in Sri Lanka - Ministry of Environment

The National Red List 2012of Sri LankaConservation Status of the Fauna andFloraThis publication has been prepared by the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry ofEnvironment in collaboration with the National Herbarium, Department of National BotanicGardens.

Published by: Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment and National Herbarium,Department of National Botanic GardensAmended VersionCopyright: Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of EnvironmentCitation:1. For citing the threatened listMOE 2012. The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Faunaand Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. viii + 476pp2. For citing an articleAuthor name 2012. Title of the paper. In: The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka;Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Weerakoon, D.K. & S. Wijesundara Eds.,Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. x-y ppISBN Number : : 978-955-0033-55-3Printed by: Karunarathne and Sons Pvt (Ltd)67, UDA Industrial EstateKatuwana Road,Homagama.Available from : Biodiversity Secretariat,Ministry of Environment.National Herbarium,Department of National Botanic Gardens.Cover page photos:George Van der PoortenSamantha Suranjan FernandoRanil NanayakkaraManoj PrasannaSamantha GunasekeraMendis WickremasingheThilanka Perera

Table of ContentsList of AbbreviationsRed Listing TeamParticipants of Expert PanelAcknowledgementsMessage of the Minister of EnvironmentMessage of the Secretary, Ministry of EnvironmentA Brief Overview of the Biodiversity of Sri LankaPreparation of the 2012 Red ListvviviiixivxvxvixviixxThe Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Dragonfly Fauna of Sri Lanka 1List of Dragonflies in Sri Lanka 5The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Ants in Sri Lanka 11List of Ants in Sri Lanka 15The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Bees in Sri Lanka 20List of Bees in Sri Lanka 23The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Butterflies of Sri Lanka 26List of Butterflies in Sri Lanka 32The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Spiders in Sri Lanka 42List of Spiders in Sri Lanka 45Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Crabs in Sri Lanka 58List of Freshwater Crabs in Sri Lanka 63The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Land Snails in Sri Lanka 65List of Land Snails in Sri Lanka 69The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Fishes in Sri Lanka 77List of Freshwater Fish in Sri Lanka 82The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Amphibians in Sri Lanka 88List of Amphibians in Sri Lanka 92The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Reptile Fauna in Sri Lanka 99List of Reptiles in Sri Lanka 104iii

List of AbbreviationsARROSBDSBEARCABRECEACRCR(PE)DDEENEWEXFAOFNCPGCSIFSIUCNLCLORRISMOENARANCSNENSCACNTORCAPGISRFLPSSEALSSNRTVUAmphibian & Reptile Research Organization of Sri LankaBiodiversity SecretariatBiodiversity Education & Research OrganizationCenter for Applied Biodiversity Research and EducationCentral Environmental AuthorityCritically EndangeredCritically Endangered Possibly ExtinctData DeficientEnglish nameEndangeredExtinct in WildExtinctFood and Agriculture Organization of UNFoundation for Nature Conservation & PreservationGlobal Conservation StatusInstitute of Fundamental StudiesWorld Conservation UnionLeast ConcernedLand Owners Restore Rainforests in Sri LankaMinistry of EnvironmentNational Aquatic Resources & Research Development AgencyNational Conservation StatusNot EvaluatedNational Species Conservation Advisory CommitteeNear ThreatenedOcean Resources Conservation AssociationPost Graduate Institute of ScienceRegional Fisheries Livelihood Programme for South and Southeast AsiaSinhala nameSpirit & Eco Adventure Living SquadStrict Nature ReserveTamil nameVulnerablev

Red listing TeamSupervision and GuidanceProf. Devaka Weerakoon ( University of Colombo)Dr. Siril Wijesundara (Director General, Department of National Botanic Gardens)Mr. Gamini Gamage (Former Director, Biodiversity Secretariat)Mr. Ajith Silva (Former Director, Biodiversity Secretariat)Ms. Padma Abeykoon ( Director, Biodiversity Secretariat)CoordinationMs. Dakshini Perera (Biodiversity Secretariat)Ms. Hasula Wickramasinghe (Biodiversity Secretariat)Ms. Subhani Ranasinghe (National Herbarium)Dr. Achala Attanayake (Department of Botanic Gardens)MappingMs. Dakshini Perera (Biodiversity Secretariat)Ms. Saranga Jayasundara (Biodiversity Secretariat)EditorsProf. Devaka Weerakoon ( University of Colombo)Dr. Siril Wijesundara (Director General, Department of National Botanic Gardens)Editorial AssistanceMr. Pradeep Arjuna JayatungaCover page design & page settingMr Sanjeewa LelwalaData Compiling and Mapping AssistanceMs. Nadeeka Gunawardana (National Herbarium)Ms. Gayani Fonseka (National Herbarium)Ms Hasula Wickremasinghe (Biodiversity Secretariat)Ms. Himali de Costa (Biodiversity Secretariat)Mr Amila SumanapalaMr Chaminda RatnayakeMr. Gayan KariyawasamMr. Gihan Kanchana VandergertMr. H.L.Imeda LahiruMr. Kasun R.DalpathaduMr. Lasantha Jayaruwanvi

Mr. M.P.Tharanga WijewickramaMr. M.T.R.FernandoMr. Salindra Kasun DayanandaMr. Sanjeewa MahaarachchikumburaMr. Tharaka MuthunayakeMs T.S. HerathMs. A.M.S.K.AbeysekaraMs. A.M.Wathsala AbesingheMs. B.A.K.WickramathilakeMs. K.A.Samanthi KumarasingheMs. Kasundika BandaraMs. L.W.L.H.ThejanikalaMs. N.G.K.D.D. SenevirathneMs. S.A.Dilani KaushalyaMs. S.M. WijesuriyaMs. Sathiska Cathurani EpaMs. Thilini MuthukudarachchiMs. W. A. Sathya SurakshiMs. W.G.Kanchana KumuduniMs. W.M.N.P.WijayakoonMs. T.A.Dilhani JayawardanaMs. Gayani HapuarachchiMs. Himali Gamagevii

