and effective, against many aquarium microbes: as a dip, temperatures are above 25º Celsius, treat once every 3 to 4 days for
at 1 to 2 mg/L for 5 min to 6 hours; as an immersion, at 0.1 mg/ a total treatment time of 20 days.
L for three to five days.
When temperatures are between 20 and 25º Celsius, treat once
ORGANOPHOSPHATES -- drugs of this group are used to treat every 4 to 5 days for a total treatment time of 25 days. The eggs
a wide assortment of metazoan ectoparasites; there are a number can be resilient to chemical treatment, which make the use of
of such compounds in this classification, but the ones practicing multiple chemical treatments appropriate to control this group of
veterinarians are most likely to find useful are dichlorvos and organisms.
trichlorfon in a variety of concentrations and combinations;
trichlorfon is used as an ectoparasiticide effective against flukes, Praziquantel can also be administered in food at a dosage of 35-
fish lice, and anchor worms at a dose of 0.2 mg/L active ingredient 125 mg/kg for up to 3 days or as a short-term bath treatment at a
as a permanent treatment, or as a 2 to 2.5%, five to ten minute dip; concentration of 10 mg/L for 3 hours.
trichlorfon degrades to dichlorvos (the antiparasitic entity) and
further to dimethyl-hydrogen-phosphate in aquarium water—this Change 50–75% of the water in between the chemical
chain is water pH and hardness dependent—faster in hard, alkaline treatments. Fish, which are obviously weak and heavily
water than soft, acid water. parasitised may not survive. Management to lessen the chance
of infestation by these parasites includes maintaining the fish in
PAPAIN -- use of a 0.2% solution in removing the gelatinous a good nutritional state and avoiding water quality problems
matrix of fish-egg masses in order to improve hatchability and that might weaken the fish.
decrease the incidence of disease.
The effectiveness of the long-term use of Praziquantel has been
PHENOXYETHANOL -- this drug has been used as an evaluated in ornamental fish. Cumulative doses up to 10 mg/L
anaesthetic at doses of 0.1 to 0.5 ml/L [100 to 500 mg/L], and water were tolerated without side-effects by Angel Fish
is also claimed to have antibacterial action; the biological (Pterophyllum scalare), Discus, and a variety of catfish species
activity is temperature-dependent and lower doses can be used (Ancistrus sp., Corydoras sp.). It was found appropriate to start
at lower water temperatures; there is a narrow margin of safety with a dosage of 2.5 mg/L and to add the same dosage every
and 2X doses will kill fish. other day several times.

All adult parasites and larvae were killed by this treatment. For blood salt is sodium chloride, (NaCl), the remainder made up
the complete elimination of Dactylogyridae populations in a of bicarbonate, potassium and calcium. Sodium and potassium
closed aquarium system, 3 therapy-cycles (duration: 5-6 days, are vital for normal heart, muscle, and nerve function,
accumulated dosage: 2.5 mg/L/day) proved to be effective. It excessive loss causing heart failure plus muscle and nerve
was important to interrupt the therapy-cycles with intervals spasms. Damage and stress caused by capture and handling of
without medication (1 to 4 weeks). However, there are reports fish results in the loss of salt which must be replaced. This
that kissing gouramis (Helostoma temminckii) have been replacement is an active process requiring body energy from an
adversely affected by Prazifish® (Praziquantel 98.5 mg/g). already stressed and weakened animal.
SODIUM BICARBONATE -- 142 to 642 mg/L for 5 minutes The salt addition must be exact and monitored: 10 g/L of NaCl
[or to effect] as a means of introducing carbon dioxide into the is 10 percent higher than the total blood salt content and may
water to anaesthetise fish [higher doses to euthanize fish]. cause some water loss and salt diffusion into the blood
resulting in dehydration. 7 g/L is slightly lower than normal
SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl) -- also known as salt, has many blood and is probably optimal for holding and shipping water:
potential applications in fish keeping. It effectively controls dehydration will be avoided, salt loss will be low, and the
some parasites and minimises osmoregulatory stress. kidneys will be active but not overloaded. However, those
Immersing rainbowfishes in a salt concentration of 30 g/L of species not adapted to elevated salt content may not tolerate
water for 10-30 minutes may effectively eliminate some this concentration and more dilute salt solutions should be
parasitic infestations (stop the treatment earlier if the fish show trialed. By understanding the need to maintain a water balance
signs of stress). Weaker solutions containing 5 to 10 grams per in freshwater fish, one can understand why using salt during
litre of water may be used as a bath for several hours to transport is beneficial. Most freshwater fish can tolerate a salt
eliminate some freshwater parasites. concentration of 1–3 g/L, and this level is not harmful to the
biological filter.
The use of ordinary salt (or sea water) was among the first of
the methods proposed to combat fungal disease. Often, the Salt Solution
application of salt either directly onto the diseased part of 1 gram/Litre water = 0.1%
individual fish, or as a solution in which to bathe the fish. Salt 10 grams/Litre water = 1%
can be used at 10 g/L for 20 minutes for young fish and 25 g/L
for 10–20 minutes for older fish. A continuous well-aerated salt SODIUM SULPHITE -- use a 15% solution for 5 to 8 minutes
bath of 2–5 g/L may assist in recovery by preventing fungal on fish eggs to improve their hatchability.
infections. However, there appear to be significant differences
among species and possibly families as well in the tolerance of SODIUM THIOSULFATE -- used to remove chlorine from
the larval and fry stages to salt. 0.5 to 1% solution for an aquarium water; there are many commercial preparations
indefinite period as an osmoregulatory aid for the relief of available (follow package directions); in instances where
stress and prevention of shock in fish. A 0.3 to 0.5% solution chlorine and chloramine are bonded and both contained in the
will control Hydra; a 10 to 15 min bath in a 2 to 3% solution source water, sodium thiosulfate will break the bond and
facilitates the removal of leeches. Salt is very effective against detoxify the chlorine but leave the ammonia, which then must
Trichodina, at a rate of 0.3%, added 0.1% every 12 hours for 3 be removed.
treatments. Some strains have been found to be resistant
against salt, so another choice of treatment would be Quick TOLTRAZURIL -- for use against ciliates infecting the skin
Cure® or any other medication containing Formalin. and gills; reported to be active against trophozoites if used at a
dose of 10 mg/L for two hours on day 1, then 20 mg/L on days
Care must be exercised to avoid over treatment, which will 2 and 3.
place the fish in the same condition of osmoregulatory shock.
Water constantly enters the body of freshwater fish because TRICHLORFON -- (Case Report)
their body fluids have a higher salt content than the An ornamental fish and aquarium plant producer noted
surrounding water. Salts will move from areas of high approximately 50% of fish in a pond to be swimming in erratic
concentration, (blood), to low concentration, (fresh water), by circles, apparently due to having bent bodies varying from
diffusion. While the skin is moderately watertight because of a subtle to extreme. The pond was primarily used for plant
mucus coating, the gills and oral membranes allow water to production, and contained mixed species and sizes of
pass through passively. Therefore, although these fish drink rainbowfishes. All affected fish were the pygmy rainbowfish
very little water, by controlled elimination they must excrete (Melanotaenia pygmaea) that were greater than 5–6 cm in
large volumes of urine and take in salt to maintain an osmotic length. One affected fish was submitted to Berrimah Veterinary
balance within the narrow limits necessary for life. Any Laboratories for evaluation.
physical damage to the external tissues allows increasingly
more water to enter the body, (and salt to escape), placing an At gross necropsy, spinal curvature in the dorso-ventral plane
additional burden on the kidneys. With just moderate injuries, of the proximal tail region was noted. Histological examination
this can become too much and the kidneys will fail causing revealed severe alteration in the normal size, shape and cellular
death. organisation of one region of the spinal column. There was
fragmentation and collapse of a vertebral body with associated
The blood salt content of rainbowfishes is approximately 9 g/L fibrosis and irregular bony proliferation, consistent with earlier
(0.9 percent), and an average pH 7.4. Almost 80 percent of this fracture of the vertebral column and attempts at regeneration.

