Vertebrate Biodiversity of Ginny Springs

Kacey Christian
2 April 2014
Vertebrate Biodiversity
Section: Wednesday, AM
What Lies Beyond the Pollen

Introduction

On 22 March 2014 I visited the Santa Fe River and entered through Ginny
Springs via a canoe, my mission entailed identifying twenty-five or more vertebrates. My
purpose was to discover local vertebrate fauna around Ginny Springs and the Santa Fe
River area. I wanted to know about the diversity around that area as I have always visited
that area as a child. The springs inhabit many areas where local Floridians gather to float
down the river, fish, or let their children play in the springs surrounding the area. As
such, I wanted to see what species coexisted with the people who visited there. Also,
along the river housed several private properties along the riverbank. Despite this, most
areas that day were uninhabited and unvisited by people. Many people use it as a vacation
spot and a seasonal thing during the summer and a lot less during the other months. There
are also miles of riverbank that do not house private property and are used as reserves.
Methods:

The time period I did this was between 9:30 am to 7:05 pm on 22 March 2014, the
weather was clear and sunny, the water level was high and the current was strong. To
complete this, I brought with me a waterproof camera, my cell phone (also for pictures), a
bucket and a net to catch vertebrates to better identify them. I observed the animals by
catching them and putting them in the bucket or I viewed them from a distance in the
canoe and took a picture and took note of their features.

Vertebrates

1. Suwannee
Bass;
Micropterus
notius
(Bailey
&
Hubbs,
1949)

(Photo credit: http://anglerslifelist.com/taxon/suwannee-bass )
Here is a photo of a freshly caught Suwannee bass. Take note of its large gills and mouth and how
the fisherman is holding it by its bottom jaw.
Found swimming in the current of the Santa Fe River, I caught the
Suwannee Bass via a net and put it in the bucket I had with me. I took note and
made sure to study the specimen I had found: the spots, the coloration, and the gill
size. When I first found the specimen I had considered it being just a “bass,” I had
no clue there existed a Suwannee Bass until I searched for a species that match
my description.
Micropterus notius, were found in areas from the Ichtucknee Springs,
tributary to Santa Fe River, in the limestone sink of North Florida. They follow
the Ichtucknee Springs discharge into the Santa Fe River of the Suwannee River
System. Suwannee Bass are an endemic species in the sinkhole region and are
presumed to be the most generalized species of the genus and a possible relict.
(Bailey and Hubbs, 1949).
Suwannee Bass have a small range, and are thus considered a special
concern species in Florida and rare in Georgia. And there is very little information
regarding the spawning of Suwannee Bass in their environments (Strong et. al.
2010).
They make their nests in circular depressions in the substrate and in
shallow waters along the littoral portion of the river, spring, or other bodies of
water. Suwannee Bass utilize areas of low current flow and submerged aquatic
vegetation (Strong et. al. 2010).
According to fishbase.org, the Suwannee bass is considered lower risk:
near threatened in terms of their red list status. According to the Encyclopedia of

Life website, they make seasonal migrations that are less than 200 km. They feed
mostly on crayfish, to a lesser extent on fish and shrimp. They also spawn
February to June, with an onset of spawning at 18-20 degrees Celsius. Potential
threats to their survival come from pollution and human degradation of their
environments. Also, the species is a common game fish.
2. Bluegill;
Lepomis
macrochirus
(Rafineque,
1819)

(Photo credit: http://www.fcps.edu/islandcreekes/ecology/bluegill.htm )
A bluegill fish is named for the blue coloration on the edge of its gill rakers. Take note of its fins
and see how it is a member of the sunfish family.
I found a juvenile Bluegill fish in the stream near a submerged log when
canoeing past, I caught it with my net and spent several minutes identifying it, I
immediately took note of the blue-ish grey coloring of the fins and the black spot
above its gill.
Colors of Bluegill fish are influenced by maturity, sex, and season. Color
also varies with the condition of males, with healthier and better males having
darker coloration and that coloration is a condition-dependent sexual signal during
the breeding season (Cogliati, et. al. 2010). Bluegills prefer to nest on shallow
land and they are density dependent.
The Bluegill lives in streams, rivers, lakes and ponds, thus it is a
freshwater dwelling fish and can swim between deep and shallow water, where it
resides depends on the time of day and season. They range all over the U.S. and
are being introduced into Europe, Africa, Asia, South America and Oceania. It
prefers to reside in old logs in the water and will inhabit other areas where they
can hide, going so far to prefer shade of trees instead of being out in the sunlight.
Blugills eat any animal smaller than eat, and their diet sticks to insects. They are
subject to predation from many animals, specifically fish larger than them, gators,
birds, and turtles. In terms of conservation status they are of least concern, but
they are a common source of prey and humans also fish on them (Cerulean,
1993).

3. Redbreast
Fish;
Lepomis
auritus
(Linnaeus,
1758)

(Photo credit: http://www.kidsfishing.org/fishid.html )
The redbreast fish is another fish in the sunfish family. The second part of its name auritus, in
Latin, means eared: notice how there is an extension from the gill that looks like an ear (located to
the right of the eye and above the pectoral fin).
I found the Redbreast near a cave in a spring, it was among the reeds and
surrounded by a couple of rocks. I caught it and examined it, as the name denotes
I caught sight of its red breast in the sunlight. Its fins were slightly sharp and it
looked very similar to the species in the photograph above.
An interesting thing about Redbreasts are that the males build and tend
nests and that multiple females will spawn at several nests (2-6 females) and
about 90% of the sired young is from the male who constructed the nest.
Sometimes, males who never fathered the offspring tend nests, and forty percent
of nests show genetic evidence of low-level reproductive parasitism (DeWoody,
et. al., 1998). They also do not produce sound during courtship (Cerulean, 1993).
Redbreast Sunfish typically inhabit backwater areas with low current flow,
and they tend to favor bottom areas that are sandy. They are common in rivers of
north Florida, but are absent from south Florida. They can also inhabit large
streams and rivers to reservoirs. They also occur along the Atlantic Coast, across
southern Georgia, and to the Chattahoochee River. It also makes appearances and
could be native to the Coosa and Tallapoosa river systems (Cerulean, 1993).
Their diet is varied; they can eat bottom dwelling insect larvae, snails,
clams, shrimp, crayfish, mollusks and small fish. They also grow slowly
compared to their relatives in the sunfish family (Cerulean, 1993).
In terms of conservation, the Redbreast sunfish is of least concern and it is
thriving in its respective environments (Cerulean, 1993).

4. Shellcracker
Fish/
Redear
Sunfish;
Lepomis
microlophus
(Günther,
1859)

(Photo credit:
http://gallery.nanfa.org/v/members/Nate+Tessler/nativenorthamericanfreshwaterfish/centrarchidae
/Lepomis/microlophus/Redear+sunfish_+Roanoke+River_+8-2-11_+NT.jpg.html )
Redear sunfish is so named because of the red spot located at rear of the opercular flap.
When canoeing I noticed the Redear sunfish at the bottom of the river in an area
where there wasn’t much underwater foliage, it was at the bottom amongst the rocks and,
before I caught it with my net, it looked like it was feeding on something in the rocks. I
saw this fish more near a spring, this is where the water was much clearer and a lot more
species could be viewed.
Invasive quagga mussels are spreading across the Southwestern U.S. at
unprecedented rates, and there aren’t many controls to this growing population that are
not risk free. However, it has been discovered that, although short term does not withhold
much results, a long-term residence of Redear Sunfish can solve the problem. Further
studies are being conducted on how Redear Sunfish can help control this population, the
only answer required is what density is needed for this fish to control the mussel
population (Wong, et. al., 2013).
Lepomis microlophus occurs in moderate to large streams, rivers, lakes, swamps and
other standing-water habitats. They spawn from late April to early June. Males construct
and defend nests until they hatch. They produce grunting noises during courtship. They
got the common name of Shellcracker because of their muscles that allow the fish to
crack open mollusk shells. They coexist with bluegills and largemouth bass. Aside from
mollusks, they also feed on benthic aquatic insect larvae; they bottom feed and feed also
on snails, aquatic insects, copepods, and organisms with hard shells (crustaceans).
Humans predate them upon; their larvae are subject to largemouth bass, catfish and
other larger fish. Birds and raccoons eat their carcasses (Cerulean, 1993).
Their conservation status is stable and in no sign of current decline (Cerulean, 1993).

