Don Griffiths, Pham Van Khanh, Trinh Quoc Trong, FIRI

Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage, 1878)

[Pangasiidae]
FAO Names: En – Striped catfish, Fr – Requin baleine, Es – Tiburón ballena, Arabic – .......,
Chinese – [鱼芒] 鲶, 蓝鲨

(Source: Chavalit Vidthayanon)

Biological features
Body long, latterly flattened with no scales. Head relatively small. Mouth broad with small sharp teeth on
jaw, vornerine and palatal bones. Eyes relatively large. Two pairs of barbels, upper shorter than the
lower. Fins dark grey or black. 6 branched dorsal-fin rays. Gill rakers normally developed. Young fish
have black stripe along lateral line and another long black stripe below lateral line; large adults uniformly
grey but sometimes with greenish tint and sides silvery. Dark stripe on middle of anal fin; dark stripe in
each caudal lobe; small gill rakers regularly interspersed with larger ones.

Image gallery

Broodstock Pangasianodon hypophthalmus

(Photo: Pham Van Khanh)
Private striped catfish hatchery in the Making home-made feed Feeding time
Mekong delta of Vietnam (Photo: SUFA, FSPS) (Photo: J. Garrison for MRC)
(Photo: SUFA, FSPS)

Striped catfish floating cage culture Processing striped catfish fillets for export
production units in Vietnam (Photo: Erik Keus)
(Photo: Joe Garrison for MRC)

Historical background
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus is one of the major fish species in the Mekong River fishery, one of the
largest and most important inland fisheries in the world. The traditional development of capture-based
aquaculture for this species, particularly in Vietnam and to a lesser extent in Thailand and Cambodia,
probably began because it is a prolific spawner, producing relatively large numbers of larvae that are
easily harvested from the flowing river.

Aquaculture geographical distribution

Habitat and biology

Originally known as Pangasius sutchii or Pangasius hypophthalmus, this riverine freshwater species is
limited to the Mekong River, the Chaopraya River and possibly the Mekong basins in Cambodia, Lao
PDR, Thailand and Vietnam, together with the Ayeyawady basin of Myanmar, within a range of 19°N to
8°N. The species has a variety of common English names including Sutchi catfish, iridescent shark-
catfish, and striped catfish. It is called ‘Pa sooai’ and ‘Pa sooai khaeo’ in Laotian, ‘Pla Sawai’ in Thai,
‘Pra’ and ‘Trey pra’ in Khmer and ‘Cá Tra’ in Vietnamese.
Like all Pangasiid species, P. hypophthalmus is a highly migratory riverine fish species that makes long-
distance migrations over several hundred kilometres (potamodromous) between upstream refuge and
spawning habitats and downstream feeding and nursery habitats. P. hypophthalmus is omnivorous,
feeding on algae, higher plants, zooplankton, and insects, while larger specimens also take fruit,
crustaceans and fish.

Mature fish can reach a maximum standard total length of 130 cm and up to 44 kg in weight. This
species is benthopelagic, typically living within the ranges of pH 6.5-7.5 and 22-26 °C. Females take at
least three years to reach sexual maturity in captivity (being then over 3 kg in weight), while males often
mature in their second year, probably taking about the same time in the wild. A mature 10 kg female can
spawn over one million eggs. Wild broodstock typically spawn twice annually but in cages in Vietnam
have been recorded as spawning a second time 6 to 17 weeks after the first spawning.

The life cycle of P. hypophthalmus is intimately tied to the annual monsoon flood cycle, with spawning
taking place in May - June at the start of the monsoon season. In the dry season this and other species
congregate and shelter in the deeper refuge areas. The spawning habitat consists of rapids and
sandbanks interspersed with deep rocky channels and pools. The eggs are sticky eggs and are
deposited onto the exposed root systems of rheophilic tree species like Gimenila asiatica.

Aquaculture introductions have taken place to several other Asian countries including Bangladesh,
China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia and Myanmar.

Production systems
Seed supply and hatchery techniques

In the Mekong delta of Vietnam the capture of wild Pangasianodon hypophthalmus seed for aquaculture
stocking has been entirely replaced by the stocking of hatchery-produced seed. However, operations in
Cambodia, Lao PDR and, to a lesser extent, Thailand still use wild-captured juveniles as seed for cage
and pond culture.