Adjacent muscle fibers were necrotic. There was no evidence Chemical Effect on Nitrifying Bacteria
of an infectious cause, such as bacterial, fungal or parasitic Chemicals used to treat fish diseases and parasites can be toxic
infection of the affected tissue to explain the lesions. to nitrifying bacteria at therapeutic levels for fish. Research has
shown that there are some differences in the inhibitory effects
Subsequent close questioning of the producer revealed that the of formalin, malachite green, methylene blue, copper sulphate,
pond had been treated repeatedly in the past weeks with an and potassium permanganate on the biofilter bacteria. Different
organophosphate pesticide containing trichlorfon, at a rate of 0.5–2 studies show different effects.
ppm, to control aquatic invertebrate pests. Organophosphate
pesticide exposure of fish occurs relatively commonly, either Formalin used in one study, at 25 mg/L had no effect, whereas
inadvertently, due to environmental contamination, or deliberately, another study showed reduction of biofilter bacterial activity by
for treatment for fluke, leech and crustacean fish ectoparasites. 27% when used at 15 mg/L. As a rule of thumb, most
aquaculturists do not consider the use of formalin at 15–25 mg/
Organophosphates commonly used to treat fish are trichlorfon L to have a major impact on the biofilter. However, when
and dichlorvos. When added to water, trichlorfon degrades to testing for ammonia levels, formalin will react with Nessler’s
the more toxic dichlorvos, a process that is influenced by light, Reagent (a component of most ammonia test kits) and can give
high water temperature and high pH. Also, organophosphate a falsely elevated ammonia reading. In systems treated with
uptake and toxicity in fish is increased by low oxygenation of formalin, the salicylate reagent test for ammonia is
the water. These factors result in variable response of fish to recommended because it does not react with aldehydes (e.g.,
exposure to organophosphates, with levels greater than 0.1 formaldehyde found in formalin).
ppm being potentially toxic.
Malachite green has been shown to have no effect on the
Organophosphates exert their toxic effect by inhibition of biofilter at 0.1 mg/L, combined with or without formalin at 25
acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme involved in terminating mg/L. Copper sulphate at 1 and 5 mg/L likewise had no effect
neurotransmission at cholinergic synapses in the central on biofiltration.
nervous system, some peripheral autonomic junctions and
neuromuscular junctions. In intoxicated fish that don’t die By contrast, potassium permanganate experiments have been
acutely from central nervous system dysfunction, the muscle mixed. In one study, a 4 mg/L dosage resulted in no inhibition
spasms produced by excessive and prolonged stimulation of of the biofilter, whereas in another study, a 1 mg/L dosage
neuromuscular junctions of the muscles of the body are thought resulted in an 86% inhibition. The actual impact on an
to be sufficiently severe to result in spinal fracture and lesions individual system will most likely depend upon many factors,
as seen in this case. such as chemical concentration, length of time in treatment,
organic load, pH, temperature, alkalinity, filtration, oxygen
UREA AND TANNIC ACID -- used to denature the adhesive levels, and stocking density; and, although this will most likely
component of fish eggs at concentrations of 15 g urea and 20 g be true for most chemicals, this may better explain the
NaCl/5 litres water for approx. 6 minutes, followed by a differences in effect by potassium permanganate.
separate solution of 0.75 g tannic acid per 5 litres of water for
an additional 6 minutes. Antibiotics should never be used in aquarium systems because
of severe detrimental effects on the bacteria within the biofilter.
If a population of fish in a recirculating aquarium system must
undergo a specific antibiotic treatment, the biological filtration
system should be shut off during treatment. After treatment, a
large water changes for the treated aquarium is recommended.