5. Dollar
Sunfish;
Lepomis
marginatus
(Holbrook,
1855)

(Photo credit: http://www.tenkarabum.com/dollar-sunfish-atenkley.html )
Pictured here is a male sunfish: mature males are more colorful than females and are ornate with
blue spots.
I found the Dollar Sunfish hanging out in vegetation near a sandy bank of
the river.
Male Lepomis marginatus exhibit parental care by building a nest and
defending eggs and larvae against predators. Nest defense increases when eggs
and larvae are present. When males are threatened with a predatory bird, males
returned quickly to the nests containing offspring than to the nests that were
empty. Predatory threat has a correlation with the time spent guarding the nest.
This indicated that there is sensitivity to offspring. Reductions in nest defense in
the presence of a threat were only shown where parental survival was traded
instead of offspring survival. Nest guarding in this species is thus an adaptive
response (Winkelman, 1996).
Their spawning season is between April and September, and their
spawning location is sandy bottoms with vegetation. Males usually build their
nests in close proximities of one another. They typically inhabit swamps, rivers,
springs and sluggish streams. They are unable to permanently exist with fish
larger than them (e.x. the largemouth bass). They range from the southern
Atlantic coastal drainages from North Carolina to Florida and west to Texas. They
also occur in southeastern coastal drainages from North Carolina to Texas and
north into the lower Mississippi River Basin in Kentucky, Arkansas, and extreme
southeastern Oklahoma (Cerulean, 1993).
In terms of conservation status, they are of least concern; they have a large
number of subpopulations and large population size and lack of major threats
(Cerulean, 1993).

They don’t have much in terms of predation, but their larva is usually in
danger of suffering predation from birds or other fish (Cerulean, 1993).
6. American
Alligator;
Alligator
mississipiensis
(Daudin,
1802)

(Photo credit: http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/american-alligator/ )
The American Alligator is a predatory machine, packed with muscles in its jaw to bite down on
prey. They are infamous for their “death roll,” where they latch onto prey and roll until they are
dead. Although fully capable of killing any humans, an alligator is generally wary of seeing them
as prey, although attacks have occurred. They are less aggressive than their relatives the
crocodiles.
As we canoed down the river I noticed an American Alligator (juvenile)
sunbathing on the bank of the river. The current was strong in the area so we
didn’t get too close to avoid having the canoe flip over so close to it.
An adult male American Alligator with a large growth on the right
forelimb was discovered. The mass was determined to be fibromyxoma. There
has not been a recording of an alligator with a tumor (Elsey, et. al., 2013).
In Florida, the longest recording length in an American Alligator was
found; it exceeded 435.5 cm (Brunell, et. al., 2013).
The American Alligator was first listed as an endangered species in 1967,
but was removed in 1987 after there was a complete recovery of the species. But,
it is classified as threated because of its similarity of appearance to the American
crocodile. American Alligators are mostly threated by pollution, human
interference, habitat loss, harvesting for their hides and their meat, and any other
encounters with people (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Alligator mississipiensis is the largest reptile in North America and can be
distinguished from the American crocodile by its blunter, shorter snout and black
color. Alligators live in Florida, Southern Texas, Louisiana and parts of North and
South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Alligators eat anything, from small

reptiles, to fish, to small mammals, to birds, to crustaceans and even small
counterparts of their own species. They hunt mostly for prey underwater and often
swallow their meal whole. Females will build nests in marshy areas and along
riverbanks or shorelines, the temperature determines the sex of the hatchlings and
the mother stays close to her nest to protect it. The mother will also brood her
young within her mouth (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Alligators can also be traced back to about 230 million years ago (Burnie
& Wilson, 2001).
7. Yellow-‐bellied
slider;
Trachemys
scripta
scripta
(Wied-‐Neuwied,
1839)

(Photo credit: http://www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com/reptiles/turtles/yellow-bellied-
slider/yellow-bellied_slider.htm )
Yellow-bellied sliders are common as household pets in the United States. Their common name
comes from their yellow plastron.
I saw yellow-bellied sliders sun bathing together on a log near-by, we tried
to catch them with our net but they are pretty shy and jump into the water quickly.
Scute asymmetry increases with carapace size, showing that scute
asymmetry tends to increase with age. Several reasons have to do with adjacent
scutes growing against each other over time, leading to random flux in
symmetrical growth, or from age-related bioaccumulation of pollutants, which
could interfere with normal symmetrical shell production (Davis & Grosse, 2008).
Trachemys scripta scripta are omnivorous: they feed on plants, fish,
insects and carrion. Interestingly, adult females are more herbivorous and young
and adult males are more carnivorous. They are diurnal and feed more in the
morning and spend more time basking the rest of the day. At night it will sleep on
the bottom or on the surface near foliage. Their population density tends to
increase where algae are blooming and macrophytes are abundant. They also
enjoy hanging around lily pad areas (Cerulean, 1993).
Yellow-bellied turtles tend to inhabit any body of freshwater (lakes, rivers,
streams, bonds, springs) from South Eastern Virginia to northern Florida. They
can also adventure on land (Cerulean, 1993).
They are widely popular as pets and can be seen in any pet store that deals
in fresh water pets.

They mate during the winter and they lay around six to ten eggs at a time,
the eggs then incubate for two to three months and when they do hatch, they will
stay in their nests through winter (Cerulean, 1993).
In terms of their conservation status, they are of least concern, for they are
widespread and common. But, considering the fact it is popular in the pet
business, certain populations can be threatened. They are also threatened by
habitat loss, pollution, and predation from alligators (Cerulean, 1993).
8. Limpkin;
Aramus
guarauna
(Linnaeus,
1766)

(Photo credit: http://stlucieaudubon.org/PhotoPages/photos2.html )
The Limpkin wields a beak perfect for its prey: it is elongated to help it dig in marsh and wetland
to find molluscs, snails, insects and worms. The Limpkin’s common name comes from its gait:
when it walks it seems as though it is wounded and has a “limp.”
When canoeing we noticed the limpkin along the shore in a grassy area
looking for prey, when we got close it ended up taking off away from us.
Limpkins will consume larger prey at low-density sites when compared
with high-density sites. When a wider range of prey size is available, limpkins can
select larger prey; higher densities of other predators can result in higher foraging
risk, favoring the capture of smaller, easier to handle prey. They also prefer sites
with less perches (Tanaka, et. al., 2006).
Limpkins prefer open freshwater marches, swamp forests, and shores of
bodies of fresh water. They will nest in trees or floating vegetation and will make
a nest from sticks, vines, leaves, moss, grass, and other foliage. Sometimes, they
build nests that can be forty feet above the ground. But, most of the time, their
nest placement is on the ground (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Males are territorial and will confront other males in displays of charging
and loud calling, they will also retreat (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).

