Azolla filiculoides - NOBANIS

NOBANIS – Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet 

Azolla filiculoides 

Author of this species fact sheet: 

Dipl.-Biol. Andreas Hussner, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Abt. Geobotanik 

Universitätsstraße 1, 40225 Düsseldorf, Tel.: 0049-211-8113683, Andreas.Hussner@uni-duesseldorf.de 

Bibliographical reference – how to cite this fact sheet: 

Hussner, A. (2010): NOBANIS – Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet – Azolla filiculoides. – From: Online Database of 

the European Network on Invasive Alien Species – NOBANIS www.nobanis.org, Date of access x/x/201x. 

Species description 

Scientific name: Azolla filiculoides Lam. 1783, Azollaceae 

Synonyms: Azolla caroliniana Willd., Azolla rubra R.Br., Azolla japonica Franch. & Sav., Azolla 

arbuscula Desv., Azolla filiculoides var. rubra Lam. (R.Br.) Strasb., Azolla magellanica Wild., 

Azolla squamosa Molina. 

Some scientists consider A. caroliniana, A. japonica and A. rubra as independent species. 

Common names: Large mosquito fern (GB), red water fern (GB), Großer Algenfarn (DE), 

andemadsbregne (DK), Azolla karolinska (PL), šakotoji azolė (LT), Grote kroosvaren (NL), 

andematbregne (NO), mossbräken (SE), limaskasaniainen (FI). 

Fig. 1 and 2. Single plants of Azolla filiculoides, photos by A. Hussner.

Fig. 3 and 4. Thin and dense mats of Azolla filiculoides, photos by A. Hussner. 

Fig. 5. Azolla filiculoides plants in a heated pond in winter; the plants become red with an 

increasing distance from the heater, photo by A. Hussner. 

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Species identification 

A. filiculoides is a heterosporous, up to 2.5 (10) cm large floating fern (Figs. 1-5). Azolla plants are 

polygonal or triangular in shape (Lumpkin and Plucknett 1980). The sporophytes consist of twolobed 

leaves and rhizomes. The lower lobes of the leaves are usually larger than the upper. Svenson 

(1944) described the lower lobes as so adapted for floating the plant, that only the lower surface of 

these lower lobes comes in contact with water. 

The plants are dark green to reddish and float on the water surface, either individually or in mats, 

which can reach a thickness of up to 20 cm (McConnachie et al. 2004). A characteristic of the 

genus Azolla is the symbiotic relationship with the nitrogen-fixing blue-green alga Anabaena 

azollae. When A. filiculoides plants are exposed to strong sunlight they obtain a red colour. The 

same occurs in wintertime. In shade they always remain green (Moore 1953, Janes 1998a). Janes 

(1998a) described three different phenotypes of A. filiculoides under different habitat and climate 

conditions. 

Native range 

A. filiculoides is native to warm temperate and subtropical America through Western North 

America (including Alaska). West (1953) described A. filiculoides furthermore as a species which 

in former times was native to Europe (Ekman 1998, 1999, O`Brien and Jones 2003), but died out 

during the last Ice Ages. 

Alien distribution 

History of introduction and geographical spread 

A. filiculoides has actually become a cosmopolitan plant, with occurrences in South Africa (Hill and 

Cilliers 1999, Gratwicke and Marshall 2001, McConnachie et al. 2003, 2004), Asia (Ahmad 1941, 

1943, Kitoh et al. 1993), Australia, South-, Central- and North America (Svenson 1944), South-, 

West-, Central- and North Europe (West 1953, Birkenbeil 1974, Bernhardt 1991, Kohler 1995, 

Ferreira et al. 1998, Janes 1998a, b, Hussner and Lösch 2005) and Scandinavia (Rune and 

Jørgensen 1997). The species was introduced to Europe in 1880 near Bordeaux (West 1953). First 

plants were reported from France, and since then the species spread to nearly the whole of Europe 

with a main occurrence in Atlantic-Mediterranean regions. 

Pathways of introduction 

A. filiculoides is able to reach new regions by waterfowls, in ballast tanks of ships, or by human 

influence (intentionally or unintentionally). Discharge by aquarium keepers may play an important 

role in spread of this species. Rune and Jørgensen (1997) described two examples of intentional 

releases of A. filiculoides plants in Denmark. 