FloraHigher PlantsParticipants of Expert PanelProf. Deepthi YakandawalaProf. Nimal GunathilakeProf. Savithri GunathilakeDr. Achala AttanayakeDr. Anoma PereraDr. Hashendra KaththiarachchiDr. Magdon JayasuriyaDr. Samantha Suranjan FernandoDr. Siril WijesundaraMr. Dilup ChandranimalMr. Nalinda PerisMr. Sarath EkanayakeMs. Subhani RanasingheUniversity of PeradeniyaUniversity of PeradeniyaUniversity of PeradeniyaDepartment of National Botanic GardensUniversity of PeradeniyaUniversity of ColomboEnvironmental Management LimitedPGIS & CABREDepartment of National Botanic GardensFlora ConsultantFlora ConsultantFlora ConsultantNational HerbariumOrchidsDr. Siril WijesundaraDr. Samantha Suranjan FernandoMr. Ajantha PalihawadanaMr. Samantha GunasekaraDepartment of National Botanic GardensPGIS & CABRESewalanka FoundationDepartment of CustomsFernsDr. D.N.K.G.PushpakumaraDr. R.H.G.RanilMs. Nadeeka GunawardanaMr. D.M.U.B.DhanasekaraUniversity of PeradeniyaUniversity of PeradeniyaNational HerbariumMangrovesProf. L.P. JayatissaProf. K.B.RanawanaProf. Mala AmarasingheDr. Abyerami SivasubramaniumDr. T. JayasingamMr. Duglus ThiseraMr. Hasantha AmarasekaraMr. M.GammanpilaMr. Manoj PrasannnaMr. W.A.SumanadasaUniversity of RuhunaUniversity of PeradeniyaUniversity of KelaniyaUniversity of JaffnaEastern University of Sri LankaSmall Fisheries FederationRFLP & FAONARABiodiversity SecretariatNARAviii

FaunaFreshwater FishesProf. Ruchira CumaranatungaProf. Upali AmarasingheDr. Terney Pradeep KumaraMr. Dinesh GabadageMr. Jagath GunawardanaMr. Kelum Manamendra ArachchiMr. M.M. BahirMr. Madura De SilvaMr. Nadika HapuarachchiMr. Sajeewa ChamikaraMr. Samantha GunasekaraMr. Sameera AkmeemanaMr. Sampath GoonatilakeMr. Shantha JayaweeraMr. Tharaka MuthunayakeMr. Vimukthi WeeratungaMs. Hasula WickremasingheMs. Ramani ShiranthaUniversity of RuhunaUniversity of KelaniyaUniversity of RuhunaTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyPostgraduate Institute of ArchaeologyTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyWildlife Conservation Society GalleWildlife Conservation Society GalleSri Lanka Nature GroupSri Lanka CustomsWildlife Conservation Society GalleIUCNYoung Zoologists’ AssociationUniversity of ColomboEnvironmental Foundation LimitedMinistry of EnvironmentNARAAmphibiansMr. Anslem de SilvaMr. Dinal SamarasingheMr. Dinesh GabadageMr. Dushantha KandambiMr. Imesh Nuwan BandaraMr. Kelum Manamendra-ArachchiMr. M.M. BahirMr. Madura De SilvaMr. Mendis WickramasingheMr. Sameera AkmeemanaMr. Sameera KarunarathnaMr. Sampath de Alwis GoonatilakeMr. Tharaka MuthunayakeMr. Thasun AmarasingheMr. V.A.M.P.K.SamarawickramaMr. Vimukthi WeerathungaARROSYoung Zoologists’ AssociationTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyUniversity of PeradeniyaPostgraduate Institute of ArchaeologyTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyWildlife Conservation SocietyHerpetofauna Foundation of Sri LankaWildlife Conservation Society GalleYoung Zoologists’ AssociationIUCNUniversity of ColomboTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyEnvironmental Foundation LimitedReptilesMr. Ajantha PalihawadanaMr. Anslem de SilvaMr. Dinal SamarasingheMr. Dinesh GabadageMr. Dulan Ranga VidanapathiranaMr. Duminda NilakshanaMr. Dushantha KandambiSewalanka FoundationARROSHerpetofauna Foundation of Sri LankaTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyHerpetofauna Foundation of Sri Lankaix

Mr. Gayan ChathurangaMr. Imesh Nuwan BandaraMr. Kelum Manamendra-ArachchiMr. M.M.BahirMr. Malaka BopageMr. Mendis WickramasingheMr. Nadika HapuarachchiMr. Ruchira SomaweeraMr. Sameera AkmeemanaMr. Sameera KarunarathnaMr. Saminda Prasad FernandoMr. Sampath de Alwis GoonatilakeMr. Tharaka MuthunayakeMr. Thasun AmarasingheMr. V.A.P.M.P. SamarawickramaMr. Vimukthi WeeratungaUniversity of PeradeniyaPostgraduate Institute of ArchaeologyTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyHerpetofauna Foundation of Sri LankaWildlife Conservation Society GalleWildlife Conservation Society GalleYoung Zoologists’ AssociationThe Open University of Sri LankaIUCNUniversity of ColomboTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyEnvironmental Foundation LimitedBirdsProf. Devaka WeerakoonDr. B.Z. NizamDr. Darshani MahaulpathaDr. Nanda SenanayakeDr. Nilmini JayasenaDr. Sudheera BandaraMr. Amila Prasanna SumanapalaMr. Chaminda Pradeep RathnayakeMr. Chinthaka KalutotaMr. Deepal WarakagodaMr. Dhammithra SamarasingheMr. Indika PeabotuwageMr. Jagath GunawardenaMr. Kithsiri GunawardanaMr. Lester PereraMr. Nadika HapuarachchiMr. Pathmanath SamaraweeraMr. Rohan PeirisMr. Salindra Kasun DayanandaMr. Sampath de Alwis GoonatilakeMr. Sandun JayawardanaDr. Sriyani WickremasingheMr. Tharanga HerathMr. Thushara SenevirathnaMr. Udaya SiriwardanaMr. Uditha HettigeMr. Uditha WijesenaMr. Upul WickremasingheMr. V.A.M.P SamarawickramaUniversity of ColomboThe Open University of Sri LankaUniversity of Sri JayawardanapuraCeylon Bird ClubUniversity of PeradeniyaYoung Zoologists’ AssociationUniversity of KelaniyaField Ornithology Group of Sri LankaField Ornithology Group of Sri LankaCeylon Bird ClubYoung Zoologists’ AssociationCeylon Bird ClubCeylon Bird ClubCeylon Bird ClubWildlife Conservation Society GalleCeylon Bird ClubField Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka/ FNCPIUCNField Ornithology Group of Sri LankaRajarata University of Sri LankaYoung Zoologists’ AssociationCeylon Bird ClubCeylon Bird ClubField Ornithology Group of Sri LankaField Ornithology Group of Sri Lankax