In terms of food, they focus on apple snails and freshwater mussels; they
search for these by visibly searching, and jabbing or sweeping the water with their
bill. They will turn the shell upward, cut through the muscle attachment of the
snail and pull it out. This is done in the short amount of time of ten to twenty
seconds and the shell is rarely broken (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Aramus guarauna are of least concern in terms of conservation, despite
the fact that in the past they fluctuated from being abundant, to being almost
eradicated for food by humans. They are threatened because of the conversion of
wetlands for agriculture, flood control and development, and by human
interference (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
9. Brown
anole;
Anolis
sagrei
(Duméril
&
Bibron,
1837)

(Photo credit: http://camouflagelodge.com/2009/chew/south-texas-backyard-wildlife-brown-
anole-friends/ )
Anoles are common everywhere in Florida: parking lots, city planted trees and flora, to forests
untouched by humans and wetlands. A common trait of an Anole is its dewlap (see above): it
extends and detracts to attract mates and challenge other males. Aside from coloration, it differs
with the Carolina anole by the fact it has a ridge that goes from the tail all the way up to behind
the head.
The brown anole was immediately noticed before we departed on the
canoe. It was hanging on a branch of a tree that was overhanging the river and
was near where we could dock. It was displaying its dewlap (Burnie & Wilson,
2001).
Anole response to predators is experience dependent and not necessarily
inherited, for relaxed selection can result in reduced anti-predatory response
following loss of predators. This is so because Anolis sagrei will increase their
rate of locomotion in response to grackle models. But, no such response or
modulation was seen when anoles were presented with kestrel stimuli. (Elmasri,
et. al., 2012).
They will also engage in caudal autotomy if they feel threatened. If that
does not work or they do not try that, they will bite, urine and defecate. Birds,

snakes, larger reptiles, and larger mammals (cats) mostly seek them out for food
(Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
The Anolis sagrei is invasive and can reach high population densities. It is
also capable of expanding its range and easily outcompetes and consumes many
native species of lizards. It was first introduced to the United States in the early
1970s and since then has altered the behavior and caused a decline in the
populations of the native Carolina anole (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Brown anoles will feed on a range of insects and arachnids, they will
sometimes eat other lizards, especially the green anole, sometimes will eat their
own tail via caudal autotomy, eat their own molting skin, and will eat other lizards
eggs (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Its conservation status is secure (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
10.Florida
Snapping
Turtle;
Testudo
serpentina
(Linnaeus,
1758),
Chelydra

serpentina
(Schweigger,
1812)

(Photo credit: http://www.theradzoo.com/meet-the-animals/turtles-tortoises/florida-snapping-
turtle/ )
Snapping turtles are sexually dimorphic: the males grow to larger sizes than the females. And,
bears are not the only animals to hibernate: snapping turtles hibernate through late October to
March or May. To do so, they burrow into foliage or the muddy bottom of ponds and lakes. And
they are sometimes known to hibernate together.
I had seen a Florida snapping turtle basking on a log in a glen, when we
got close to it with our canoe and I got a picture, this is where I ended up flipping
my canoe and losing the pictures to all the vertebrates before this one (the
vertebrates are not listed in order of appearance, but on my recollection of the
species).
Snapping turtles are a good indication of how polluted with mercury the
surrounding area can be. THg concentrations in snapping turtles are variable
depending on their environments, frequently exceed advisory limits, and are
significantly correlated with several landscape and water characteristics
(Turnquist, et. al., 2011). This is extremely helpful because it could be a reference

for people who eat the freshwater fish in the surrounding location; it prevents
people from getting mercury poisoning!!
The snapping turtle has a huge range, going from Southern Alberta and
east to Nova Scotia in Canada, extending south all the way to the Gulf of Mexico
and into central Texas, and then ranging from Florida, to Alabama, to Mississippi,
and to Louisiana. They only live in fresh or brackish water and they prefer waters
with muddy bottoms that have a lot of vegetation so they can hide from predators
and hide to attack their prey. They live in lakes, ponds, rivers, springs, marshes,
swamps, and streams. And in their environments they can live up to about thirty
years, their average lifespan being around eighteen years (Burnie & Wilson,
2001).
Snapping turtles are the grumpiest of the bunch so far as they have very
little interactions between each other. Any interaction with the others in their
species is usually aggressive displays between males over territories. To
communicate to mates they do so with leg movements while they face each other.
They produce around 25-45 eggs and incubation lasts over a period of 75-95 days.
They mate from April to November. They also do not provide any care for their
babies, the females abandon the eggs once she lays them on land and she is not
present when the turtles hatch (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Snapping turtles will eat carrion, invertebrates, fish, birds, small
mammals, amphibians, other reptiles and vegetation. They will kill other turtles
via biting their heads off. To ambush prey they will bury themselves in the mud
with only their nostrils and eyes exposed. They use their sense of smell, vision
and touch to detect their prey and they may be able to sense vibrations in the
water surrounding them (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Their conservation status is of least concern. The threats it currently faces
are its exploitation for food, for pets, habitat loss and degradation, predation by
other animals, pollution and human-induced mortality occurs (Burnie & Wilson,
2001).

11.Water
Moccasin;
Agkistrodon
piscivorus
(Lacépède,
1789)

(Photo credit:
http://www.redorbit.com/education/reference_library/animal_kingdom/reptilia/2579396/cottonmo
uth_water_moccasin/ )
The world’s only semi-aquatic viper and a species of pit viper, they are able to inject not only
painful venom, but also fatal. To be able to identify this in the wild and to know whether the snake
seen is venomous or nonvenomous check out the shape of the head: if it is a triangle or v-shaped
head, it is poisonous, if it is rounded and spoon shaped, then it is nonvenomous.
I noticed the water moccasin early on our way out, it was down river and its head
was out of the water as if it were scouting the area for prey or predators. I could tell it
was a moccasin by its coloration and the fact that its head was in a V-shape.
If a bite from the deadly Agkistrodon piscivorus were to occur, it has been
documented that Aeromonas hydriphila infection can occur. With this, the victim will
undergo necrotizing fasciitis, especially those who have suppressed immune systems,
burns, or trauma in an aquatic setting. A specific case of necrotizing fasciitis involved a
hand, arm, chest and lateral side of trunk, along with toxic shock, developed after a
Moccasin bit the victim. Mixed aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, along with A. hydriphila
were isolated from a culture of the victim’s wound. To recover from this incident, the

victim had to under go antivenom, a diuretic regimen, broad-spectrum antibiotics, and 18
separate surgical procedures, along with skin grafts. Finally, the wound completely
healed. A Moccasin’s bite comes with more than just its venom: a bite can cause
infection with different bacteria and can cause necrotizing fasciitis (Angel, et. al., 2002).
A common misconception and one that has been a part of local folklore for
generations, is the idea that a Cottonmouth (another common name of the Water
Moccasin) will hide in the trees and drop down on unsuspecting people. However, even
though they have the capacity to be arboreal, they are not very likely to be observed
doing such. Most of the time they prefer to be on the ground along the waters edge. An
observation like this is extremely rare (Graham, 2013).
Cottonmouths are found in the U.S., ranging from Florida, Virginia, Texas, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Tennessee, Alabama,
Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi. They are normally found in swamps, around lakes,
rivers, springs, and any form of fresh water wet lands and can even be found near the
ocean. They can be found in close proximity to water and is the only semi-aquatic viper.
They can be found in the water or in foliage, and sometimes under logs, fallen branches,
in branches (rarely), and under leaves (Cerulean, 1993).
To reproduce, males will combat other males in a form of “dancing,” where they
slither back and forth while waving their tails to attract a female away from other
competitors. Occasionally, they will engage in male-to-male combat over a female, and
the winner gets the lady. Interestingly enough, putting aside their venomous and deadly
nature, cottonmouths are believed to mate for life and be monogamous. They will
sometimes breed year round or seasonally, but most mating occurs during spring,
followed by a period of five months for gestation. Thus, the young are born around late
summer to fall (August/September). Females give birth to live young with an average of
about five to nine, but on some occurrences can have as many as sixteen! The age of
sexual maturity for males is currently unknown but for females it is at an average of
around 1095 days. And the young stay with the females for a few days until they are able
to move around on their own (Cerulean, 1993).
Unfortunately, young suffer high predation rates and only two to three young
normally make it. The oldest known cottonmouth lived up to twenty-four and a half years
old. Most young suffer predation from birds, gators, other snakes, and sometimes humans
(Cerulean, 1993).
Cottonmouths are the homebodies of the snake world; they have a range of area of
2.6 acres they typically stay in and males have larger ranges than females. They also
won’t wander far from any source of water, so typically, if a Moccasin is nearby, then so
will a body of water. The only hierarchy established between snakes is the
aforementioned disputes between males for a female mate. They are very aggressive
snakes and when provoked or disturbed they will lash out. A warning sign before a bite is
tail shaking, making a rustling noise, elevating their heads above the ground a few inches,
and coiling up while exposing their open white mouth (this is how they got their common
name, “Cottonmouth” due to the white coloring of the inside of their mouths). They also
possess the ability to give off a powerful stench when threatened. Typically, they are
nocturnal (Cerulean, 1993).
Cottonmouths utilize every sense in the wild, but their strongest sense is their
sense of smell. With their tongue they will “taste” the air to analyze what is in the air