Alien status in region 

A. filiculoides is an alien plant to Europe and Scandinavia (see table 1). In Germany A. filiculoides 

is common (Birkenbeil 1974, Bernhardt 1991, Kohler 1995, Jaeger and Werner 2002, Kowarik 

2003, Hussner and Lösch 2005), but there are no reports on such thick mats as they are reported 

from other countries (McConnachie et al. 2003). Rune and Jørgensen (1997) described A. 

filiculoides from 11 different sites in Denmark. A.filiculoides is found in a few localities in Southern 

Sweden. It is uncertain if A. filiculoides is established or if occurrences are incidental. 

In Poland the species is known from some ephemeral locations in the SW and NE regions 

(Rostański and Sowa 1986-1987, Wokowycki 1999). In Lithuania A. filiculoides was recorded 

abundantly growing in an exploited peatbog in 1946, later became extinct (Gudžinskas 2000). In 

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Norway it has been recorded from three different locations; Oslo (1927 and later), Klepp in the SW 

(1995) and Stokke in the SE (2001). The species is so far apparently not able to survive the winters 

in Norway. 

Country Not Not Rare Local Common Very Not 

found established 

common known 

Austria X 

Belgium X 

Czech republic X 

Denmark X 

Estonia X 

European part of Russia X 

Finland X 

Faroe Islands X 

Germany X 

Greenland X 

Iceland X 

Ireland X 

Latvia X 

Lithuania X 

Netherlands X 

Norway X 

Poland X 

Slovakia X 

Sweden X 

Table 1. The frequency and establishment of Azolla filiculoides, please refer also to the information 

provided for this species at www.nobanis.org/search.asp. Legend for this table: Not found - The 

species is not found in the country; Not established - The species has not formed self-reproducing 

populations (but is found as a casual or incidental species); Rare - Few sites where it is found in the 

country; Local - Locally abundant, many individuals in some areas of the country; Common - 

Many sites in the country; Very common - Many sites and many individuals; Not known - No 

information was available. 

Ecology 

Habitat description 

A. filiculoides settles in ponds, ditches, water reservoirs, wetlands, channels and slow flowing 

rivers. A. filiculoides can be found in sunny to shady parts of the water bodies. Through its 

symbiotic association with Anabaena azollae, the floating fern is able to grow in nitrogen-deficient 

waters. Kitoh et al. (1993) observed that less phosphorous can limit the growth of the species. 

The species grows at best at 15-20°C and high irradiance (Tung and Watanabe 1983, Watanabe and 

Berja 1983, Janes 1998a). Wong et al. (1987) stated that optimum temperature for both nitrogen 

fixation and oxygen evolution is 25°C. Janes (1998a) reported that plants die under laboratory 

conditions at temperatures below – 4°C. Janes (1998a) described A. filiculoides as the most frost 

tolerant of the Azolla species. Wong et al. (1987) reported that A. filiculoides withstands field 

temperatures of – 10 to – 15°C. Janes (1998a) observed successfully overwintered vegetative plants 

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in Worcester (UK) where the minimum air temperature reached – 10°C. Janes (1998a) described 

that plants are able to survive encasement in ice for at least one week, but those parts of the plants 

which protruded above the ice, were killed. 

Reproduction and life cycle 

A. filiculoides has a surface-area doubling time of 7-10 days under favourable conditions. Kitoh et 

al. (1993) observed a doubling of the biomass every 2.2 – 3.4 days under laboratory conditions. The 

growth rate of A. filiculoides increased with increased photoperiod. Janes (1998a, b) investigated 

the sporulation and germination of A. filiculoides and showed that the species sporulates regularly at 

many sites in Britain, most often between May and November. From Germany sporulating plants 

are known too (pers. obs.). It seems that sporulation of this species is regulated by the interacting 

effects of light intensity, photoperiod, temperature, pH and nutrient availability. Janes (1998b) 

suggested that a thick mat of 8 kg m -2 fresh biomass may produce 85 000 megasporocarps and 380 

000 microsporocarps. In laboratory experiments a maximum of germination was reached at 20°C, 

but at a constant temperature of 5°C no germination was observed (Janes 1998b). For germination a 

temperature above 10°C and light are necessary. Temperatures of about – 10°C for at least 18 days 

had no influence on further germination of the sporocarps. The heterosporous life cycle of the genus 

Azolla is illustrated in Fig. 6. 