Antibiotics
Aquarium systems support large populations of bacteria.
Nevertheless, they are among the least known and understood
elements of aquarium keeping. They can cause diverse
pathological conditions that include both acute systemic and/or
chronic diseases. One of the most common means of treating
these bacterial infections is to administer antibiotics. However,
this is a grossly misunderstood part of aquarium and pond
keeping and is rarely presented correctly to the aquarist or
pondkeeper. The belief that antibiotics will solve all your
problems is a common mistake often encountered in fish
keeping. Antibiotics are of limited use for treating aquarium
fishes because none of the antibiotics have been originally
developed for fishes. Their requirements were originally quite
different, with only some being adaptable to be used for
aquarium fishes.
Since they were first discovered, antibiotics have

revolutionised the treatment of a whole range of previously The method most commonly used to treat bacterial diseases of
deadly diseases in man and animals. However, as a traditional aquarium fishes is to bathe the fish in a water-soluble
strategy for aquatic disease management, antibiotics have been antibacterial compound. Although few studies have directly
extensively criticised for the potential development of compared drug levels attained by different routes of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria, as well as having marginal effect administration, practical experience suggests that therapeutic
in most cases. Antibiotics are generally not a hundred percent levels can rarely be attained by bathing fish in
effective for treating aquarium fish against bacterial infections; chemotherapeutics. In fact many antibiotics are not suitable,
some cannot be controlled with antibiotics. The success of being ineffective for use in water against bacteria, because the
chemotherapy with bacteriostatic compounds often depends on antibiotics are not readily soluble in water. This is because the
the ability of these compounds to control bacterial growth until antibiotics are for human and animal oral ingestion, and remain
the immune response can cope with the invaders. However, insoluble until the internal organs do the dissolving. If the
certain antibiotics also have been shown to suppress the antibiotics are added to the water, many will only moderately
immune system, potentially making aquarium fish more dissolve. At best, for those antibiotics that do fully dissolve in
susceptible to viral or parasitic infections. Furthermore, the the water, they will be effective for at most about an hour or
question remains whether these treatments completely less in the aquarium or pond water. Therefore, bath treatments
eliminate infection. A likely scenario is that treatments only should only be considered when treating primarily external
eliminate overt clinical signs and the treated fish become bacterial infections of the skin and gills of fish.
asymptomatic carriers.
Currently, most of the therapeutic dosages used for aquarium
A number of aquarium products are manufactured and fish have been extrapolated from the aquaculture literature.
marketed for the treatment and prevention of bacterial diseases. This is because there has been relatively little research related
However, medications sold and used in the aquarium hobby to the pharmacology for aquarium or ornamental pond fishes.
vary in quality and effectiveness. In fact, some fish medications Much of the literature dealing with antibiotic usage in
simply do not work. In 1974, Trust and Chipman tested eight aquarium fish is empirical and anecdotal. Therefore, it seems
products marketed for the treatment of bacterial diseases in undesirable to continue to allow the unrestricted sale of
aquarium fishes. The products contained erythromycin, antibiotics for aquarium use.
neomycin, nitrofuran, penicillin, sodium sulfathiazole, sodium
sulfamerazine, sodium sulfamethazine, streptomycin or Nevertheless, despite these limitations, there are times when
tetracycline. When used at the concentration recommended by antibiotics can be successfully used in treating certain bacterial
the manufacturer, the products failed to inhibit the growth of infections of aquarium or ornamental pond fishes. The problem
bacterial species known to be potential pathogens of aquarium is in knowing in each case what the bacterial infection is and
fishes. Furthermore, one of the more effective antibacterial which antibiotic is the right one to use. There are not a lot of
formulations was toxic to the fish. The results also showed that specialists in aquarium and ornamental pond keeping who can
markedly higher levels of the formulations also failed to readily provide this answer. Without expert testing of the
significantly decrease the numbers of viable bacteria in the antibiotic on the infecting bacterium, it is impossible to know
aquarium water. It is worth noting that control of bacterial beforehand whether it will be effective or not as a treatment.
growth in aquariums may further be complicated by the
presence of filtration (biological and chemical), sand, gravel, Most cases will require rapid scientific identification of the
plants, and organic matter, since these will reduce the bacteria involved and selection of a specific antibacterial agent.
efficiency of the antibacterial compound by direct inactivation However, even veterinarians with laboratory diagnostic
or by mechanically protecting the bacteria from attack. experience cannot make an accurate diagnosis of some