around them. They are carnivores, eating mainly fish and small mammals. They will
capture their prey via striking, biting and releasing their venom into their prey. They also
hold their prey in their coils until it no longer struggles. Like other snakes, they have the
ability to flex their jawbones to open their mouths to a wider size to intake prey. They
normally feed on frogs, bass (perhaps a Suwannee bass as mentioned before), catfish
(also mentioned as one of the vertebrates), other snakes, snapping turtles, small mammals
(rats, mice, shrews), eggs, mollusks and insects (Cerulean, 1993).
Moccasins are threated by human interaction, most of all via habitat destruction.
Raccoons, gar, birds of prey, cats, dogs, and larger snapping turtles are other threats the
Cottonmouth faces. Cottonmouths are listed as “least concern” in terms of conservation
status, their populations remain stable throughout most of their habitat ranges (Cerulean,
1993).
12.Florida
Green
Water
Snake;
Nerodia
floridana
(Goff,
1936)

(Photo credit: http://ufwildlife.ifas.ufl.edu/snakes/floridagreenwatersnake.shtml )
A harmless snake (note the rounded head), which is confused with the poisonous Cottonmouth;
due to this, it is frequently killed on behalf of its mistaken identity. The Cottonmouth can easily be
recognized aside from the Florida green snake: the cotton mouth will have a V-shaped head
(poisonous), will have a facial pit between the nostril and eye, and will have elliptical pupils. The
Florida Green snake is also usually lighter than a Cotton mouth, has round pupils and lack a facial
pit.
We saw the Florida Green Water snake hanging around in a bush near the river
back, it was along an area between Blue Springs and Ginny Springs, it looked as though
it was eating a frog.
Unfortunately, Nerodia floridana is one of the most common species killed along
a section of U.S. Highway 441 across Paynes Prairie in Alachua County, Florida (Smith
& Dodd, 2003).
Florida Green water snakes typically inhabit different wetlands, ranging from
prairies, marshes, lakes, ponds, hyacinth-choked canals, springs, rivers, and estuaries. In
terms of state range, it is found throughout most of Florida except for any of the Keys,

and its range extends through Georgia and into a southeastern part of South Carolina.
They preferentially hide in vegetation-shrouded areas (Cerulean, 1993).
Nerodia floridana reproduce in the spring and bear between ranges of ten to one
hundred live young in late summer (June to August). They are mostly diurnal and tend to
hunt during the nighttime (which reinforces the fact they are common species killed
along the highway). They tend to hunt for small minnows, insects, fish, and any
amphibians. The Florida Green Water snake, although nonvenomous, will not hesitate to
bite if caught (Cerulean, 1993).
Nerodia floridana faces many threats ranging from human interference for
confusion with the cottonmouth, to DDT poisoning from farmers, to being road kill.
Their habitats also face human destruction and if they are in isolated sources of water
they face issues of drought. They are also a food source for birds of prey and small
alligators. Despite this, they are doing quite well in their range, but they are labeled as
state imperiled in their conservation status because of their restricted range (Cerulean,
1993).
13.Woodpecker;
Melanerpes
carolinus
(Linnaeus,
1758)

(photo credit: http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/red-bellied_woodpecker/id )
The Red Bellied woodpecker not only hacks away at wood and bark for food, but will also store
food into any crack in trees and wood.
Sometimes along the river there are large, old, white tree trunks. When we had
stopped for a moment from canoeing we heard in the distance the signature pecking of a
woodpecker, when we walked toward the source of the sound I took note of the red crest
on the woodpecker and its really pretty, almost zebra like, coloration on the back of its
wings.
In 2010, two people researched the kleptoparasitism of a Picoides borealis (Red-
cockaded woodpecker) cavity by a Melanerpes carolinus. Both the parent and the
nestling were forced from their nest by the invading Red-bellied woodpeckers. The Red-
bellied was so adamant in its attempt to force them out that it reached into the cavity over
2000 times in an attempt to get rid of the Red-cockaded residents. Once they were finally

deported from their nest, the Red-bellied and his mate took over the cavity (Delaney &
Carlile, 2010).
The Red-bellied woodpecker is an inhabitant of most forests, woodlands, prairies,
suburbs, and wetlands, in the forests near riverbanks and are more common at elevations
below two thousand feet. It ranges between Canada and the United States, ranging
between lower parts of Canada and the eastern side of the United States. Due to this
wide-ranging habitat, the Red-bellied has a diverse diet; sometimes it will eat nuts,
pinecones, seeds, fruits, insects, arachnids, and amphibians and small fish. They will
latch onto a tree and hang away from the trunk and onto their tail feathers to search for
food in tree trunk crevices (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
In terms of nesting, the Red-bellied tends to nest in dead trees (specifically pines,
which are abundant around Florida), sometimes the dead limbs of live trees, and
occasionally a fence post. Sometimes woodpeckers will reuse their nest every year, but
when they do make a new nest, they will make a cavity above or below the previous
year’s one. The use the chips of the wood they pecked to help insulate their eggs and use
them as a bed for their young, often laying their eggs over the wood chips. The holes are
between 22 to 32 centimeters deep, and the width is cylindrical and is around 9 to 13
centimeters. To attract mates, males choose the site to excavate and get to work, and they
try to attract mates via tapping on the wood in or around the excavated home. Once a
female finds a suitable male, they both will tap around the home and then the female will
add slight touches if need be (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Red-bellied woodpeckers are of least concern in terms of conservation, and their
threats mainly come from humans ruining habitats (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
14.Crow;
Corvus
brachyrhynchos
(Brehm,
1822)

(Photo credit: http://jboyd.net/Birds/IMG_4433.html )
American crows might as well be called garbage disposals due to their willingness to eat just
about anything. Pictured above is an American Crow wielding a snake in its beak, and later, it may