MammalsProf. Devaka WeerakoonDr. Charmalie NahallageDr. G.A.T. PrasadDr. Jinie DelaDr. Mayuri WijesingheDr. Sriyani MiththapalaDr. Sriyani WickramasinghaDr. Wipula YapaDr. Wolfgang DittusMr. Channa RajapakseMr. Kelum Manamendra-ArachchiMr. M. Rohan PeirisMr. Madura De SilvaMr. Nadika HapuarachchiMr. Ranil NanayakkaraMr. S.R.B.DissanayakeMr. Salindra Kasun DayanandaMr. Saman GamageMr. Sampath de Alwis GoonatilakeMs. Anouk IlangakoonMs. Manori GoonatilakeUniversity of ColomboUniversity of Sri JayawardanapuraDepartment of Wildlife ConservationUniversity of ColomboRajarata University of Sri LankaUniversity of ColomboIFSCommercial BankPostgraduate Institute of ArchaeologyOpen University of Sri LankaWildlife Conservation Society- GalleWildlife Conservation Society- GalleBEARDepartment of Wildlife ConservationFNCPLORRISIUCNDepartment of National MuseumsButterfliesProf. Devaka WeerakoonDr. George Van der PoortenDr. Nirmalie PallewatteMr. Chamitha De AlwisMr. Himesh JayasinghaMr. Rajika GamageMr. Sajeewa ChamikaraMr. Sameera AkmeemanaMr. Sampath de Alwis GoonatilakeMr. Sandun J. PereraMr. Sarath SanjeewaMr. V.A.M.P.K. SamarawickramaMr. Vimukthi WeeratungaMs. Chanuka MaheshaniMs. Manori GoonatilakeMs. Nancy Van der PoortenUniversity of ColomboUniversity of ColomboUniversity of SabaragamuwaIrrigation Department- WellawayaTea Research InstituteSri Lanka Nature GroupWildlife Conservation Society GalleIUCNUniversity of SabaragamuwaUniversity of SabaragamuwaEnvironmental Foundation LimitedThe Open University of Sri LankaDepartment of National MuseumsOdonatesDr. George Van der PoortenDr. Karen ConniffMr. Sampath GunasingheMs. Nancy Van der PoortenWildlife Conservation Society Gallexi

AntsProf. Sriyani DiasMs. Anuradha KosgamageMs. Wajira Swarnamali PeirisUniversity of KelaniyaUniversity of KelaniyaUniversity of KelaniyaSpidersDr. Suresh BenjaminMr. Bhathiya KekulandalaMr. Menan JayarathnaMr. Mendis WickremasingheMr. Ranil NanayakkaraMr. Rohan PeirisMr. Salindra Kasun DayanandaIFSPractical ActionYoung Biologists’AssociationHerpetofauna Foundation of Sri LankaBEARThe Open University of Sri LankaFNCPBeesProf. Jayanthi EdirisingheDr. Inoka KarunaratneUniversity of PeradeniyaUniversity of PeradeniyaFreshwater CrabsMr. Dinesh GabadageMr. M.M.BahirTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyTaprobanica Nature Conservation SocietyLand SnailsProf. Kithsiri RanawanaDr. S. KrishnarajaMr. T.G. Mahesh PriyadarshanaMr. V.A.M.P.K. SamarawickramaMr. Rohana JayasekaraUniversity of PeradeniyaThe Open University of Sri LankaSEALSCoralsDr. S. KrishnarajaMr.Arjan RajasuriyaThe Open University of Sri LankaNARAMarine FishDr. Terney PradeepMr. Kasun R. DalpathaduMr. Prasanna WeerakkodyMr. Rex de SilvaUniversity of RuhunaUniversity of RuhunaORCAMarine CrustaceansProf. S. KuganathanMr. Prasanna WeerakkodyUniversity of JaffnaORCAxii

Bivalves & GastropodsDr. Malik FernandoEchinodermsDr. Malik FernandoDr. Sevvandi JayakodySri Lanka Natural History SocietySri Lanka Natural History SocietyUniversity of WayambaLeafhoppersDr. Raji. GnaneswaranDung BeetlesDr. Enoka KudavidanageMs. Deepchandi LekamgeUniversity of JaffnaUniversity of SabaragamuwaUniversity of SabaragamuwaCentipedesMr. Duminda DissanayakeDr. Sriyani WickramasinghaRajarata University of Sri LankaRajarata University of Sri Lankaxiii