Fig. 6. Heterosporous life cycle of Azolla (redrawn from Lumpkin and Plucknett 1980) 

Dispersal and spread 

A. filiculoides can spread locally by waterfowls, water sport tackle (diving, fishing, water skiing 

etc.) or by discharge from aquarium keepers. 

Impact 

Affected habitats and indigenous organisms 

A. filiculoides settles in ponds, ditches, water reservoirs, channels and slow flowing rivers. In some 

cases the species can be found together with Lemna minuta, Lemna minor and Spirodela polyrhiza. 

In other cases A. filiculoides forms dense monospecific mats. These mats of floating plants can 

affect the water by eliminating submerged plants and algae (Janes et al. 1996), preventing their 

photosynthesis and blocking oxygen diffusion. Also populations of animals are reduced in the water 

beneath the mats (Gratwicke and Marshall 2001). 

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Genetic effects 

Janes (1998b) reported that there is some evidence that A. filiculoides might have adapted to the 

British climate since its introduction. Similar adaptations are possible for the population in other 

countries. 

Human health effects 

There are no human health effects known. 

Economic and societal effects (positive/negative) 

The genus Azolla is useful in rice fields, because it can assimilate atmospheric nitrogen gas owing 

to the nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria (blue green alga) living in the cavities located at the lower 

side of upper (dorsal) lobes of leaf. By this, Azolla is used as a green manure in rice fields in Asia 

since several decennia (Moore 1969, Mandal et al. 1999, Choudhury and Kennedy 2004, De Macale 

and Vlek 2004, Nayak et al. 2004, Kimura 2005). Aside from this fertilizing effect in cultivation of 

rice, Azolla may influence the pH of the water (Vlek et al. 2002). Shiomi and Kitoh (2001), 

Parthasarathy et al. (2002) and Reyes and Fermin (2003) described the use of Azolla as a feed for 

animals, particularly for fishes. 

In the last years the genus Azolla has become more and more important in wastewater treatments to 

eradicate different metals or to remove nitrogenous compounds from the water (Ghobrial and Siam 

1998, Sanyahumi et al. 1998, Zhao and Duncan 1998, Costa et al. 1999, Zhao et al. 1999 a, b, 

Allison et al. 2000, Forni et al. 2001a, b, 2002, Cohen-Shoel et al. 2002, Oren Benaroya et al. 2004, 

Shiny et al. 2004, Gardea et al. 2005, Stepniewska et al. 2005). 

On the other hand, Azolla can form such dense and thick mats, that it may be impossible to row a 

boat through it (Moore 1969). Azolla mats can reduce the population of different animals from 

water beneath the mats (Gratwicke and Marshall 2001), and furthermore submerged plants can be 

eradicated by shading (Janes et al. 1996). 

Management approaches 

Prevention methods 

Prevention methods are not known. 

Eradication, control and monitoring efforts 

Control options for A. filiculoides are limited. Due to a surface-area doubling time of 7-10 days, 

mechanical control is impractical. Hill and Cilliers (1999) considered manual, mechanical and 

herbicidal control as undesirable and only small infestations of Azolla can be removed manually 

using fine meshed nets. Barreto et al. (2000) described the biological control of Azolla with fungi. 

Hill (1998), Hill and Cilliers (1999) and McConnachie et al. (2003, 2004) described a successful 

biological control of bigger occurrences by the frond-feeding weevil Stenopelmus rufinasus in 

South Africa, where A. filiculoides covered dams and water reservoirs. 

Education and awareness 

No information available. 

Knowledge and research 

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There is a broad knowledge about the biology and physiology of A. filiculoides. Since several 

decennia scientists around the world have investigated the genus Azolla. Moore (1969) and 

Lumpkin and Plucknett (1980) have made excellent reviews of literature. In the last years the 

control of A. filiculoides has gained more and more importance (McConnachie et al. 2003, 2004). In 

addition the research about bioaccumulation and phytoremediation has received high interest in the 

science of wastewater treatment (Ghobrial and Siam 1998, Sanyahumi et al. 1998, Zhao and 

Duncan 1998, Zhao et al. 1999 a, b, Forni et al. 2001, 2002, Cohen-Shoel et al. 2002, Oren 

Benaroya et al. 2004, Shiny et al. 2004, Gardea et al. 2005, Stepniewska et al. 2005). 