prey on frogs, mice, young rabbits, other snakes, or scavenge on human garbage, road kill, or the
decimated carcass of another animal’s prey. In some folklore they are associated with wolves.
Crows are found everywhere near areas where people park or where they are having
barbecues around springs. They love to sweep down and collect dropped food and
sometimes kids will throw pieces of bread on the ground for crows to pick up. We
noticed a lot of them around areas such as this.
American crows can suffer from the West Nile virus, and many bird populations
have suffered mortality due to it. In an experimented conducted using IHC staining
technique, it was found that the West Nile virus antigen was found in the brain, spleen,
heart, kidney, liver, gonads, intestine, lung and pancreas. These birds not only suffer one
organ to the West Nile virus but its whole body becomes a victim to the deadly virus, as
such, populations of crows have suffered due to it (Sandhu, et. al., 2011).
Crows are natives to the Nearctic region to all over North America; they are found
in the lower part of Canada and can sweep across the United States. Crows have a
preference for open areas with nearby trees. They can inhabit grasslands and prairies and
are found by agricultural facilities. They also use woodlots, forest edges, suburban
neighborhoods, urban parts, coastal habitats, areas of human activity; forests near bodies
of water like springs, rivers and coasts. Crows are omnivores and eat anything they can
digest. They will consume insects, worms, arachnids, fruits, grains, nuts, amphibians,
small mice, baby rabbits, carrion, eggs, feed from bird feeders, and human garbage. They
will also store their food in grooves to save for later and cover them with leaves. They
will hold a nut in their feet and strike it with their bills to crack it open, and if it won’t
open they will fly and drop it on the ground to try to crack it open. They are foragers and
will climb along branches or walk on the ground to find food items (Burnie & Wilson,
2001).
They exhibit a sexual dimorphism with the sexes similar but the males are
typically larger. They lead a lifespan on average of fourteen years old. They are typically
cooperative in their breeding behaviors, they stay close to places they were born and help
defend the area against predators and help raise young. Families often preen each other.
They will be in a flock and tend to defend large territories, all members of the family
engage in chasing predators away, cawing and annoying them off. They will roost
together in the winter and this begins in fall to mid-winter. Sometimes they will migrate.
Corvus brachyrhynchos will conduct interesting behavior when it comes to ants:
sometimes they will allow them to scramble among its feathers or it may pick one up and
smear it on its feathers. They are considered smart for their abilities to be resourceful
when it comes to food and can easily escape or avoid traps set by humans. These birds
are highly vocal, and males and females have the same songs (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
In terms of conservation they are least concern since their populations are thriving
(Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
15.Belted
Kingfisher;
Megaceryle
alcyon
(Linnaeus,
1758)

(Photo credit: http://www.hanoverconservancy.org/lands/mink-brook/birds-in-mink-brook/ )
The Belted Kingfisher is diverse in the fact that it is one of the few bird species who, in their
sexual dimorphism, has the females as being the more brightly colored of the two sexes. And
during breeding season, males and females work in pairs to defend a territory against other King
Fishers.
We saw the belted kingfisher fly across the river ahead of us and perch on a low
hanging branch. I assumed it was probably searching for small fish along the bank. I
remember taking note of how the feathers on its head extended out and fanned out in an
interesting pattern.
Megaceryl alcyon is a bird that will take part in aerial ramming, it will fly rapidly
at the bank from perched or hovering distances of 1-3 meters and strike the bank bill-first
176 times, to form a pit in the vertical bank about body deep after 60 hours of work. Both
sexes perform this at roughly the same rate (Hendricks, et. al., 2013).
Belted kingfishers typically inhabit areas where there is access to some kind of
water source, this is in due part for feeding and for vertical banks for nesting. They
typically inhabit areas around rivers, springs, lakes, ponds, estuaries, bays and calm
waters. In the winter they tend to inhabit areas south of the United States. Year round
they can be found all over the United States, their breeding ranges tend to be the upper
U.S. with areas of Canada, they can also be found in parts of Greenland, Ireland,
Netherlands, Portugal and the United Kingdom (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Belted kingfishers will eat mostly on fish, amphibians and insects. They will also
feed on crustaceans, mollusks, reptiles, small birds, small mammals and fruits. They will
search for their prey from an overhanging branch and will even hover over the water to
find prey (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Males and females will build burrows and males spend more time digging than
the females do. For insulation inside the nest, King fishers will leave undigested fish
bones, fish scales, and bug exoskeletons. They will burrow dens near banks and avoid
ones with much vegetation. Though they have a preference for banks near water, they
will use ditches, landfills, sand pits, or gravel pits far from water. Mates will typically
select a nest site during the courtship process and tend to build nests high enough so if
flooding occurs their young are safe (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).

Males and females will establish territories that conform to the shape of the
stream or shoreline. They are monogamous species during the breeding season but form
new pairs each year. The male also feeds the female during the courtship process. They
will aggressively defend their territory (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Kingfishers are common prey items for hawks, mammals and snakes. To fend
from predators many Kingfishers will scream, spread their wings, and raise the patch of
white feathers next to each eye, and if they feel like intruders are near they will land on a
perch and heave its body up and down with its crest high, or they will fly sporadically
making noises until the intruder leaves (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Kingfishers are of least concern in terms of conservation, although they used to be
shot and trapped by people (especially near fisheries) to prevent them from killing fish.
But, it is currently outlawed to do so. They also tend to abandon areas or territories or
nests if people begin visiting the area (Burnie &Wilson, 2001).
16.Osprey;
Pandion
haliaetus
(Linnaeus,
1758)

(Photo credit: http://savetheeaglesinternational.org/new/843-2.html )
A diurnal bird of prey that feeds on mainly fish, above is a photo of an osprey carrying off a bass.
It is a common bird species, being seen in all continents aside Antarctica.
We saw an osprey perched on an old pine that was a few meters away
from the riverbank, it seemed to be relaxed and watching its surroundings.
Ospreys suffer a huge threat in terms of productivity in the northern
Delaware River and Bay. Several perfluorinated compounds and PBDEs were
detected in eggs at concentrations around 1 µg/g-wet weight. Even though the
water quality is extremely poor and pollutant loading and retention, this area
provides important wildlife habitat. These ospreys and their hatchlings suffer due
to contaminant exposure (Toschik, et. al., 2005).
Ospreys tend to inhabit most parts of the world, with variants in the United
States, Canada, South America, Africa, parts of Asia and parts of India. They

prefer areas around lakes and ponds, rivers, marshes, swamps, and springs. They
also are found around lagoons, reservoirs and any wetland. They tend to inhabit
areas high up in the trees so that their young may avoid predation (Burnie &
Wilson, 2001).
Ospreys eat almost exclusively live fish, but they will feed on small
mammals, amphibians, snakes and other birds. Their vision is well developed to
detect underwater objects from the air and can be seen from ten to forty meters
above the water. Its body is made for eating fish, it can dive and catch its prey
with its reversible outer toes, with its sharp spicules, closable nostrils to avoid
drowning during dives, and barb like scales on their talons to catch prey (Burnie
& Wilson, 2001).
Nests are built out of sticks, vegetation, vines, algae, sod, flotsam and
jetsam and bark. The Male is the one who typically gathers the nesting material
and then brings it to the female to make the nest. When a pair is young, their nest
will start out as rather small, but as years go by and they add to the nest, it can
become big enough for a human being to easily fit inside! Because these nests can
run so large, Ospreys tend to require wide, gaping areas with a strong base and
plenty of height from predators that could reach. Nests are built on the tops of
trees, branches, the area between the trunk and the branch, or snags. The Male
will typically find the site before the female is around (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Because they are more made for diving, Ospreys tend to not be as
maneuverable compared to hawks. They are typically solitary and only flock in
small groups during the winter. When they nest, they will defend only the
immediate area around that territory and will be vicious to other Ospreys who
come around their area. Ospreys are of least concern currently, but in their past
they were emaciated in population due to DDT. Since the ban of DDT, Ospreys
have made a complete discovery. In terms of threats, Osprey face a significant
issue with humans and pollution, not only by the aforementioned poisoning the
eggs are undergoing but certain materials Ospreys are putting into their nests can
cause them to get caught on the human trash and choke (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
17.Snowy
Egret;
Egretta
thula
(Molina,
1782)