Mature broodstock P. hypophthalmus are induced to spawn in hatcheries using HCG or HCG and
pituitary gland extract. Female broodstock are given between 2-4 hormone injections while males are
injected only once when the female resolving dose is given. Broodstock are spawned in single pairs or
in larger numbers and are usually dry stripped. The eggs are incubated in conical shaped jars made
either of stainless steel or glass, with up-welling water flow to keep the eggs in suspension. Depending
on water temperature, the eggs hatch usually hatch within 22-24 hours. Yolk sac absorption takes a
further 24 hours. The larvae are transferred from the hatchery just prior to full yolk sac absorption.

Nursery

Nursing is done in 2 separate stages to reduce stocking density. Earthen nursery ponds, typically 1000-
2
5000 m , are pre-prepared by drying (1-3 days, depending on season), liming (1 t/ha), filling and
stocking with Moina (20-30 kg/ha). Water supplied to nursery ponds is filtered through fine meshed cloth
2
to exclude predators. In the first nursing phase larvae are stocked at 400-500/m just prior to yolk sac
absorption, so that natural feeds are available and the larvae have enough space to avoid cannibalism.
Water is only topped up and is not exchanged during the nursery phase unless water quality
deterioration is obviously causing stress. Boiled egg yolk and soybean meal mixed into an emulsion is
fed 5 -6 times a day for the first 2 weeks. Thereafter commercial pellets are fed.

After 4 weeks, following a 24 hour starvation period the nursery ponds are partially (about 1/3 depth)
gravity drained and then pumped dry, and the 0.3-1 g fry are harvested by seine net and transferred and
2
stocked at 150-200/m in another pre-prepared pond without Moina. Typical larvae to fry survival rate
during the first nursing stage is 40-50 per cent. In the second nursing stage, from fry to 14-20 g
fingerlings, survival rates over the 2 month nursing period are typically 60-70 per cent.

In the Mekong delta of Vietnam the majority of fingerlings are transported from nursery facilities to grow-
out farms in transport tanks with continuously pumped water that are carried in boats. Fingerling
transport is done early in the morning to avoid direct sunlight. Transportation of fingerlings overland is
less commonly conducted; this involves using metal drums with car battery powered aeration.
Additionally, transportation overland for very short distances can be carried out in metal drums without
aeration.

On-growing techniques
Being a facultative air breather P. hypophthalmus tolerates dissolved oxygen as low as 0.05 to
0.10 mg/litre, highly polluted water (chemical oxygen demand = 25), and can be stocked at densities as
2
high as 120/m .

The three most common on-growing monoculture systems are earthen ponds, net cages and net pens.
The latter two are sited on major river tributaries of the Mekong River delta. Small-scale integrated pond
polyculture systems, which were previously common, are being phased out.

Ponds
2
Earthen ponds (typically ranging from 1000 to 10 000 m ) are of simple design and are sited adjacent to
or near river tributaries. Producers aerate the ponds and exchange water for several hours daily during
the culture period by tidal exchange and pumping; this reduces muddy off-flavour and produces whiter
2
flesh. Despite recommendations from government extension agencies to stock 20-40 fish/m , intensive
2
monoculture ponds are usually stocked at 40-60/m with some grow-out farmers stocking even higher.
Yields reach 250-300 t/ha/crop, exceptionally reaching 500 t/ha/crop in ponds. Striped catfish reach 1.0-
1.5 kg after 6 months or less, depending on the size of fingerlings stocked. Today (2010) few striped
catfish monoculture grow-out producers can be described as ‘small-scale’ because the minimum harvest
from a single pond is usually 50 tonnes or more.

Net cages

Net cages are sited on major river tributaries of the Mekong River delta and range in size from 50 to
3
1 600 m with larger cages commonly having living quarters above the water. On-growing cages are
3 3
typically stocked at 100-150/m and yields are typically 100-120 kg/m /crop.

Net pens
2
Stocking densities for pen systems are typically 40-60/m , producing yields of 300-350 t/ha/crop,
although levels as high as 500 t/ha/crop have been are reported.