AcknowledgementsThe National Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora 2012, is compiled and presented as aresult of great teamwork.We wish to thank Mr. B.M.U.D. Basnayaka, Secretary of the Ministry of Environment andMr. N.K.G.K.Nammewatta, Additional Secretary of Ministry of Environment, for theencouragement and support provided.Former Director of Biodiversity Secretariat, Mr. Gamini Gamage, played a key role in initiatingthe 2012 National Red List. His successors, Mr. Ajith Silva and Mrs. Padma Abeykoon tooprovided all the support required to carry the project forward.The contributors and experts, who provided the key information necessary for the compilationof 2012 National Red List, are acknowledged with highest gratitude.We would also like to acknowledge the Global Red Listing Team for the training and logisticalsupport they have provided throughout the red listing process.We wish to thank Dr. Suranjan Fernando for providing the initial training on Red Listingcriteria and for volunteering as one of the editors for the flora section, Dr. R.H.G. Ranil andMr. Pradeep Jayatunga for the editorial assistance provided for the pteridophyte and faunasection respectively and Mr. Sampath de Alwis Goonatilake for all the support provided.We wish to thank Mr. Sanjeewa Lelwala for voluntarily helping us with the cover design andpage layout.All the Staff of Biodiversity Secretariat and National Herbarium are acknowledged for varioussupport provided without reservation, in order to make this project a success.In addition, we like to acknowledge the management and staff of Karunarathne and SonsPrinters, for going beyond their call of duty to print this book on time.Finally, we wish to thank, all the contributors and their respective organizations for making theNational Red List of 2012, a reality.Red Listing Teamxiv

Message of the Minister of EnvironmentAccording to the 1978 Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, it isthe duty of the state and every person in Sri Lanka to protect, preserve and improve theenvironment for the benefit of the community. The Ministry of Environment has taken theresponsibility of implementing the constitution in sustainable management of the environment.Sri Lanka is considered as a biodiversity hotspot due to its richness in Flora and Fauna andthreats to their survival. As the policy makers of the country it is very important to identifyand prioritize the species for conservation activities. I believe the National Red List 2012 hasprovided a solid base in this aspect by evaluating all flowering plants, ferns, all terrestrialvertebrates and major groups of invertebrates of the country.Together with the National Herbarium of the Department of Botanic Gardens, the BiodiversitySecretariat of the Ministry has taken the leading role in preparation of National Red List 2012.I wish to thank the Fauna and Flora coordinators, the staff of National Herbarium and themembers of the expert committees for their voluntary collaboration in successfully achievingthis nationally important activity. I also congratulate the Director and the staff of the BiodiversitySecretariat of my Ministry for their effort in completing this event.I hope this document will be taken as an important tool in future development activities inbecoming the immerging Wonder of Asia in a sustainable manner while conserving thebiodiversity of the country for the generations to come.Anura Priyadharshana Yapa,Minister of Environment.xv

Message of the Secretary, Ministry of EnvironmentAfter completion of the National Red List 2007, the Species Conservation Unit was establishedunder the Biodiversity Secretariat and all the literature and the Red List database was handedover to this unit by IUCN for updating the Red List. Preparation of 2012 Red List is one of themajor activities of BDS for year 2012With the contribution of the members of the expert groups established by the National SpeciesConservation Advisory Committee, the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry has completedthe evaluation of flora and fauna of the country. The National Herbarium of the Department ofBotanic Gardens collaborated in evaluation of Flora.Significance of the National Red List 2012 is the evaluation of all species by collaboration oftwo government institutions using government funds by building capacity of the governmentofficers. The database established by this activity will facilitate future research and provideguidance to the policy and legislations related to biodiversity.I wish to thank all the taxonomists, naturalist, researchers and other resource persons whocontributed in providing data and comments in preparation of this publication. I also thank theRed Listing team for completing this publication successfully.I believe we as the Ministry of Environment has the responsibility in implementing the targetsof the way forward for conservation of the priority species and area selected.B.M.U.D.Basnayake,Secretary,Ministry of Environment.xvi

A Brief Overview of the Biodiversity of Sri LankaDevaka WeerakoonUniversity of ColomboSri Lanka, with a total land area of 65,610 km 2 is a tropical island situated in the Indian Ocean.The southwestern region of Sri Lanka, encompassing approximately 20,000 km 2 , is the onlyaseasonal ever wet region in the whole of South Asia (Ashton & Gunatilleke, 1987; Gunatillekeet al., 2005). This region is referred to as the wet zone of Sri Lanka and receives up to 3000 mmof rainfall annually. Wet-zone of Sri Lanka along with the Western Ghats of India is designatedas one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, in demand of extensive conservation investment(Myers et al., 2000; Brookes et al., 2002). This high biodiversity seen in Sri Lanka can beattributed to a wide variety of climatic, topographic and soil conditions that exist in the islandthat has resulted in a diverse array of aquatic and terrestrial habitats (detailed descriptions ofthe natural terrestrial and aquatic natural habitats are given in the flora section).Sri Lanka was part of the ancient Gondwanaland and was located adjacent to the Africancontinent. Around 160 million years ago, the Deccan plate which comprised of India and SriLanka, broke away from the Gondwanaland, drifted northwards and collided with the Asian platearound 55 million years ago. Thereafter, Sri Lanka separated from India due to submersion ofthe land bridge between the two countries about 20 million years ago. These zoogeographic,climatic, topographic and edaphic factors have shaped the faunal and floral assemblage seenin Sri Lanka. During the last 2 to 3 thousand years land-use changes brought about by humanshave been instrumental in large scale habitat changes that have had both positive and negativeinfluences on Sri Lanka’s flora and fauna.Sri Lanka’s biodiversity is significantly important both in a regional and global scale. Sri Lankahas the highest species density (number of species present per 10,000 sq. km) for floweringplants, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals in the Asian region (NARESA, 1991). The currentlyrecognized statistics of the major plant and animal taxa treated in this book are given in Table1. However, it should be noted that there are many other taxonomic groups in Sri Lanka thatare excluded from this table due to lack of clear data on their current status.Table 1. Species richness of selected faunal and floral groups of Sri LankaTaxonomic Group Number of Species Number of Endemic SpeciesAngiosperms 3,154 894Gymnosperms 2 0Pteridophytes 336 49Soft corals 35Hard corals 208Spiders 501 256Centipedes 19Marine crustaceans 742Fresh water crabs 51 50Dragonflies 118 47Ants 194 33Bees 130Butterflies 245 26Leafhoppers 257xvii