Recommendations or comments from experts and local communities 

A comprehensive investigation of actual distribution and involved water bodies will be helpful for 

an estimation of the further spread of this species in our region. 

References and other resources 

Contact persons 

Franz Essl (AT), Umweltbundesamt, Naturschutz, Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090 Wien, Austria 

E-mail: franz.essl@umweltbundesamt.at 

Andreas Hussner (DE), Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Department of Geobotany, 

Universitätsstraße 1, DE-40225 Düsseldorf. Tel.: 0049-211-8113683, E-mail: 

Andreas.Hussner@uni-duesseldorf.de 

Melanie Josefsson (SE) Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, SE 106 48 Stockholm, Tel: 

+46 8 698 1541, E-mail: Melanie.Josefsson@snv.slu.se 

Christina Birnbaum (EE), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Institute of Agriculture and 

Environmental Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 64, Tartu 51014. E-mail: chbirnbaum@yahoo.com 

Colette O'Flynn (IE), National Biodiversity Data Centre, WIT West campus, Carriganore, 

Waterford, Ireland. E-mail: coflynn@biodiversityireland.ie 

Dan Wołkowycki (PL) Białystok Technical University, Division of Environmental Protection and 

Management, ul. Wiejska 45E, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland, Tel. 0048 85 746 9658 , E-mail: 

danwolko@pb.edu.pl 

Henrik Jørgensen (DK), Danish Forest and Nature Agency, Ministry of the Environment, 

Haraldsgade 53, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø. Phone: +45 3947 2000, E-mail: hjg@sns.dk 

Links 

Aquatic neophytes – in German 

Flora of Northern Ireland – fact sheet on Azolla filiculoides 

Canadas Plant Species – Azolla filiculoides incl. distribution map 

Biological Control of Red Water Fern in South Africa - report 

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Azolla in USA 

References 

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Ahmad, G. (1943): Interrelationship between the compensation point, temperature coeffient and growth of Azolla 

filiculoides. Journal of the Indian Botanical Society 22-23: 101-104 

Allison, G., Stagnitti, F., Colville, S., Hill, J. and Coates, M. (2000): Growth of floating aquatic macrophytes in alkaline 

industrial wastewaters. Journal of Environmental Engineering 126: 1103-1107 

Barreto, R., Charudattan, R., Pomella, A. and Hanada, R. (2000): Biological control of neotropical aquatic weeds with 

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Bernhardt, K.G. (1991): Zur aktuellen Verbreitung von Azolla filiculoides Lam. (1783) and Azolla caroliniana Willd. 

(1810) in Nordwestdeutschland. Floristische Rundbriefe 25: 14-19 

Birkenbeil, H. (1974): Azolla filiculoides Lam. im Nordheimer Altrhein. Hessische Floristische Briefe 23: 14-16 

Cohen-Shoel, N., Barkay, Z., Ilzycer, D., Gilath, I. and Tel-Or, E. (2002): Biofiltration of toxic elementary by Azolla 

biomass. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 135 (1-4): 93-104 

Costa, M.L., Santos, M.C. and Carrapico, F. (1999): Biomass characterization of Azolla filiculoides grown in natural 

ecosystems and wastewater. Hydrobiologia 415: 323-327 

De Macale, M.A.R., Vlek, P.L.G. (2004): The role of Azolla cover in improving the nitrogen use efficiency of lowland 

rice. Plant and Soil 263 (1-2): 311-321 

Ekman, S.R. (1998): Pleistocene pollen stratigraphy from borehole 81/34, Devil’s hole area, central North Sea. 