(Photo credit: http://www.nps.gov/prsf/naturescience/snowy-egret.htm )
In a cute way of co-parenting, the Snowy Egret will take turns between its mates to incubate the
young, presenting a stick at each “shift,” to trade off parenting duty.
We saw a snowy egret exploring near a bank where there were lily pads and
algae, it seemed to be walking gingerly and slowly while it looked for prey.
The Egretta thula attracts fish by rapidly opening and closing its bill with the tip
submerged in the water. In comparison with four other types of feeding behavior, bill
vibrating is as successful as the more energetic types. In South Florida, this behavior is
used to attract the mosquito fish (Kushlan, 1973).
The Snowy Egret spends year round in Florida, California and parts of South
America; it breeds around areas of the mid United States and stays in Mexico during the
winter and the southern part of South America during the winter. They enjoy areas of
marsh, wetlands, swamps, springs, estuaries, islands, shallow reefs and rivers or streams.
They are a migratory species and tend to change location yearly (Burnie & Wilson,
2001).
The Snowy Egret eats mostly on aquatic animals, ranging from amphibians to
fish, to worms to crustaceans and water insects. It utilizes its feet to kick up prey from the
bottom and then strike it with its bill. They prefer to feed while standing, walking,
running or hopping and they will sway their heads or flick their wings to herd prey in a
certain area. They are also foragers (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Before finding a mate, males will typically get to work on making a nest. Once a
female has chosen him, she will finish the rest of the work on the nest with materials
supplied by the male. Nests are usually built with loosely woven twigs, yarn or fabric,
sticks, grasses, sedges, rushes, Spanish moss, human debris and leaves. They are typically
around 16 inches across and 10.5 inches high. The nest will be on the top or outer
branches of any wooden structure (trees, shrubs, etc.). They will usually nest in colonies
with other waders and their nests are shallower than other species. The young leave the
nest after twenty to twenty five days from hatching and will hop about on branches to
prepare for when they leave the nest. Males will fight for breeding territories and perform
noisy courtship displays; he may also do aerial displays and different positions to attract a

mate. Once they are paired, they will defend their nest, threatening those who approach
by raising their crests and giving rasping calls. They are also highly social and can easily
coexist with other wetland birds (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
They are of least concern in terms of conservation, and they are continually
threatened by habitat loss and are sensitive to changes that reduce prey. They are also
threatened by raccoons, Great Horned Owls, Barred Owls, American Crows, Fish Crows,
alligators, and gray rat snakes, for these prey on their young (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
18.Loggerhead
Musk
Turtle;
Sternotherus
minor
(Agassiz,
1857)

(Photo credit: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/herpetology/checklist/turtles.htm )
The beginning of its common name “Loggerhead,” comes from its larger head as compared to
other musk turtle species.
The Loggerhead Musk turtle we observed was swimming around vegetation and
algae when it decided to come out of the water and perch on a nearby log.
Loggerhead Musk turtles have a jaw specified for their prey. By quantifying
fracture properties of snails found in the diet to evaluate the relationship between bite
force and the forces required to process such durable prey, it was found that the
importance of muscle pennation for generating high bite forces while maintaining muscle
size provide significant evidence that the allometric patterns of musculoskeletal grown in
Sternotherus minor are linked to the structural properties of the snails they eat (Pfaller,
2011).
Loggerhead Musk turtles are typically found in the region between North-Central
Georgia, to Southeast Alabama, and North-Central Florida. They tend to inhabit rivers,
marshlands, streams, limestone springs, springs, wetlands, tributaries and mountain
bottom creeks (Cerulean, 1993).
They spend a large portion of their time in the river, whether searching for prey,
basking on a log, or finding a mate. They like to forage on river and spring bottoms at
depths of twenty or more feet. They will only get on land to nest. They usually eat meat
and are largely carnivorous, but they are known to eat plant material as well. They have a
range of eating insects, crayfish, mollusks, and small snails. They will also eat algae from

rocks or carrion. When they breed, they have one to four clutches with two to three eggs
per clutch, and they hatch after thirteen to sixteen weeks (Cerulean, 1993).
They run the risk of having their young preyed upon by raccoons, skunks,
opossums, crows, and common kingsnakes. And the adults fall prey to alligators, alligator
snapping turtles, snapping turtles, water moccasins, and large fish. To defend themselves
against being preyed upon they will release a foul-smelling musk and will bite. They are
vulnerable also to habitat destruction and pollution and are also captured as pets. Still,
though, they are labeled as least concern in terms of conservation (Cerulean, 1993).
19.River
Cooter;
Pseudemys
floridana
(LeConte,
1830)

(Photo credit: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/herpetology/checklist/turtles.htm )
A River Cooter is commonly confused with a yellow-bellied slider (species number 7), and can be
distinguished from it due to its more compressed and flatter bodies than the fuller yellow bellied
sliders.
We noticed river cooters hanging around logs and sometimes with their
heads raised above water as they swam along.
In the year 2010, a group of three gravid female, wild Florida cooter
turtles were evaluated and treated by the North Carolina State University College
of Veterinary Medicine Turtle Rescue Team due to traumatic injuries or infection.
During the medical procedures, they had to oviposition, which was induced using
oxytocin, which was only partially effective. In all three of the turtles, the ectopic
eggs were identified in the urinary bladder by ultrasound and were removed via a
minimally invasive cystoscopic-guided technique. Unfortunately, one of the three
turtles died within days of the procedure due to granulomatous bacterial cystitis.
The complications arose from time between induction with oxytocin and the
identification and removal of the ectopic egg. An ectopic egg is one in that is
produced outside of the womb (Minter, 2010).
Florida Cooters inhabit areas throughout the Southeastern Coastal Plain
and enjoy wetlands that have soft sandy bottoms and a lot of vegetation. They can

be seen around rivers, lakes, wetlands, swamps, creeks, springs, and marshes.
They are frequently seen on logs. They are omnivores and females mainly feed on
vegetation, males favor aquatic invertebrates. They are really social with one
another and can be seen basking in groups on logs and on riverbanks. They will
even pile up on one another on logs. They will quickly slip into the water if they
are disturbed. They are mostly diurnal. They are very quick on both land and
water and they develop large territory ranges that they rarely ever leave. Those
that live in cooler climates may become dormant during the winter. They prefer to
be hidden under aquatic plants during the dormancy period or while sleeping at
night (Cerulean, 1993).
The males tend to be smaller than the females. Males use their claws as a
part of a mating dance. He will court a female by swimming above her, vibrating
his nails and stroking her face. Females may also do this to initiate courtship. If
she accepts, she will sink to the bottom of the river to allow the male to mate with
her. Mating occurs in early spring with nesting in early summer. Nesting will
occur in sandy or loamy soil within one hundred feet of the water source she
originated from. The female will lay her clutch in a nest that is dug with her hind
feet in an open area so that the hatchlings won’t have obstacles on the way back.
Eggs are ellipsoidal and about one and a half inches long. The incubation time is
determined by temperature but on average it is around ninety to one hundred days.
Hatchlings emerge in late summer. There have been cases where an egg will late
incubate and end up hatching as late as spring. They are considered least concern
in terms of conservation status (Cerulean, 1993).
20.Gopher
Tortoise;
Gopherus
polyphemus
(Daudin,
1802)