problems without microscopic examination of the fish or When ornamental fish are sold by retail stores to the public, the
cultivation of bacteria. If the fish have a bacterial disease and fish and a volume of their aquarium water is generally
the causative agent has been identified, a sensitivity test will transferred to a plastic bag. Although this allows the fish to be
need to be performed to ensure that the correct medication is transferred to the purchaser's aquarium, it also represents one
used. The incidence of resistant bacteria is high and a means by which the aquarium hobbyists could be exposed to
sensitivity test will show the resistance of the disease-causing pathogenic organisms. The aquarium water supplied with
bacteria to various antibiotics. However, when multiple tests ornamental fish purchased at retail outlets contains significant
are done on a bacterial infection of a particular fish to find out numbers of a wide variety of bacteria. Since the efficacy of
which antibiotic will kill the infection, it is common that the antibiotics in protecting the health of ornamental fish is not
bacteria involved will be found to be resistant to most proven and since the incidence of human infections by drug-
commercially available antibiotics. resistant bacteria is on the increase, compounds used in the
therapy of fish diseases should not include antibiotics used in
For the detection and identification of bacterial pathogens in human medicine.
populations of fish showing disease signs, ideal samples are
multiple (five or more) moribund fish or those showing clinical Most countries have a regulatory approval and control system
signs typical of the disease outbreak. For the detection of for all antibiotic agents and products containing antimicrobial
subclinical infections in populations of asymptomatic fish, larger agents used in animals, including aquaculture. However, the
sample numbers may be necessary. Fish that are found dead at the conditions under which antibiotics are supplied varies around
time of sampling are not suitable for bacteriological examination, the world. In some areas they are available “over the counter”
unless they are known to be very fresh. Contaminating bacteria from retailers. In other regions they are available only by
can grow quickly in dead fish, particularly in warm water. prescription from a veterinary surgeon.
Antibiotics are only effective in treating bacterial diseases if

treatment is applied very early during the course of the disease. Antibiotic Resistance
Medicated feed or injection, are the preferred method for Antibiotic resistance is a property of bacteria that enables them
treating systemic (internal) bacterial infections. Dose rates are to grow in the presence of antibiotic concentrations that would
based on fish weight and are expressed as weight of chemical normally kill or suppress the growth of susceptible bacteria.
per weight of fish per day for a specified number of days. Antibiotic resistance occurs naturally in some genera of
Improper doses may result in an ineffective treatment or bacteria and in others it is acquired. The antibiotic resistance of
mortalities. However, the effectiveness of oral antibiotic greatest concern is that which is acquired by bacteria through
therapy has been inconsistent as infected fish generally have a genetic mutations or through movement of antibiotic resistance
reduced appetite and, as a consequence, mortalities continue to genes from one bacterium to another. Resistant bacteria can
occur. transfer the resistance to other bacteria (even to bacteria of
different genera) that have never been exposed to the antibiotic.
Regardless of the antibiotic used, treatments should always be At the same time, the fact that one microorganism acquires
the maximum recommended dose and should be used for the resistance against an antibiotic seems to help it in becoming
total number of days recommended even if the fish appear to resistant against others. Genes that confer resistance to
have recovered. If the dose is too high or treatment times are antibiotics let bacteria become resistant to many related
too long, there is a danger of toxicity to the fish, frequently antibiotics all at once. Therefore, the continued use of an
causing liver, kidney, or other organ damage that may or may antibiotic in the presence of resistance allows those resistant
not be reversible. On the other hand, if the dose of antibiotic is bacteria to survive and become dominant within the bacterial
too low or treatment time is too short, the bacteria will not be flora.
killed or weakened enough for the immune system of the fish
to remove them, and this greatly increases the risk of the An aquarium contains a mixed bacterial culture growing in a
bacteria developing resistance to the antibiotic. When bacteria liquid medium, and it is in these conditions in which
become resistant to a specific antibiotic, even high microorganisms of different species and strains coexist and
concentrations of that drug will not be effective. multiply simultaneously that there is ample opportunity for the
transfer of genetic information, including that concerned with
Over the last number of years the veterinary use of antibiotics drug resistance. The use of antibacterial products at sub-
has been the subject of media attention. The apparent increase therapeutic levels will certainly provide the selection pressures
of the occurrence of antibiotic resistance among bacteria from necessary to increase the numbers of these drug-resistant
various areas of animal production and its possible implications strains in aquaria and hence in the environment.
for public health have in many countries lead to an intensified
surveillance of bacterial resistance. Bacteria carrying Antibiotic efficiency has been declining for various reasons,
transferable drug resistance factors have also emerge in not least the development of bacterial resistance. The causes
household aquaria and in the aquaria of the distributors of for appearance of antibiotic resistance can be many and varied.
ornamental fishes. This pool of multidrug-resistant bacteria Disease in commercial ornamental fish farms can cause great
may have considerable health implications since fishkeepers economic losses and breeding facilities are rarely supervised by
can be exposed to aquarium-borne, drug-resistant bacteria. This fish health services. This has resulted in the indiscriminate use
exposure can be by either direct contact with the water or of antimicrobials and chemicals to control infection. These
indirect contact mediated by the spread of a bacterial aerosol substances are applied prophylactically under uncontrolled
formed by the action of aquarium aeration.