Quaternary Science Reviews 17: 855-869 

Ekman, S.R. (1999): Early Pleistocene pollen biostratigraphy in the central North Sea. Review of Palaeobotany and 

Palynology 105: 171-182 

Ferreira, M.T., Catarino, L. and Moreira, I. (1998): Aquatic weed assemblages in an Iberian drainage channel system 

and related environmental factors. Weed research 38(4): 291-300 

Forni, C., Chen, J., Pancioni, L. and Grilli Caiola, M. (2001a): Evaluation of the fern Azolla for growth, nitrogen and 

phosphorous removal from wastewater. Water research 35 (6): 1592-1598 

Forni, C., Nicolai, M.A. and D’Egidio, M.G. (2001b): Potential of the small aquatic plants Azolla and Lemna for 

nitrogenous compounds removal from wastewater. Progress in Water Resources: 315-324 

Forni, C., Cascone, A., Fiori, M. and Migliore, L. (2002): Sulphadimethoxine and Azolla filiculoides Lam.: A model for 

drug remediation. Water research 36 (13): 3398-3403 

Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., Peralta-Videa, J.R., De La Rosa, G. and Parsone, J.G. (2005): Phytoremediation of heavy 

metals and study of the metal coordination by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 249: 

1797-1810 

Ghobrial, M.G. and Siam, E.E. (1998): The use of the water velvet Azolla filiculoides in wastewater treatment. Journal 

of the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management 12 (4): 250-253 

Gratwicke, B. and Marshall, B.E. (2001): The impact of Azolla filiculoides Lam. on animal biodiversity in streams in 

Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 39 (2): 216-218 

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Gudžinskas, Z. (2000): Conspectus of alien plant species of Lithuania. 15. Azollaceae, Pinaceae, and Salicaceae. 

Botanica Lithuanica, 6 (3): 235–242 

Hill, M.P. (1998): Life history and laboratory host range of Stenopelmus rufinasus, a natural enemy for Azolla 

filiculoides in South-Africa. BioControl 43 (2): 215-224 

Hill, M.P. and Cilliers, C.J. (1999): Azolla filiculoides Lamarck (Pteridophyta: Azollaceae), its status in South Africa 

and control. Hydrobiologia 415: 203-206 

Hussner, A. and Lösch, R. (2005): Alien aquatic plants in a thermally abnormal river and their assembly to neophytedominated 

macrophyte stands (River Erft, Northrhine-Westphalia). Limnologica 35: 18-30 

Jaeger, E. and Werner, K. (2002): Rothmaler, Exkursionsflora von Deutschland. Band 4, Gefäßpflanzen, kritischer 

Band, 9. Auflage, Spektrum, Heidelberg/Berlin 

Janes, R. (1998a): Growth and survival of Azolla filiculoides in Britain. 1. Vegetative reproduction. New Phytologist 

138: 367-376 

Janes, R. (1998b): Growth and survival of Azolla filiculoides in Britain. 2. Sexual reproduction. New Phytologist 138: 

377-384 

Janes, R., Eaton, J.W. and Hardwick, K. (1996): The effects of floating mats of Azolla filiculoides Lam. and Lemna 

minuta Kunth on the growth of submerged macrophytes. Hydrobiologia 340: 23-26 

Kimura, M. (2005): Populations, community composition and biomass of aquatic organism in the floodwater of rice 

fields and effects of field management. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 51 (2): 159-181 

Kitoh, S., Shiomi, N. and Uheda, E. (1993): The growth and nitrogen fixation of Azolla filiculoides Lam. in polluted 

water. Aquatic botany 46: 129-139 

Kohler, A. (1995): Neophyten in Fließgewässern – Beispiele aus Süddeutschland und dem Elsaß. Schriftenreihe für 

Vegetationskunde 27: 405-412 

Kowarik, I. (2003): Biologische Invasionen: Neophyten und Neozoen in Mitteleuropa. Eugen Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart, 

380 pp. 

Lumpkin, T.A. and Plucknett, D.L. (1980): Azolla: Botany, Physiology, and Use as a Green Manure. Economic Botany 

34 (2): 111-153 

Mandal, B., Vlek, P.L.G. and Mandal, L.N. (1999): Beneficial effects of blue-green algae and Azolla, excluding 

supplying nitrogen, on wetland rice fields: A review. Biology and Fertility of Soils 28 (4): 329-342 

McConnachie, A.J., Wit, M.P. de, Hill, M.P. and Byrne, M.J. (2003): Economic evaluation of the successful biological 

control of Azolla filiculoides in South Africa. Biological Control 28: 25-32 

McConnachie, A.J., Hill, M.P., Byrne, M.J. (2004): Field assessment of a frond-feeding weevil, a successful biological 

control agent of red waterfern, Azolla filiculoides, in southern Africa. Biological control 29: 326-331 

Moore, A.W. (1969): Azolla: biology and agronomic significance. Botanical Review 35: 17-35 

Nayak, S., Prasanna, R., Pabby, A., Dominic, T.K. and Singh, P.K. (2004): Effect of urea, blue green algae and Azolla 

on nitrogen fixation and chlorophyll accumulation in soil under rice. … 

O`Brien, C.E. and Jones, R.L. (2003): Early and Middle Pleistocene vegetation of the Médoc region, southwest France. 