(Photo credit: http://www.wildflorida.com/wildlife/turtles/Gopher_Tortoise.php )
The Gopher Tortoise is important to ecosystems because it burrows dens that provide shelter for
many other species. Unfortunately, they are threatened by humans (environment destruction,
capture for food, capturing as a pet) and predators.
We had seen a gopher tortoise on land when we were driving to the parking area.
It was around some of the forestry and was walking amongst the leaves and pine needles.
In Gopherus polyphemus, there has been observed an upper respiratory tract
disease. The signs of URTD in the gopher tortoise are serous, mucoid or purulent
discharge from the nares, excessive tearing to purulent ocular dischard, conjunctivitis and
edema of the eyelids and ocular glands. It was found that Mycoplasma agassizii was an
etiologic agent of the URTD in the gopher tortoise (Brown, 1999).
The Gopher tortoises are native to the southeastern United States and are
commonly seen throughout Florida. They inhabit many areas, ranging from forests,
pastures and yards. They dig deep burrows for shelter and they eat and forage for low
growing plants. They are herbivore scavengers and they eat almost three hundred species
of plants. Their preference is usually broad-leaved grass, regular grass, wiregrass,
legumes, mushrooms, flowers and fruits. They also scavenge carrion and eat excrement.
The only time they need to drink water is in times of extreme draught, otherwise they get
hydrated from the food they eat. They are considered a keystone species for the fact they
share their burrows with around 350 other species (Cerulean, 1993).
They have courtship rituals during reproduction and mating occurs between April
and November. Females lay their eggs in the open and about one to twenty five eggs
incubate underground for one hundred days. The temperature where they are incubated
determines the sex of the hatchlings. If it is over thirty degrees Celsius it is female, and
below it is male. Incubation can last from eighty to ninety days and they can live over
forty years. The gopher tortoise reaches adulthood around ten to fifteen years of age
(indicated when their shells are around nine inches long). Mating occurs between late
winter to early fall, with a peak between summer. Females usually lay a clutch of three to
fourteen eggs (Cerulean, 1993).
They are considered vulnerable species on the conservation list. This is so
because they have been threatened by humans not just in habitat destruction but also by
capture for pets, and increased housing destroyed their habitats. People for food also seek
them, although it is now illegal to hunt them for food. They also face predation from
other animals and their clutches fall prey to armadillos, raccoons, foxes, skunks and
alligators. Gopher tortoises are threatened by infectious diseases, which are able to spread
from tortoise to tortoise and decimate their populations (Cerulean, 1993).
21.Florida
Gar;
Lepisosteus
platyrhincus
(DeKay,
1842)

(Photo credit: http://www.floridaadventuring.com/troy-springs.html )
Florida gars possess ganoid scales, which were once used as arrowheads for Florida Natives. They
also have gomphosis joints for their scales helping them defend against predation. They are
covered in spots from head to tow (see image) and have a brown coloration on the majority of
their body with a pale yellow coloration on their bellies that meet at the tail.
We noticed a lot of gar swimming underneath our canoe once we got to
clearer waters around the Blue Springs area where it connects to the Santa Fe
River.
A study centered on Lepisosteus platyrhincus helped to prove that
ecological factors not directly involved in the physiology of gas exchange could
influence respiratory partitioning in fishes. And it also supported the hypothesis
that retention of water breathing capacity in air-breathing fish can reduce the risk
of aerial predation in these species. They helped prove this because researchers
subjected them to exposure to the Great Blue Heron, during this, air-breath
interval increased by 118%, and water-breath interval decreased by 13% as
compared to the pre-heron period (Smith &Kramer, 1986).
The range for Florida gar, as indicated by the name, is in Florida. It is
found in the Ocklockonee River drainage in Florida and Georgia. Also found
southward through peninsular Florida and northward to Savannah River drainage,
Georgia. They are found in different wetlands that are connected to rivers or
streams, found in springs, canals, rivers, and lakes. Florida gar will ram their prey
at high velocity and chase them to kill them, and once they latch onto prey they
move their jaws from side to side until they are headfirst inside their mouths and
then they swallow. The young of gars will feed on zooplankton, insect larvae, and
small fish. Adults will primarily feed on fish, shrimp and crayfish (Burnie &
Wilson, 2001).
Florida gars will live in groups of ten or more, and they will burrow into
sediments and aestivate during dry seasons. Sometimes, they can be found in
alligator holes and deeper areas of marshes. They have no specific mates that are
in the group, and once spawning occurs there is no parental investment by either
sex. To breed, they will meet in shallow weedy waters. Females place their eggs

on the plants and males will release the sperm over the eggs. Seasonal changes in
photoperiod and temperature play a role in activating hormone production and
declining hormone production (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Florida gars are predated upon by birds, ranging from eagles, to osprey to
herons and are also predated upon by alligators and are sought after by humans as
“sporty” prey. Their conservation status is stable and in no danger of being
threatened or endangered (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
22.Bowfin;
Amia
calva
(Linnaeus,
1766)

(Photo credit: http://www.superstock.com/stock-photos-images/1597-35413 )
The Bowfin is the only member of the order Amiiformes that is alive today. As can be seen in the
picture above, a bowfin is characterized by its long and wide brimmed dorsal fin and its singly
lobed dorsal fin.
We saw the bowfin swimming beneath us when we got to an area full of
underwater reeds and weedy plants. They were swimming calmly and their caudal
fin was large. They were probably my favorite of the fish we had seen that day
due to their size and unique beauty.
An interesting find was a study on the nephrons of Amia calva. The
anterior third of each kidney of Bowfin is a slender strip of tissue, lying at either
side of the vertebral column, is an area containing no nephrons at all. When in its
larval form, the pronephros is present at its anterior end (de Smet, 1963).
The bowfin comes from an ancient family of fishes. Its body wields an air
bladder that acts as a lung and Bowfin can be seen coming up to the surface to
gulp air. Their air bladder is connected to its gastrointestinal tract, which allows
for buoyancy regulation in the water as well. Their habitats range from wetlands,
swamps, or backwaters of lowland streams and they live in warm poorly
oxygenated waters. Which is part of the reason they come to the surface to gulp
air. Their diet usually consists of other fish and invertebrates. Due to their ability
to use their bladder as a lung, they become limited to a specific depth range, as
pressure and lack of oxygen can interfere (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Males differ in females by having a dark spot with a bright orange halo on
the tail fin, females lack this or it is barely visible. During breeding, males will
make a nest in the vegetation in the area, females lay eggs at night and the males
guard the offspring. Larvae anchor themselves onto reeds and underwater plants
using an organ that adheres to the surface. The male will guard the young until
they are able to be independent (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).

They are neither threatened nor vulnerable. Humans eat them and some
are caught for aquariums. And they are also considered a sport fish (Burnie &
Wilson, 2001).
23.Least
Killifish;
Heterandria
formosa
(Girard,
1859)

(Photo credit: http://www.fishchannel.com/aquarium-fish/breeding-least-killifish.aspx )
The Least Killifish should be more known for the first part of its name, than the second part.
Although it is ended with “Killifish” in the common name, it is actually not a part of the killifish
family. However, the first part of its common name “least,” might as well refer to the fact that in
terms of size, the Least Killifish is one of the smallest vertebrates.
We had caught a Least Killifish in the net when we had visited one of the
springs that strung off from the Santa Fe River. It was extremely small and at first
I thought it was a minnow but on closer inspection I noticed it was a fish.
Heterandria formosa has played a significant role in phylogenetic studies.
Recently, they were studied and were found to have fit the Species-specific
expansion-contraction dynamics and figured prominently in shaping Coastal Plain
evolutionary history (Bagley, et. al, 2013).
Least Killifish can be found in bodies of shallow water, they are typically
filled with vegetation and the water is typically sluggish. At times, they can be
found in brackish conditions. They can also be found in springs, rivers, shallow
areas of lakes, ponds, and springs, and they are also found in creeks. They range
between South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida (Cerulean, 1993).
Considering their size (Males – 2cm, Females – 3.5cm), their food is
usually invertebrates such as worms and tiny crustaceans such as brine shrimp and
they tend to feed also on algae. They also feed on some vegetation (Cerulean,
1993).
They are popular as aquatic pets, because, although they are not
community fishes, they are, for the most part, peaceful. However, they will be
seen as prey items by larger fish in aquariums. Males show some competitiveness
when it comes to females, and males are smaller than females and possess a
gonopodium, or modified anal fin. They use this to deliver sperm to the female.