conditions and often using wrong dosages. The uncontrolled supplemented with antibiotics or chemotherapeutic agents. This
use of antibiotic substances leads to the situation that fish come data indicates that water containing ornamental fishes frequently
in contact with different antibiotics and chemotherapeutants at contains bacteria that are resistant to more than one antibiotic or
an early age and bacterial resistances are built up. Among the chemotherapeutic agent. Many of the multidrug-resistant species
wide spectrum of bacteriostatic drugs, the following are used isolated in this study, such as Pseudomonas fluorescens, are
most frequently: nitrofurazone, neutral acriflavine, probably naturally resistant to many of the antibiotic agents tested.
oxytetracycline (Terramycin), Combiotic (veterinary penicillin)
and neomycin sulphate. During 1999–2000, a screening program on fish samples collected
from two German ornamental fish importers newly imported from
Furthermore, antibiotic substances are also used in shipping four different Asian countries of origin (Hong-Kong, Thailand,
water. However, while they may strengthen the resistance of Singapore and Sri-Lanka) were examined within two weeks of
fish, they are probably of little value in shipping water. After importation. Two fish species were examined from each country
shipment, the fish undergo further prophylactic treatments to of origin. For each sample, 15 fish for each group were sacrificed,
prevent disease outbreaks in the importers holding facilities. dissected and examined. After differentiation of the bacteria found,
Most fish importers use antibiotics in fish tanks as a antibiogrammes were established on Müller-Hinton-agar. The
preventative measure against illness from aquatic fish following substances were involved in the testing procedure:
pathogens. The most common antibiotics used are Chloramphenicol, Trimethoprim-Sulphonamide, Oxytetracycline,
chloromycetin, tetracycline, metronidazole and sulphadiazine. Furazolidone, Chlortetracycline, Enrofloxacin, Flumequine,
Therefore, the very high rate of antibiotic resistance in Oxolinic acid, Amoxicillin, Gentamicin, Neomycin, Colistin and
ornamental fish is probably mainly due to the uncontrolled Florfenicol. The inhibition test was carried out at three pH-ranges:
application of antibiotic drugs. pH 6.0/7.2/8.0.
The resistance of bacteria to antibiotics and other synthetic A total of 250 positive bacterial agents could be detected. Most
chemotherapeutic agents has been recognised for many years. of the findings were of facultative fish pathogenic nature. Only
There is also clear evidence that the use of antibiotics in the a few specific bacteria could be identified. A total of 13 cases
ornamental fish industry has been accompanied by the of mycobacteriosis were detected after Ziehl-Neelsen staining.
emergence of resistant variants of bacteria associated with fish In ten samples, Flavobacterium columnare was identified. Two
disease. The emergence of antibiotic multi-resistant bacteria in cases of Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. achromogenes and of
the ornamental fish industry in Southeast Asia was detected as Vibrio anguillarium infection were recorded. In the case of the
early as the mid 1970’s. Shotts et al (1976) found antibiotic facultative fish pathogenic bacteria, mainly motile aeromonads
multi-resistant isolates of the ‘Aeromonas hydrophila complex’ were found, most of them Aeromonas sobria. Furthermore,
in water and ornamental tropical fish imported from Southeast Pseudomonas (33 cases) and Myxobacteria (30 cases) were
Asia. A high percentage of the A. hydrophila isolated were identified. Another 35 other bacterial and 38 mycotic (fungal)
resistant to ampicillin, an unnamed tetracycline, agents were also isolated.
sulphamethoxazole-based drugs and streptomycin.
High disparities were observed between the rates of resistance
In 1976, a number of aquarium fish were purchased from 14 of the different antibiotic substances tested. The lowest rate of
Canadian retail outlets. The fish were supplied in plastic bags resistance was found for Florfenicol (13.4%) while
containing water taken from the aquaria in which the fish had Oxytetracycline showed the highest rate (90.1%). In general,
been housed. The water in each container was sampled for the resistance situation for substances used frequently in
bacteriological examination immediately upon arrival at the ornamental aquaculture (Tetracyclines, Furazolidone,
laboratory, and the fish were transferred to holding aquaria. potentiated Sulfonamides) is very unfavourable. In contrary,
There was a total of 40 water samples, each representing a the rate of resistance for Florfenicol, Colistin and also for
single aquarium and including a single fish species. Isolated Enrofloxacin was low.
bacteria included 57 strains of Aeromonas, 57 Pseudomonas
and 51 strains of Citrobacter. Other bacteria included species In 2002, isolates of Aeromonas species from tropical fish
of Acinetobacter, Flavobacterium, Proteus, Providencia, imported into the U.S. from Singapore were found to be
Serratia, Staphylococcus, and Vibrio. It should be noted that resistant to ampicillin (94.9%), with variable resistance to
mycobacteria were not isolated in the study, but this may have cephalexin (76.3%), trimethoprim (37.3%), tetracycline
been due to the relatively short incubation times and the non- (11.9%), cefuroxime (5.1%), and ceftazidime (1.7%). All
selective media used. strains tested were susceptible to gentamicin, chloramphenicol,
and ciprofloxacin. In another study, antibiotic susceptibility
A total of 70 different patterns of resistance were demonstrated, tests were performed on 164 strains, and resistance to
with 47% of the isolates being resistant to five or more of the ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, furazolidone, streptomycin and
antibacterials employed. The majority of strains were resistant to norfloxacin were recorded.
penicillin, tetracycline, streptomycin, ampicillin, cephaloridine,
sulfonamide, and kanamycin, but resistance to chloramphenicol, A research project on antibiotic susceptibility with three
furadantin (Nitrofurantoin), and nalidixic acid was not uncommon. isolated strains of Pseudomonas, found that the bacteria were
Resistance to carbenicillin and trimethoprim was rare, and resistance to eleven out of fifteen antibiotic drugs that were
resistance to gentamicin and polymyxin was not observed. Water tested. All the strains were highly sensitive to gentamycin
samples containing the aquarium fishes purchased at the retail while chloramphenicol and cefotaxime ranked second.
outlets also contained bacteria capable of growth on media Resistance to pefloxacin, kanamycin, streptomycin, erythromycin,