Journal of Quaternary Science 18 (6): 557-579 

Oren Benaroya, R., Tzin, V., Tel-Or, E. and Zamski, E. (2004): Lead accumulation in the aquatic fern Azolla 

filiculoides. Plant physiology and Biochemistry 42 (7-8): 639-645 

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Parthasarathy, R., Kardivel, R. and Kathaperumal, V. (2002): Azolla as a partial replacement for fish meal in broiler 

rations. Indian Veterinary Journal 79 (2): 144-146 

Reyes, O.S. and Fermin, A.C. (2003): Terrestrial leaf meals or freshwater aquatic fern as potential feed ingredients for 

farmed abalone Haliotis asinine (Linnaeus 1758). Aquaculture Research 34 (8): 593-599 

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Geobotanica 31-32 (1-2): 151-203 [in Polish with English summary] 

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59-65 

Sanyahumi, D., Duncan, J.R., Zhao, J.R., Van Hille, R. (1998): Removal of lead from solution by the non-viable 

biomass of the water fern Azolla filiculoides. Biotechnology Letters 20: 745-747 

Shiny, K.J., Remani, K.N., Jalaja, T.K. and Sasidharan, V.K. (2004): Removal of chromium by two aquatic 

pteridophytes. Indian Journal of Environmental Health 46 (3): 249-251 

Shiomi, N. and Kitoh, S. (2001): Culture of Azolla in a pond, nutrient composition, and use as a fish feed. Soil Science 

and Plant Nutrition 47 (1): 27-34 

Stepniewska, Z., Bennicelli, R.P., Balakhnina, T.I., Szajnocha, K., Banach, A. and Wolinska, A. (2005): Potential of 

Azolla caroliniana for the removal of Pb and Cd from wastewaters. International Agrophysics 19 (3): 251-255 

Svenson, H.K. (1944): The New World Species of Azolla. American Fern Journal 34 (3): 69-85 

Tung, H.F. and Watanabe, I. (1983): Differential response of Azolla-Anabaena associations to high temperatures and 

minus phosphorus treatments. New Phytologist 93: 423-431 

Van der Meiden, R. (2006): Heukels’ Flora van Nederland, ed. 23. Groningen 

Vlek, P.L.G., Eberhardt, U. and Mie Aung, M. (2002): The role of Azolla in lowering the pH of simulated floodwater. 

Journal of Applied Botany 76 (1-2): 1-7 

Watanabe, I. and Berja, N.S. (1983): The growth of four species of Azolla as affected by temperature. Aquatic botany 

15: 175-185 

West, R.G. (1953): The occurrence of Azolla in British interglacial deposits. New Phytologist 52: 267-272 

Wołkowycki, D. (1999): Azolla filiculoides (Pteridophyta, Azollaceae) in Poland. Fragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica 

Series Polonica 6: 165-170 [in Polish with English summary] 

Wong Fong Sang, H.W., Vu, Van Vu, Kijne, J.W., Vu, T.T. and Planque, K. (1987): Use of Azolla as a test organism in 

a growth chamber of simple design. Plant and Soil 99: 219-230 

Zhao, M. and Duncan, J.R. (1998): Removal and recovery of nickel from aqueous solution and electroplating rinse 

effluent using Azolla filiculoides. Process Biochemistry 33 (3): 249-255 

Zhao, M., Duncan, J.R. and Sanyahumi, D. (1999a): Competitive sorption of multiple heavy metals by Azolla 

filiculoides. Resource and Environmental Biotechnology 2 (3): 173-183 

Zhao, M., Duncan, J.R. and Van Hille, R.P. (1999b): Removal and recovery of zinc from solution and electroplating 

effluent using Azolla filiculoides. Water Research 33 (6): 1516-1522 

Date of creation/modification of this species fact sheet: 25-10-2010 

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Azolla filiculoides - NOBANIS

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