Dung beetles 103 21Bivalves 287Gastropods (marine) 469Land snails 253 205Echinoderms 190Marine fish 1377Fresh water fish 91 50Amphibians 111 95Reptiles 211 125Resident birds 240 27 + 6 ProposedMammals 125 21Even though the above table indicates that Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich biodiversity, atpresent only a small fraction of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity is known to science. For instance,higher plants and vertebrates are the only taxa that have been studied in sufficient detail todate. Lower plants and invertebrates are largely neglected except for few selected groupssuch as butterflies, dragonflies, land snails, pteridophytes and algae. Even the vertebratesand, for that matter, higher plants are not completely listed, as during the last two decade alonelarge number of new species have been discovered (Table 2). Even among the birds, whichhave been studied quite exhaustively, a new species of owl has been discovered recently(Warakagoda & Rasmussen, 2004).Table 2. How the number of species have changed over the last decade.Taxonomic group 1993 2012Fresh water shrimps 21 23Freshwater crabs 7 51Freshwater fish 51 91Amphibians 39 111Reptiles 155 211Mammals 90 125The statistics shown in Tables 1 & 2 clearly indicate that most of the information available forflora and fauna of Sri Lanka is on higher plants or vertebrates. However, one must keep inmind that higher plants and vertebrates make up only about 3% of all the species describedto date while Order Insecta alone make up about 54%. There is no doubt that large number ofinsect species are awaiting to be discovered in Sri Lanka. It will be rather unfortunate if someof these organisms would perish even before we discover them. Furthermore, so far very littleattention has been given to species that inhabit the forest canopy. Studies in Australia andSouth America have shown that the forest canopy is home to large number of living organismsthat will not be detected by the traditional sampling techniques used (Russell-Smith & Stork,1995; Stork et al., 1997a; Stork et al., 1997b).Therefore, it is safe to say that one of the biggest drawbacks in conserving the biodiversity ofSri Lanka is the lack of knowledge about what we actually have. This state of affairs has arisenmainly due to lack of trained taxonomists as well as lack of initiative to explore the biodiversityof the country. The state agencies that are responsible for carrying out these activities havefailed to address this issue appreciably due to funding constraints as well as lack of a clearxviii

leadership to achieve this daunting task. On the contrary, few local and foreign academics andNon Governmental Organizations have been in the forefront of such exploration in the recenttimes. Their work led to the discovery of number of new species of plants and animals over thepast decade as indicated in Table 2.Even if we mange to fully inventorize the biodiversity of Sri Lanka, it will be impossible toconserve all of them. Therefore, we will have to choose those species that require our immediateattention. Thus the conservation status of each species has to be determined. Based on suchan evaluation a list of species is compiled with their present conservation status. Such lists arereferred to as Red Lists or Threatened Lists and can be done at national, regional or globalscale. These lists will help us to prioritize conservation action as well as to plan national andinternational legislature. However, listing the conservation status is only the first step towardsconserving threatened species. This should be followed with three other important steps whichare planning, implementation, and monitoring. It appears that we have failed to address theseissues appreciably. This clearly indicates that even though the need to conserve threatenedspecies has been recognized, the necessary steps to conserve them have not been taken.Sri Lanka has a rich history of conserving biodiversity, which dates back to the ancient kings.Furthermore, Sri Lanka has a biodiversity that is worthy of conservation. There is also a greatdeal of enthusiasm among our people to conserve the biodiversity of this country. Now is thetime to harness this enthusiasm and provide the right kind of leadership to the conservationmovement of this country as there is still time to save the biodiversity of Sri Lanka. However,one must bear in mind that this is a race against time and time lost will also result in loss ofspecies.ReferencesAshton, P. M. S. & Gunatilleke, C. V. S., (1987). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon I. Historical plantgeography. Journal of Biogeography, 14, pp. 249-285.Brookes, T. M., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Fonseca, G. A. B. Da., Rylands, A. B., Konstant, W. R., Flick,P., Pilgrim, J., Oldfield, S., Magin, G. & Hilton-Taylor, C., (2002). Habitat loss and extinction in the hotspots ofbiodiversity. Conservation Biology, 16, pp.909-923.Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N., Gunatilleke, C. V. S. & Dilhan, M. A. A. B., (2005). Plant biogeography and conservation ofthe southwestern hill forests of Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement No. 12, pp.9-22Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., Fonseca, G. A. B. Da & Kent, J., (2000). Biodiversity hot spots forConservation Priorities. Nature, 403, pp.853-858.NARESA., (1991). Natural resources of Sri Lanka: conditions and trends. Colombo: Natural Resources, Energy andScience Authority.Russell-Smith, A. & Stork, N. E., (1995). Composition of Spider communities in the canopies of rain forest trees inBorneo. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11, pp. 223-235.Stork, N. E., Adis, J., & Didham, R.K. eds., (1997a). Canopy Arthropods. London: Chapman & Hall.Stork, N. E., Adis, J., & Didham, R.K., (1997b). Canopy Arthropod studies for the future. In: N.E. Stork, J. Adis, &R.K. Didham, eds. 1997. Canopy Arthropods. London: Chapman & Hall.pp.551-561.Warakagoda, D. H. & Rasmussen, P. C., (2004). A new species of scops-owl from Sri Lanka. Bull. B.O.C., 124 (2),pp. 85-105.xix