ampicillin/sulbactam, olfloxacin, amikacin, piperacillin, Some researchers have suggested ways of dealing with the
ciprofloxacin, ceftizoxime and tetracycline were shared by all problem. One suggestion is the use of probiotic bacteria to
three strains. Only a few antibiotics are effective against balance bacterial populations (harmful and harmless bacteria),
Pseudomonas. These have included fluoroquinolone, and the shifting of the ecological balance from resistant to
gentamicin and imipenem, but even these antibiotics are not susceptible bacteria by sensible chemotherapy programmes.
effective against all strains. Probiotics may protect their host from pathogens by producing
metabolites which inhibit the colonisation or growth of other
In 2007, approximately fifty diseased aquarium fish were microorganisms or by competing with them for resources such
collected from an aquarium shop in Kuala Terengganu, as nutrients or space. Recent studies have found that Spirulina
Malaysia. In the laboratory, 25 isolates were successfully algae functions as a probiotic, allowing the fishes own immune
isolated from the diseased fish. One isolate of each system to function at a higher level of activity.
Edwardsiella tarda, Flavobacterium sp., Stenotrophomonas
maltophilia, Serratia marcescens, Acinetobacter baumannii,
Acinetobacter iwoffi, Yersinia sp. and Enterobacter sp., 3 Antibiotics use in Aquariums
isolates of Chromobacterium violaceum and 15 isolates of Antibiotics are of limited use for treating aquarium fishes
Aeromonas hydrophila. because none of the antibiotics have been originally developed
for fishes, but were developed for man and farm animals. Their
The result of this study showed that the majority of the isolated requirements were originally quite different than for fishes,
bacteria were Aeromonas hydrophila. Although with only some being adaptable to be used for fishes.
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Serratia marcescens are
rarely reported in ornamental fish, several studies claimed these Aminoglycosides are toxic to fish and should be used with caution.
types of bacteria have been isolated from diseased fish. In this Severe kidney lesions have been reported in goldfish treated with
study, 41.8% cases of antibiotic resistance were recorded. On gentamicin. Toxicity may be exacerbated by a high ammonia
the contrary, 23.7 and 34.5% cases of intermediary sensitivity concentration in the water. Aminoglycosides include amikacin,
and susceptible, respectively against the tested antibiotics were gentamicin, kanamycin, neomycin, netilmicin, paromomycin,
noted. Most of the present isolates were resistant to rhodostreptomycin, streptomycin, tobramycin, and apramycin.
sulphamethoxazole except for Acinetobacter iwoffi which was ~ The Merck Veterinary Manual (2008).
found to be intermediary sensitive. In the present study,
kanamycin was found to be effective in controlling the present Amoxycillin
isolates because only one isolate showed resistance to it. Furunculosis, Gill-disease
60–80 mg/kg body weight of fish/day for 10 days
Most of the imported bacterial diseases from Asia have multiple
antibiotic resistances and are totally immune to any of the legal Chloramphenicol
treatments allowed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. In Columnaris, Enteric Red Mouth, Fin-rot, Furunculosis,
the U.S., more than 90% of strains are susceptible to third-generation Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Pasteurellosis, Ulcer Disease,
celphalosporins (cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime and Vibriosis
cefoperazone) and aminoglycosides (gentamicin, tobramycin, (a) 50–70 mg/kg of food/day for 5-10 days
amikacin, sisomicin, netilmicin, kanamycin, and neomycin). Nearly (b) 10–50 mg/L of water, as a bath
all aeromonads are susceptible to quinolones (ciprofloxacin,
norfloxacin, ofloxacin, levofloxacin, sparfloxacin, moxifloxacin and This drug should not be used for home aquaria because it is
gatifloxacin. Most U.S. strains are susceptible to chloramphenicol, unstable in water, and poorly absorbed by target fish; and, it
tetracycline, minocycline, doxycycline, and nitrofurantoine, but can cause fatal human aplastic anaemia if touched by a person
resistant to clindamycin, vancomycin, and erythromycin. Imipenem who is allergic to the compound. (N. Frank, AquaVetData
was found effective for treatment of Aeromonas infection. editor, 1998)
At present, the ornamental fish trade is running out of Ciprofloxacin

chemotherapy options due to the emergence of resistant strains Ciprofloxacin is a synthetic broad spectrum antibiotic that is
and the strict control on the licensing of antimicrobials for use effective against gram-negative and some gram-positive bacterial
in fish therapy. There seems to be no clear way to stop the pathogens of fish. It can be used for finrot, skin lesions and other
emergence of resistant bacteria as long as antibiotics are used. systemic disease. Because it inhibits unique target enzymes needed
This could be achievable however, if communication between for bacterial replication and DNA repair, it may be effective
fish health specialists and the ornamental fish trade is increased against bacteria unresponsive to other antibiotics. Treatment is
and more scientific research on chemotherapy or alternative usually by immersion bath. Ciprofloxacin activity decreases with
treatments are addressed to this particular group of fish. pH above 6.9. It can be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on
the effective concentration at the target site.
The subject of diseases in the aquarium trade, in general, puts the
industry in a difficult position. Representatives of the pet-fish Difloxacin
industry are frequently reluctant to talk about problems with Furunculosis
diseases for fear that it will result in additional regulations. 5 mg/kg body weight/day for 5–10 days
Privately, they however admit that diseases of their stocks during
confinement in close conditions, during culture, transportation, or
holding facilities are a serious problem.