Feed supply

In the 1990’s, most Vietnamese striped catfish on-growing producers used farm-made feeds prepared
from various ingredients, including trash fish, rice bran, soybean meal, blood meal, broken rice,
cottonseed flour, milk, egg and vegetables (e.g. water spinach and green peas), supplemented with
Vitamin C and E premixes. The ingredients are mixed together, cooked and fed in balls or extruded into
noodle strands or pellets.

From 2008, with food safety concerns and fluctuating farm-made feed quality, now 95-97 per cent use
commercial pellets. The unit cost of farm-made feeds is cheaper but these feeds have FCRs of 2.8-3.0:1
and cause greater water quality deterioration. The feed conversion ratio of P. hypophthalmus fed
commercial pellets is typically 1.7-1.9:1. Larger-scale producers in Vietnam only use commercial pellets,
while medium-scale grow-out producers typically usually use commercial pellets for the first month and
the last month of the on-growing period and farm-made feeds for the middle four months. This technique
reduces the cost of each kilogram of fish produced despite the higher FCRs of farm-made feeds.
Depending on rearing intensity feed represents 65-85 per cent of on-growing costs.

Harvesting techniques

Striped catfish are harvested from ponds by netting, following partial tidal gravity drainage and pumping.
Cages are harvested by raising the cage netting by hand. It is normal for an entire pond or cage to be
harvested at a single time to meet the large volume requirements of processing plants. Net pens are
harvested by seine netting on spring low tides.

Handling and processing

The harvested fish are usually transferred to processing plants live in well boats without aeration by
river.

The majority of striped catfish is exported in freezer containers by sea as frozen fillets (2.7-3.3 kg of fish
is required to produce 1 kg of fillet). Live whole fish are sold in the domestic market, being transported
either in well boats without aeration or in tanks on trucks with aeration.

Production costs
Production costs for household-scale intensive pond-reared P. hypophthalmus are relatively stable but
margins are extremely tight. Production costs in early 2009 for commercial-scale striped catfish grow-out
producers were approximately VND 15 000/kg (US$ 0.83/kg) excluding capital investment costs; this
was offset by sale prices of VND 16 000/kg (US$ 0.89/kg). At that time household-scale grow-out
producers were only being paid VND 14 000-15 000 (US$ 0.78 – 0.83/kg) for market sized fish by
processing plants but their production costs at approximately VND 13,000 – 14,000 (US$ 0.72 – 0.78
kg) excluding capital investment costs were lower . Most grow-out farmers view capital investment costs
as a ‘sunk cost’. Profit margins in early 2009 were so tight that striped catfish grow-out farmers in
Vietnam were unlikely to recover their capital investment costs fully.

Diseases and control measures

Despite large tonnages being produced at extremely high densities large-scale disease outbreaks and
mortality of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus seldom occur. The following diseases, however, have been
recorded.

DISEASE AGENT TYPE SYNDROME MEASURES

Bacillary Necrosis Edwardsiella Bacterium Petechial Antibiotics
of Pangasius ictaluri haemorrhages on
(BNP) eyes and fin
bases; white spots
in the kidney,
spleen and liver;
some cellular
necrosis
Motile Aeromonad Aeromonas spp. Bacterium Haemorrhages on Improved water
Septicaemia (mainly A. eyes, body and quality and
(MAS) hydrophila, A. fins; bloody nutrition;
sobria and A. ascites in the antibiotics
caviae) peritoneum,
leading to swollen
belly
Jaundice disease Not confirmed Not confirmed Yellowing of the Improved
flesh husbandry and
nutrition;
antibiotics

Parasite infections including Ichthyophthirius and Trichodina can occur at the fingerling stage and are
usually treated with 15-20 ppt of formalin for 30 minutes with aeration before water exchange. The fluke
worm (Clonorchis sinensis) can infect the liver during the grow-out stage. Prevention by thorough pond
preparation is essential because treatment with drugs takes time and has a low efficacy.

Suppliers of pathology expertise

The following institutions can provide expertise on this topic:

 Sub-offices of the Department of Animal Health, of the Department of Agriculture and Rural
Development in Vietnam;
 Research Institute for Aquaculture #2, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam;
 Aquaculture Faculty, Can Tho University, Vietnam; and
 Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, United Kingdom.