Preparation of the 2012 Red ListDakshini Perera, Hasula Wickramasinghe and Saranga JayasundaraBiodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment, BattaramullaThe first list of threatened flora of Sri Lanka was prepared by Prof. B.A. Abeywickrama in 1987.This list was reproduced by Wijesinghe et al., in 1987 which also included a list of nationallythreatened fauna. This list was updated by Wijesinghe et al., in 1993, using the data gatheredfrom National Conservation Review of the natural forests of Sri Lanka. Although these listswere used widely by the scientific community as well as policy makers, they were not acceptedat a global scale as all these lists were prepared in a subjective manner by a few experts usingtheir personal experience.In 1996 IUCN International introduced a new set of criteria for assessing the conservationstatus of a species based on an objective methodology as compared to the subjectiveprocess that was followed before that. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)has formulated a group of scientists to carry out a fresh assessment of Sri Lankan speciesbased on the new criteria that has been introduced by IUCN International. This group, havinganalyzed the available information, has come to the conclusion that the information availablein Sri Lanka is inadequate to assess the conservation status of Sri Lankan species basedon the new criteria. Therefore, they have proposed a scientifically accepted set of NationalCriteria developed along the same conceptual framework used by IUCN International, butapplicable to the type of data available for Sri Lankan species. These criteria were used inthe preparation of the 1999 threatened list of Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. Altogether, 807species of flowering plants and 1,243 species of fauna represented by dragonflies, butterflies,land snails, freshwater shrimps, freshwater crabs, freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles, birdsand mammals were evaluated. The main drawback faced in this list was that it was preparedusing national criteria and therefore, could not be compared with the global list.In 2004, the National Species Conservation Advisory Committee of the Ministry of Environment,requested that IUCN Sri Lanka, in collaboration with the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministryof Environment, to establish a digital database containing information on all the Sri Lankanspecies as well as to update the conservation status of Sri Lankan species. This led tothe publication of 2007 list of threatened fauna and flora of Sri Lanka, where species wereevaluated using Global Redlist Categories and Criteria (version 3.1) and categories adapted atthe regional level. In this list, altogether 1,099 flowering plants and 1,064 animals representedby freshwater fish, reptiles, birds, mammals, butterflies, land snails and Mygalomorph spiderswere evaluated. Further, the conservation status of amphibians, dragonflies and freshwatercrabs that has already been evaluated at a global scale has been included in this list makingthe total number of faunal species listed to 1,341.During this exercise GIS technology was used for the first time in order to prepare distributionmaps for each evaluated species and calculate their Extent of Occurrence and Area ofOccupancy. Following the preparation of this Red List, a Species Conservation Unit wasestablished under the Biodiversity Secretariat of the Ministry of Environment in order toinstitutionalize the Red Listing Process in Sri Lanka. The Species Conservation Unit has beengiven the responsibility of updating the literature collection on Sri Lankan biodiversity, thexx

National Species Database and coordinating all matters pertaining to species conservationincluding periodic updating of the National Red List.In 2009, the Biodiversity Secretariat started updating the National Red List. The updatingof flora has been done in collaboration with the National Herbarium of the Department ofNational Botanical Gardens to evaluate the flora of the country. For this purpose an expertgroup was established for higher plants and pteridophytes. The task of data compiling forthe evaluation of plants was handed over to the National Herbarium, which gathered datafrom all published literature and herbarium sheets. As only 1,099 species had been evaluatedduring the preparation of 2007 Red List, a decision was taken to enter all relevant informationavailable for flowering plants and pteridophytes in to the National Species Database. Preparingthe distribution maps of each of the species and draft evaluations were done by the SpeciesConservation Unit of the Biodiversity Secretariat and presented to the expert committee forthe final evaluation. All the native higher plants and pteridophytes were evaluated under thisproject. When one species has more than one sub species or varieties species assessmentwas done first and the sub species/variety assessment was done subsequently if data wereavailable and/or subspecies/variety is more threatened than the species. When both cultivatedand wild varieties are present assessment was done based on the wild variety. Nomenclature ofthe flora was done following the most recent published literature. In the preparation of specieslist the most updated nomenclatura available was used unless otherwise stated.For the fauna, expert committees were established for freshwater crabs, spiders, dragonflies,butterflies, ants, bees, land snails, freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Inaddition, an expert group was formed for marine organisms. The data compilation, preparationof maps and draft evaluations were carried out by the Species Conservation Unit andpresented to the individual expert groups for final evaluation. For each taxonomic group twoexpert committee meetings were held. Comments received at the first meeting were includedand presented at the final meeting where the lists and conservation status were finalized.Nomenclature of the fauna was done according to the latest published literature available.All the species related data were entered into excel sheets that were used for the preparationof species distribution maps using Arc view 3.2 software package. In most of the publicationsonly the name of the location was given with province or district, but no geographic information.To overcome the problem a database was created using coordinates obtained from 1:50,000scale maps of the Survey Department and geographic coordinates presented in the NationalGazetteer. The species distribution maps were used to calculate the Extent of Occurrence(EOO) and Area of Occupancy (AOO) and to clarify the distribution points of the species. Incalculation of the AOO 2 x 2 Km grid was used. District boundary maps, climatic zone maps,river basins and protected area network maps were overlaid for each species distribution mappresented at the expert meetings.In application of Red List criteria, criteria B was used in most cases and criteria A and C wereused in cases where the population data is available. As a precautionary measure, CategoryCritically Endangered possibly extinct CR(PE) was given to species with no distribution recordsin last 60 years as no comprehensive surveys has been conducted during recent past.xxi