Doxycycline Nitrofurazone
Streptococcosis – 2 mg/kg body weight of fish/day for an Dose is 20 mg/L as a 5-hour bath; 100 mg/L as a 30 minute
unspecified duration. Used against susceptible bacteria as a dip; Used as a prolonged immersion at 2 mg/L for 5 to 10 days.
prolonged immersion at a dose of 2–3 mg/L. Several soluble forms exist.
Enrofloxacin Oxolinic Acid

Bacterial Kidney Disease, Furunculosis Columnaris, Enteric Redmouth Disease, Furunculosis,
10 or 20 mg/kg bodyweight/day for 10 days Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Vibriosis
(a) 10 mg/kg of fish/day for 10 days
The compatibility and efficacy of enrofloxacin, an antibiotic (b) 1 mg/L of water as a bath for 24 hours
belonging to the quinolones, was tested for five ornamental fish (c) 25 mg/L of water as a dip for 15 minutes – two times daily
species (Herotilapia multispinosa, Pterophyllum scalare, for three days
Symphysodon discus, Brachydanio rerio and Melanochromis
johanni). The results prove that enrofloxacin has a high tolerance Oxytetracycline (Terramycin)
level for ornamental fishes and high efficacy against important 50–75 mg/kg of fish/day for 10 days.
bacterial diseases. 30 mg/L water over 5 hours is recommended Terramycin is usually incorporated into the feed at 0.5
for the treatment of ornamental fishes. gm/100 gm food. Terramycin must be fed for 10 days to
control the infection. An additional consideration when
Erythromycin feeding Terramycin is the drug can be broken down by high
Bacterial Kidney Disease, Streptococcosis temperatures, and it doesn't work very well in very hard
(a) 25-200 mg/kg of fish/day for 4 -12 days water. As much as 95% of the efficacy of the drug is
(b) 20 mg/kg as an Injection inactivated.
Florfenicol Sulphonamides (sulphisoxazole, sulphamerazine,

Florfenicol is a structural analogue of chloramphenicol similar sulphamethazine)
to thiamphenicol, but with more activity against some 100-200 mg/kg of fish/day for 10–20 days
organisms than chloramphenicol. It differs importantly from
chloramphenicol in that it lacks the para-nitro group that is Sulfonamides inhibit the growth and multiplication of certain
believed to be responsible for the problems of aplastic anaemia. bacteria, but do not kill them. Because of their toxicity and
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration have approved the use increasing resistance of bacteria to them, sulphonamides are of
of florfenicol as a medication food additive for the treatment of limited use in fish disease control.
Flavobacterium columnare. Recommended dosage is 10 mg of
florfenicol per kg of body weight of fish for 10 consecutive Tetracycline
days. Florfenicol is a drug that has great potential to control 75–100 mg/kg of fish/day for 10–140 days
and reduce mortalities associated with a number of fish
diseases.
Feed Additives
Furanace In the aquaculture industry, antibiotics have been added to feed
Coldwater Disease, Columnaris, Fin-rot, Gill Disease, as growth promoters, to treat specific diseases or as
Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Vibriosis prophylactics. Investigations using chromatographic methods
(a) 2–4 mg/kg of fish/day for 3–5 days have determined that many artificial larval feeds, including
(b) 0.5–1 mg/L of water for 5–10 min, as a bath shrimp flakes and micro-encapsulated diets, are adulterated
with various antibiotics such as oxytetracycline, oxolinic acid
Kanamycin and even chloramphenicol.
Fin rot, Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Mycobacteriosis, Vibriosis
50 mg/kg of fish/day for 7 days
Kanamycin has been used with some success to treat bacterial

diseases of ornamental fish. It can be administered orally at 20
mg/kg, by injection at 20 mg/kg, or in a bath at a concentration
of 750 mg/L for 2 hours. Anorectic fish can be medicated with
a bath treatment or by injection, repeated daily, until fish begin
to eat, at which time the drug can be incorporated into the feed
to complete the treatment period. Treatment should be
continued for 7 days beyond the alleviation of clinical signs.
Kanamycin mixed with food has been reported as effective

in curing fin and tail rot among ornamental fishes. It has
also been reported that Kanamycin is absorbed from water
by fishes. Dose: 2-5 gm/L for 4–5 days. Afterwards make a
35–50% water change. Also mixed in the food at 200–300
mg into 100 gm food.