The fertilized eggs grow in the female until they hatch and when the young are
released they are free swimming. When they release their young, the females
release them in forty baby intervals over a two-week period (Cerulean, 1993).
Their conversation status is of least concern and they face no immediate
threats (Cerulean, 1993).
24.Brown
Bullhead;
Ameiurus
nebulosus
(Lesueur,
1819)

(Photo credit: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/LongnoseGar/LongnoseGar.html )
Brown Bullhead Catfish are known to scavenge the bottom for food. Bottom dwelling feeders who
eat anything ranging from fish carcasses, live prey, plants, eggs, worms, etc.
We saw the Brown Bullhead amongst a collection of some
rocks, mud, and he was between the branches of a fallen tree limb. We
caught him with the net and pulled him up and into the bucket, of
which I kept identifying him.
It was found in Brown Bullhead that fatty acids profile of
muscle and liver tissue get enhanced quality when the Ameiurus
nebulosus is fed vitamin C and soubean lecithin supplements. These
supplements also increased the number of erythrocytes, haematocrit,
triglycerides and total protein (Ivica, 2013).
The Brown Bullhead thrives in many wetland environments,
swamps, lakes, rivers, ponds, bays, and streams and can be found as
low as forty feet and enjoy warm water climates and can tolerate
pollution. They are mostly bottom feeders and they eat insects,
leeches, snails, and other invertebrates, fish, plants, algae and
sometimes fish eggs. They do compete for other food with bottom
feeding fish. Their range goes from Canada to the United States,
ranging from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick to Mobile Bay, Alabama,
and in the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and Mississippi, Quebec and

Louisiana, and Florida, and they are now found along Europe and the
Middle East, New Zealand, Chile, and Puerto Rico (Burnie & Wilson,
2001).
Brown Bullhead are monogamous during breeding and they
court their mates via holding the partners jaw, tail, or head with the
mouth, there s head butting, nibbling each others bodies and caressing
barbels and they sway side by side. They settle over built nests and
release their gametes, facing away from each other during this
process. They spawn during spring and early summer and reach
sexual maturity at three years old. Nests are built by females but
sometimes by pairs. Clutches can contain from fifty up to ten
thousand eggs. They are iteoparous. The parents guard the eggs and
once they hatch they are still guarded. The longest this care has lasted
was twenty-nine days. They are also non-migratory (Burnie &
Wilson, 2001).
They are caught by humans for food and are commonly used in
cooking. Muskies, northern pike, walleyes, minnows, sunfish, and
yellow perch prey upon their young. Pike, walleye, snapping turtles,
water snakes, and herons also prey after the parents (Burnie &
Wilson, 2001).
They are not listed for protection and they are not listed as
being threatened (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
25.Great
Blue
Heron;
Ardea
Herodias
(Linnaeus,
1758)

(Photo credit: http://www.panoramio.com/photo/29797566 )
Pictured above is a Great Blue Heron that caught a snake within the reeds. Although catching a
snake in this type of environment may seem difficult, a Great Blue Heron has the ability to curve

its neck into an S shape, which provides great leverage for striking prey quickly, efficiently, and
from distances.
We had seen a Great Blue Heron resting along side the riverbank, its S-
shaped neck was curved and it looked as though it were about to walk out into the
reeds to catch food.
Ardea Herodias in coastal Mississippi attacked and ate an Atlantic
stingray; the attack and consumption of elasmobranch suggests that A. Herodias
plays a top predator role in shallow marine food webs (Ajemian, et. al. 2011).
They range all across North America, the tip of South America, and
throughout the Caribbean. They are seen year-round in Florida and the Southeast
area of the United States. They enjoy both freshwater and saltwater habitats and
they also enjoy wetlands ranging from rivers, swamps, lakes, streams, creeks,
springs, and sometimes on isolated swamps and islands and beaches. Herons will
eat anything within the striking distance of their beaks and they prey upon snakes,
reptiles, rats, mice, small mammals, insects, other birds, turtles, amphibians, fish
and will impale larger prey (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Males will collect nesting material and present it its mate, who will then
arrange the materials. Nest building can take a period of a little less than a half a
month to a month and they build their nests in trees and on the ground. Breeding
colonies can consist of five hundred or more individual nests with multiple per
tree. However, despite this close proximity to one another, they usually forage for
food alone. If they are away from the colony they will develop food territories and
defend it from other Herons in elaborate displays of their feathers and with their
heads upward and wings outward (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
They are listed as least concern in terms of conservation status but they
face threats of pollution and sometimes gators will eat them (Burnie & Wilson,
2001).
26.White
Ibis;
Eudocimus
albus
(Linnaeus,
1758)

(Photo credit: http://www.floridasnature.com/florida%20birds.htm )
The White Ibis can be seen travelling in flocks, usually lurking in the trees overhanging marshes
and springs. Their long and curved bills help aid them in foraging for prey in the muddy bottoms.
We had seen the White Ibis searching for food along lily pads and reeds
near the Santa Fe River’s outer edges, there was an area that ebbed and turned,
and the water was covered in green algae.

Apparently, Eudocimus albus chicks tend to prey upon crayfish during the
nesting seasons. This behavior occurs in Florida Everglades White Ibis, and
apparently, crayfish are a part of 58-88% of a White Ibis chicks diet during this
period (Boyle, et. al, 2014).
The White Ibis ranges from the Southern United States, to outer parts of
Mexico, the Caribbean, and then a small chunk of the northern part of South
America. They are found around bodies of water ranging from coasts to swamp
land, rivers, lakes, streams, creeks, and springs. Their diet consists of small
aquatic prey, ranging from insects, small fish, small crustaceans, and it forages for
food with its beak. (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
The White Ibis pairs up for breeding during the spring and does so in
colonies, sometimes with other bird species. When nesting, the female selects the
area, usually over water, and the males assist in building the nest. Clutches are
around one to five eggs. Males will defend the nest and watch over it with such
diligence that they fast in order to keep watch and scare off other Ibis or
predators. Both parents provide the childcare. Eggs hatch after about three weeks
and are immediately attended to by both parents, who take care of their young in
shifts throughout the day (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
They are listed as least concern in terms of conservation but they suffer a
lot from human pollution and are preyed upon (in terms of their young) by Fish
Crow, Boat-tailed Grackle, Black-crowned Night Heron, gulls, vultures,
opossums, raccoons, and rat snakes. Larger birds and alligators threaten adults for
they seek them out as prey (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
27.Channel
Catfish;
Ictalurus
punctatus
(Rafinesque,
1818)

(Photo credit: http://www.animalclicks.org/fish/channel-catfish-pictures-and-information.html )
The Channel Catfish is the most numerous of the catfish species in North America. A Channel
Catfish has barbels that wield taste buds to help them find prey.
We had seen Channel Catfish swimming along the river bottom and
caught one and identified it in a bucket.

Contrary to what I have always been told, Channel Catfish have their spines to
function against a gape-limited predator by increasing the difficulty of ingestion but not
of capture. When predators capture them, they move in stridulation, instead of saving
itself it does this to send off a distress call to other Ictalurus punctatus (Bosher, et. al.,
2006).
Channel Catfish are found in streams, ponds, springs, reservoirs, rivers, and
sometimes marshland. Their range goes from North America east of the Rockies from
southern Canada, south into northeastern Mexico, and east of the Appalachians; however,
they do inhabit much of the coastal plains and rivers of Florida. They are also seen in
some parts of Mexico and have been introduced to Europe and parts of Malaysia, and
parts of Indonesia (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
They taste percept with their tongue and have sensitivity to amino acids; smaller
catfish tend to prey on insects and the adults feed on insects, mollusks, crustaceans,
earthworms, amphibians, fish, other invertebrates, sometimes small mammals, and plant
material (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Channel Catfish breed in late spring and early summer. The males find good
hidden spots and waits for the female to show up. Once they are done mating, he chases
the female away and guards the eggs himself. Sometimes he will eat his own young, but
for the most part defends his young from other catfish or other fish. The male will guard
the hatched young until they are able to be independent (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
Channel Catfish suffer threats from humans ranging from pollution to fishing.
They are also one of the most eaten freshwater fish in America. They are also prey items
for larger fish (those of the sunfish family and sometimes other catfish) and also of birds
of prey (Burnie & Wilson, 2001).
In terms of conservation they are not listed as vulnerable or threatened (Burnie &
Wilson, 2001).
Conclusion:

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