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Dragonfly Fauna(Insecta: Odonata) of Sri LankaNancy van der Poorten 1 and Karen Conniff 21Hammaliya Estate, Bandarakoswatte2C\O ICIMOD, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, G.P.O Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal.IntroductionMembers of the order Odonata belong to one of two suborders: the Zygoptera (damselflies)and the Anisoptera (dragonflies). The life of an odonate revolves around water: eggs are laidin water; the larva spends its life in water feeding on aquatic prey; and adults usually court andmate near the oviposition site. Because of this intimate connection to water, odonates havebeen used as indicators of water quality and environmental quality for conservation work andbiodiversity studies. Odonates are also used to monitor the effects of climate change.The odonate fauna of Sri Lanka has been studied since the mid-1800s. H. A. Hagen publishedthe first list of odonates from the island (then called Ceylon) in 1858-1859. He publishedseveral more works describing the island’s species with E. de Sélys Longchamps, one of theworld’s foremost authorities on Odonata. Further studies by several well-known odonatologistsincluding W. F. Kirby, F. F. Laidlaw, F. C. Fraser and M. A. Lieftnick continued up to about 1970.F. C. Fraser authored three volumes on the Odonata in the series The Fauna of British Indiaincluding Ceylon and Burma (1933, 1934, 1936). de Fonseka (2000) updated the taxonomyand included information on distribution, habitat, larvae and adults. This book has beeninvaluable in furthering interest and research. In the past 15 years, additional studies carriedout primarily by M. Bedjanič and the authors have advanced our knowledge of the species andtheir distributions.Worldwide there are about 5700 described species of odonates. The current list for Sri Lankaincludes 118 species in 12 families with a high degree of endemism: there are 47 endemicspecies and an additional 8 endemic subspecies. Three new endemic species are in the processof description. Since the last IUCN Red List publication (2007), five new endemic species havebeen described: Drepanosticta bine, D. anamia, D. mojca (Bedjanič, M., 2010), Lyriothemisdefonsekai (van der Poorten, 2009a) and Libellago corbeti (van der Poorten, 2009b).The odonate fauna of Sri Lanka includes many common Oriental species and is similar to thefauna of south India with which Sri Lanka is zoogeographically related. There are, however,several interesting exceptions and the high degree of endemism is noteworthy. All membersof the following families are endemic: Chlorocyphidae (4 species), Euphaeidae (1 species),Protoneuridae (6 species), Platystictidae (18 species), Corduliidae (2 species), and Gomphidae(all except for 3 species). Some of the endemic species seem to be taxonomically isolated(e.g. Sinhalestes orientalis, Cyclogomphus gynostylus and Microgomphus wijaya).TaxonomySince the last IUCN Red List publication (2007), several synonymies have been documented(Bedjanič, 2011; Bedjanič, 2009; Bedjanič, 2008) through careful reading of the literature and studyof original specimens and newly available material. Two species have been removed from the list of1

Sri Lankan odonates because of lack of supporting evidence for their occurrence: Libellago indica(Hämäläinen et al., 2009) and Palpopleura s. sexmaculata (van der Poorten, 2011).DistributionThe biology of odonates is intimately tied to water and each species has a requirement for aspecific type of water (e.g. fast- or slow-flowing streams, stagnant water, marshland). In SriLanka, the majority of the common Oriental species are found at lowland tanks (reservoirs)in the dry zone (e.g. Ictinogomphus rapax, Crocothemis s. servilia). One species is restrictedto coastal areas (Macrodiplax cora). Several other common species are widespread in thewet lowlands and mid-hills, in marshes, streams and seeps (e.g. Orthetrum luzonicum).A few species are restricted to the higher elevations (e.g. Indothemis g. gracilis, Sympetrumfonscolombii). The endemics, however, tend to be localized to specialized habitats within thewet zone rainforest. These habitats can be compared to small islands; they often have highlyspecialized flora and fauna and it can be difficult for an individual to move to another habitat ifconditions become unfavorable. The habitat is fragile and easily disrupted. For example, the15 species of Drepanosticta are almost all found in very restricted habitats, usually small shadystreams within a forest patch. Two endemic species (Lyriothemis defonsekai and a yet-to-bedescribedspecies) are found only within a restricted area in the Sinharaja Forest Reservenear a heavily shaded, well-vegetated stream. Elattoneura leucostigma is found only in smallwell-vegetated streams in the dense montane forests. Several species of the Gomphidaefamily (e.g. Microgomphus wijaya) require well-shaded fast-flowing streams that have densevegetation on the edges. By contrast, Mortonagrion ceylonicum requires well-shaded scrubareas at the edge of still water or ditches.ThreatsDeforestation leading to disruption of the habitat and changes in water sources is probably themost pressing threat because a number of Sri Lanka’s endemic species (e.g. Drepanosticta,Platysticta, Libellago and members of the Gomphidae) are found in small patches of rainforest.Forests have been logged to extract timber, to allow for expansion of plantations and villagesand, in some areas, to maintain security during the conflict period. Cutting of the undergrowthby villagers for firewood produces changes in the habitat that impact unfavorably on the watersources on which the odonates rely. For example, the thinning of the forest at Dombagaskanda(Bodhinagala) has resulted in increased drying of the soils and streamlets between rains,adversely affecting the Platysticta species found there.Water pollution is also a serious threat. As a result of agricultural production, many chemicalsend up in the drains and streams where odonates breed. The increasing human populationalso puts pressure on water sources, causing increased extraction and use of water andincreased pollution from soap products and other human pollutants. This is detrimental to theodonates not only directly but also indirectly: other freshwater fauna which odonate larvae eatare also affected negatively. For example, at Balangoda, in the past 5 years, the stream hasbecome filled with soap and algae due to the increased human population. The Gomphids andMacromia that used to be seen here are no longer found.2

Changes in water sources, such as damming of streams or cutting of canals, also affectodonates. For example, the Mahaweli project has reduced the Mahaweli River to a stagnant,slow-flowing river in many places, leading to the disappearance of the riverine species (e.g.Libellago adami). Tanks that are not rehabilitated properly also lose their native odonatefauna. Other irrigation schemes, such as the Uda Walawe scheme, do great damage to thelandscape as trees are cut, canals are built and rivers dammed. The large scale conversionof wetlands to other uses also adversely affects the constituent odonate fauna. For example,the Muthurajawela Wetland Sanctuary is being illegally developed with consequent detrimentalchanges in odonate habitats.Conservation1. Enforce existing conservation measures in protected areasFor example, Sinharaja Forest Reserve, which is the only known location for three endemicspecies should be protected from removal of vegetation so that the streams and seepson which the odonates rely are not damaged. Another example is Talangama Lake nearColombo; it has protective legislation from various levels of government but still continuesto be subject to gross destruction of the habitat with the consequent loss of species.2. Establish new protected areas in the wet zone and montane areasThe lake and shores around the Parliament in Sri Jayawardenapura is a rich habitatfor odonates including some less common ones but it is being destroyed by the cuttingof vegetation and development activities including the installation of a major roadway.Similarly, the habitat around Water’s Edge in Battaramulla (Diyawannana ) was hometo Mortonagrion ceylonicum and Agriocnemis femina, two uncommon species and wasshown to have a very high diversity index. Due to dredging of the wetlands for floodcontrol, this habitat has been damaged. The lake and shores around the Parliament is anideal candidate for designation as a protected area. However, establishing protected areasmust be done with a view to protecting the fauna therein. Even though Diyawannana isapparently designated as a sanctuary, this has not provided any protection for the odonatefauna.3. Legislate additional protection for streams, rivulets and forest corridors in the wet zoneIn many places (e.g. Nuwara Eliya), streams are cut illegally to obtain water and vegetationis cleared right to the edge, destroying the habitat. Streams, rivulets and forest corridorsneed legislation to prohibit the diversion of streams and clear-cutting of the edges.4. Restore already degraded areas in key locationsFor example, at Hiyare Reservoir, much habitat degradation has occurred due to illegalactivities in the area but this could be reversed at this time with simple measures.5. Limit agricultural expansion in forest areasFor example, Morapitiya Forest Reserve is slowly being encroached upon and its undergrowthis being cut. This will cause the river to become stagnant and will affect the species thatdepend on a fast-flowing river (e.g. Macromia zeylanica and Libellago corbeti).6. Enforce existing legislation regarding corridors and reservationsIn many places, the reservations around tanks and rivers are being cut despite legislativeprotection. This not only impacts the health of the tank and river but also removes thesurrounding vegetation that is so important to odonates: newly emerged adults need tospend a few days in a protected area until they mature, and the forested edges of riversand tanks are ideal for this.3