Aquarium Calculations
Volume Calculations Aquarium Medication Calculations
Chemical treatments can be ineffective if volume is All aquarium medications must be applied at a prescribed rate.
underestimated and potentially lethal if it is overestimated. Accurate application of this prescribed rate is necessary to
Before determining the concentration or amount of chemical to achieve adequate control of the target organisms, and to avoid
be used the water volume must first be calculated. Therefore, unwanted results such as mortality of non-target organisms.
all fishkeepers should know the volume of their aquarium or Chemical application rates for aquariums are generally given as
pond. a final concentration of active ingredient in the water, usually
in parts per million (ppm).
Exact measurement of volume is essential in order to calculate
any chemical applications and should be calculated before a To calculate the dose rate of a chemical required in a given
problem occurs. Ponds preferably should be calculated when volume of water the formula is:
they are filled with water for the first time. The information is
then recorded so it is immediately available when needed. In Dose rate = (required ppm × litres of water to be treated) ÷
small ponds, depth should be measured across the pond in at percent of active ingredient.
least two directions. The number of different directions that
will be needed will depend on the shape and bottom uniformity [1 ppm = 1 mg/L; 1 million milligrams = 1 litre; 1000
of the pond and will have to be determined on site. If water milligrams = 1 gram; 1000 grams = 1 litre]
depth is not uniform it is important that average depth is The easiest way to find out the total amount of chemical required is
measured. Greater number of depth measurements will result to convert the rates into something understandable like milligrams or
in greater accuracy. grams. For example, to calculate the dose rate of 25 ppm (mg/L) of a
chemical with an active ingredient of 400 grams/litre in 100 litres of
Most aquariums used for holding fish are rectangular and the water:
volume of rectangular aquariums is calculated by the formula:
Volume (litres) = length × width × depth in centimetres ÷ 25 ppm x by total litres to be treated = 25 mg × 100 litres =
1000. When measuring a tank, take inside measurements of 2500 mg. 2500 mg divided by percent (40%) of active
length and width and the depth at the appropriate water level. If ingredient = 2500 ÷ 0.40 = 6250 mg.
the bottom of the tank is sloped, an average depth measurement
should be used. To get the average depth of the tank, take three Example:
measurements: at the shallow end, in the middle and at the = (25 ppm × 100 litres) ÷ 40%
deep end. Add these depths together and divide the total by 3. = (25 mg × 100 litres) ÷ 40%
= 2500 mg ÷ 0.40
Circular pond or container volume is determined by the formula: = 6250 mg or 6.25 grams.
Volume (litres) = 3.14 × radius² × depth in centimetres ÷ 1000.
The radius is measured as ½ the inside diameter of the container.
The radius is squared or multiplied by itself. For example, a
circular container with an inside diameter of 180 cm and depth of
60 cm has a volume of 1526.04 litres (3.14 × 90 × 90 × 60) ÷
1000.
Miscellaneous (parts per million and percent) Converting ppm to ppt:
0.0038 grams per US gallon = 1 ppm To convert ppm readings to ppt, divide the ppm reading by
1 milligram per litre = 1 ppm 1000. For example a reading of 5000 ppm = 5000 ppm/1000
0.001 gram per litre = 1 ppm = 5.00 ppt.
ppm = mg/L To convert ppt readings to ppm, multiply the ppt reading by 1000.
1 mg/L = 1,000 milligrams per litre For example a reading of 4.00 ppt = 4.00 ppt x 1000 = 4000 ppm.
1 Percent (%)
= 10,000 parts per million (ppm) Converting µS to mS:
= 10 grams per litre (g/L) To convert µS readings to mS, divide the µS reading by 1000. For
example a reading of 5000 µS = 5000 µS/1000 = 5.00 mS.
How to convert ppm into percent:
Percentage is parts per 100. 1 part per hundred is 10 parts per To convert mS readings to µS, multiply the mS reading by 1000.
thousand or 10,000 parts per million. So to get from ppm to For example a reading of 4.00 mS = 4.00 mS x 1000 = 4000 µS.
percentage you have to divide by 10,000.
Percent <--> Grams/Litre Conversions Units of Concentrations

This is a simple conversion. Since percent is parts per hundred, and Parts per million: Assuming the density of water is 1.00 g/mL, 1 litre
grams/litre is parts per thousand (ppt), we simply need to multiply of solution = 1 kg and hence, 1 mg/L = 1 ppm. This is generally true
percent by 10 to get grams/litre, or: grams/litre = 10 percent for freshwater and other dilute aqueous solutions.
grams per litre g/L = ppt ppt – parts per thousand (used for common ions in sea water)
milligrams per litre mg/L = ppm
ppm = mg/L = µg/mL
The two most common elements in sea water, after oxygen and
hydrogen, are sodium and chloride. Sodium and chloride combine to
form what we know as table salt. Sea water salinity is expressed as a
ratio of salt (in grams) to litre of water. In sea water there is typically
close to 35 grams of dissolved salts in each litre. It is written as 35‰.
The normal range of ocean salinity ranges between 33-37 grams per
litre (33‰ - 37‰).
Herbert River (Queensland)

Source of Information
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Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 22: 768-
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Adams, R.M., Remington, J. S., Steinberg, J. and Seibert, J. Records of the Western Australian Museum 9 (3): 301-306.
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Melanotaenia trifasciata (Cato River, Northern Territory) photo: Dave Wilson

Copyright 2010, Art Publications. All rights reserved.

This publication is distributed free of charge for personal use only.

Currently there is world-wide enthusiasm for aquarium fish from our

Hans Herbert Boeck - Germany Gunther Schmida - Australia

Bernard Delsarte - Belgium Jim Tait - Australia

Heinrich Gewinner - Germany Graham Weston - Papua New Guinea

Johannes Graf - Germany

Bruce Hansen - Australia

Buddy Jonkers - Germany

Gary Lange - United States America

Christophe Mailliet - Germany

Leo O'Reilly - Australia Cover Design - Hans Booij

Foods & Feeding 97

Rhadinocentrus ornatus 403

Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis 410

Disease Prevention & Control 417

White Spot Disease 428

Rainbowfishes—Their Care & Keeping in Captivity 1

2 Rainbowfishes—Their Care & Keeping in Captivity

Rainbowfishes—Their Care & Keeping in Captivity 3

During this early period rainbowfishes were known as sunfish.

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Photo: Alan Travers

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8 Rainbowfishes—Their Care & Keeping in Captivity

10,000 years ago. 20,000 years ago.

30,000 years ago. 50,000 years ago.

The current distribution of a number of northern Australian and

10 Rainbowfishes—Their Care & Keeping in Captivity

In Australia, rainbowfishes generally occupy three broad climatic

The majority of rainbowfishes found in Australia are

There are three major landforms on the mainland of

The Australian 1:250,000 scale map series shows about three

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There is not much data on the frequency with which total

Roper River (Northern Territory)

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Sepik River (PNG)

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Photo: Jennifer Palmer

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“Sometimes you just don’t quite make it”

“Sometimes you have time to just hang around!”

“Sometimes you can get very lonely!”

Equipment in and minimise their escape. Catch is dependent on mesh

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By far the best method for transporting rainbowfishes home is

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Photo: Hans Booij

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Rainbowfishes - Their Care & Keeping in Captivity by Adrin R. Tappin

Rainbowfishes - Their Care & Keeping in Captivity by Adrin R. Tappin