Production
Global aquaculture production of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (FAO Fishery Statistics)
Vietnam is by far the world’s largest producer of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus, producing
>1.1 million tonnes in 2008 (POSMA, 2009). Other producers are Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR,
Myanmar, Bangladesh and China.

Market and trade

Vietnam exports P. hypophthalmus to over 80 countries, including several in Europe (especially Poland
and Spain), Asian countries, Mexico, Australia, the USA, and the Middle East. New markets such as
Russia are emerging. The EU remains the most significant market (35 per cent by volume, 40 per cent
by value).

Vietnam has the capacity to process 3500 tonnes of aquatic product daily and the capacity is increasing.
There are presently 405 industrial-scale processing plants in Vietnam, of which 301 are certified for
export to Europe and 30 are certified to export to the Russian Federation; 16 per cent are currently ISO
certified.

Following low prices at the end of 2008 many Vietnamese farmers failed to stock their ponds in 2009,
thus raising market price. The 2009 indicative price of 170 g skinless IQF striped catfish fillets imported
into Europe from Vietnam was US$ 2.65/kg.

The farming of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus has seen it emerge as a commercial freshwater species
that is now a significant component of global whitefish supplies. While trade in frozen products generally
stagnated in 2007 and 2008, P. hypophthalmus was the exception, with trade increasing 311 per cent,
traded primarily as frozen IQF fillets. This species is now a highly competitive, high value white fish
product on many markets.

Status and trends

It is anticipated that aquaculture production of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus will further increase in the
medium term. Prices will initially remain stable, but may drop later if China solves its striped catfish
production problems and increases output.

However, the farming of this species is a very high risk activity for household-scale production units
because profit margins are extremely tight. It is likely in the medium- to long-term that household-scale
grow-out producers will go out of business as the industry consolidates. Associated with increasingly
strict market requirements for tracking, tracing and product certification, striped catfish farming will
probably move toward large-scale vertically integrated operations.

Main issues
Further market research is required (and effective dissemination to producers) on price trends and
comparative advantage in domestic and international markets.

Additional research is also needed on:

 Marketing and distribution infrastructure, and optimal location of cold storage facilities;
 Production strategies to exploit seasonal price variation; and,
 Improving the quality and reducing the costs of commercial pelleted feeds in Vietnam.

Profit margins on Pangasianodon hypophthalmus grow-out systems are tightening. This will further
increase pressure to cut costs and increase efficiency. Smaller less efficient farms are likely to go out of
business and there will be consolidation within the industry, with a greater proportion of larger, more
efficient vertically integrated striped catfish production units.

There will be increasing pressure from retailers and buyers for P. hypophthalmus produced in
environmentally sustainable production systems and in a socially equitable manner. The former will
require greater investment and research on improving on-growing farm design, particularly concerning
water intake and treatment, storage, and water treatment and discharge systems.
Responsible aquaculture practices
Discharge of high nutrient loads, with high BOD and COD levels, from intensive pond monoculture of
P. hypophthalmus is a major environmental concern that is causing localized pollution. It is anticipated
that western retailers and consumers will increasingly only buy fish from production systems that are
environmentally friendly.

The following key factors have been recognized as important for promoting responsible striped catfish
aquaculture in Vietnam and enhancing its market share:
 promotion of and implementation of Pangasianodon hypophthalmus GAP, BMP and COC
nationwide in Vietnam;
 effective implementation to prevent transfer of broodstock striped catfish between river
catchments to prevent negative impacts on genetically isolated populations;
 establishment of cost effective product traceability systems throughout the production chain
and cost effective group marketing initiatives;
 development of cost-effective group environmental management and bio-security measures;
and,
 sharing and dissemination of market price information on input costs and end product.

Bibliography
Crumlish, M. & Dung, T.T. (2006). Strategies to reduce risk and livelihood impact associated with
outbreaks of Bacillary Necrosis of Pangasius spp. (BNP) farmed in the Mekong Delta, Viet Nam. DFID
Aquaculture and Fish Genetics Research Programme, Final Technical Report (R8093). DFID, London,
England. 186 pages.

Edwards, P., Tuan, L.A. & Allen, G. (2004). A survey of marine trash fish and fishmeal as aquaculture
feed ingredients in Viet Nam. Australian Center for International Agricultural Research, Canberra,
Australia, 56 pp.

Gustiano, R. (2003). Taxonomy and phylogeny of Pangasiidae catfishes from Asia (Ostariophysi,
Siluriformes). PhD thesis. Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium. 295 pp.

Hambrey, J. & Tuan, L.A. (2009). Risk profile of household scale production of Pangasius and shrimp in
the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. International consultancy report for the Sustainable Development of
Aquaculture Component of the Fishery Sector Programme Support Phase II. Contract # KK-2009-027-
02. March 2009. 93 pp. Unpublished report for the SUDA component of the Danida funded FSPS II.
[http://www.ambhanoi.um.dk/en/menu/Developmentpolicy/SectorProgrammes/Fisheries/]

Ish, T. & Doctor, K. (2005). Tra and basa: Tra (Pangasius hypophthalmus) and basa
(Pangasius bocourti). Seafood Watch, Seafood Report, Monterey Bay Aquarium, California, USA. 29 pp.

Khanh, P.V. (1996). Induced spawning of river catfish Pangasius hypophthalmus in the Mekong Delta of
Viet Nam., Doctoral thesis, University of Fisheries, Nha Trang, Viet Nam (in Vietnamese).

Lazard, J. M. & Cacot, P. (1997). Aquaculture systems in Viet Nam: an overview, challenges and
prospects for the future. Cahiers Agricultures, 6(5):127-136.

Phillips, M.J. (2002). Freshwater aquaculture in the Lower Mekong Basin. MRC Technical Paper No. 7.
Mekong River Commission. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. 62 pp.

Phu, T.Q. & Hein, T.T.T. (2003). Changes in types of feeds for Pangasius catfish culture improve
production in the Mekong Delta. Aquanews, 18(3):4-5.

Phuong, N.T. (1998). Pangasius cage culture in the Mekong Delta – current situation and study for
feeding improvement. PhD thesis, Can Tho University, Viet Nam. 62 pp.

POSMA, FSPS II (2009). Briefing document on the current status of Vietnam’s fishery sector. Prepared
by the Post-Harvest and Marketing Component of the Fishery Sector Programme Support Phase II.
June 2009. 50 pp. Unpublished report prepared for the FSPS II national steering committee meeting,
June 2009. [http://www.ambhanoi.um.dk/en/menu/Developmentpolicy/SectorProgrammes/Fisheries/]

Poulsen, A.F., Hortle, K.G., Valbo-Joergensen, J., Chan, S., Chhuon, C.K., Viravong, S.,
Bouakhamvongsa, K., Suntornratana, U., Yoorong, N., Tung T.T. & Tran, B.Q. (2004). Distribution and
ecology of some important riverine fish species of the Mekong River Basin. MRC Technical Paper No.
10. Mekong River Commission, Vientiane, Laos. 116 pp.

Poulsen, A., Griffiths, D., Nam, S. & Nguyen, T.T. (2008). Capture-based aquaculture of Pangasiid
catfishes and snakeheads in the Mekong river basin. In A. Lovatelli & P.F. Holthus (eds.), Capture-
based aquaculture. Global overview. pp. 83-105. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 508. FAO, Rome,
Italy.

Roberts, T.R. & Vidthayanon, C. (1991). Systematic revision of the Asian catfish family Pangasiidae,
with biological observations and descriptions of three new species. Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 143:97-144.

Trong, T.Q., Hao, N.V. & Griffiths, D. (2002). Status of Pangasiid Aquaculture in Viet Nam. MRC
Technical Paper No. 2, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. 16 pp.

Van de Braak, K. (2007). Vietnamese Pangasius industry: current practices, developments and
implications for export to the European Union. Wageningen University, Netherlands. 42 pp.

Van Zalinge, N., Lieng, S., Ngor, P.B., Heng, K. & Jorgensen, J.V. (2002). Status of the Mekong
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus resources, with special reference to the stock shared between
Cambodia and Viet Nam. MRC Technical Paper No. 1, Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia. 29 pp.

Related links
http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/speciesSummary.php?ID=14154&genusname=Pangasianodon
&speciesname=hypophthalmus&lang=English

http://www.fishbase.org/comnames/CommonNamesList.php?ID=14154&GenusName=Pangasian
odon&SpeciesName=hypophthalmus&StockCode=14046