7. Conduct comprehensive faunisitic work to study the distribution and biology of the odonatespecies. Without this baseline information, conservation measures cannot be undertaken.Research gapsThough the odonates of the island are comparatively well-studied, there are still many gapsin our knowledge. In 10 taxa, only one sex has been described (usually the male). In about75 taxa, the larval stage and exuvia have not yet been described. The distribution of mostspecies is not well-known, particularly those found in the north and east. Several species havenot been seen for more than 50 years (e.g. Sinhalestes orientalis, Heliogomphus nietneri).There are only one or two records for a few species that are not rare in other countries(e.g. Lestes malabaricum and Pseudagrion decorum which are both northern species). Habitatrequirements for the adult and larval stages of most species have not been well-documented.Conclusions and recommendations1. Do comprehensive surveys in order to map the distributions of all species2. Do studies to determine flight times and breeding times, habitat requirements for adults andlarval stages, and behavioural needs especially with regards to courtship, mating andoviposition3. Complete descriptions of both males and females for each species4. Build up a scientifically managed specimen collection in the museum5. Encourage high quality research by facilitating the granting of research permits4. Encourage and fund research at the university level for Masters and PhD studies5. Primary education in schools about the overall importance of biodiversity for the island’sfaunaReferencesBedjaniĉ, M., (2011). On the synonymy of three endemic dragonfly species from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Platystictidae,Protoneuridae). Notulae Odonatologicae, 7(8).Bedjanič, M., (2010). Three new Drepanosticta species from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Platystictidae). Odonatologica,39(3), pp.195-215.Bedjanič, M., (2009). Drepanosticta starmuehlneri St. Quentin, 1972 from Sri Lanka, a synonym of D. lankanensis(Fraser, 1931) (Zygoptera: Platystictidae). Notulae Odonatologicae, 7(4), pp.37-44.Bedjanič, M., (2008). Notes on the synonymy, distribution and threat status of Elattoneura oculata (Kirby, 1894), anendemic damselfly from Sri Lanka (Zygoptera: Protoneuridae). Odonatologica, 37(2), pp.145-150.de Fonseka, T., (2000). The dragonflies of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust.Hämäläinen, M., Bedjaniĉ M. & van der Poorten, N., (2009). Libellago indica (Fraser, 1928) deleted from the list ofSri Lankan Odonata (Chlorocyphidae). Echo, 6, pp. 3-5 (published in Agrion, 13(1)).van der Poorten, N., (2011). Palpoleura s. sexmaculata (Fabricius, 1787) deleted from the list of Odonates of SriLanka (Libellulidae). Agrion, 15(2), pp.52-53.van der Poorten, N., (2009a). Lyriothemis defonsekai sp. nov. from Sri Lanka, with a review of the known speciesof the genus (Anisoptera: Libellulidae). Odonatologica, 38(1), pp.15-27.van der Poorten, N., (2009b). Libellago corbeti sp. nov. from Sri Lanka (Odonata: Chlorocyphidae). InternationalnJournal of Odonatology, 12(2), pp.223-230.4

Table 01: List of Dragonflies in Sri LankaScientific Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: CalopterygidaeNeurobasis chinensis(Linnaeus, 1758)Vestalis apicalis Selys, 1873Family: ChlorocyphidaeLibellago adami Fraser,1939Libellago finalis(Hagen in Selys, 1869)Libellago greeni(Laidlaw, 1924)Libellago corbeti van derPoorten, 2009Family: EuphaeidaeEuphaea splendens Hagenin Selys, 1853Family: LestidaeLestes praemorsus Hagenin Selys, 1862Lestes elatus Hagen inSelys, 1862Lestes malabaricus Fraser,1929Sinhalestes orientalis(Hagen in Selys, 1859)Indolestes divisus(Hagen in Selys, 1862)Indolestes gracilis(Hagen in Selys, 1862)Family: CoenagrionidaeAgriocnemis femina (Brauer,1868)Agriocnemis pygmaea(Rambur, 1842)Mortonagrion ceylonicumLieftinck, 1971E: Oriental GreenwingVU B1ab(iii) LCE: Black-tippedFlashwing VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Sri LankaAdam's Gem VU B1ab(iii)E: Sri LankaUltima Gem VU B1ab(iii)E: Sri LankaGreen's Gem EN B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaEbony Gem CR B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaShiningGossamerwingNTE: ScallopedSpreadwingNTE: White TippedSpreadwing LC LCE: MalabarSpreadwingDDE: Sri LankaEmeraldSpreadwing DD CRE: Sri Lanka E:Metallic-backedReedlingENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: MountainReedling VU B1ab(iii) LCE: White-backedWisp CR B2ab(iii) LCE: WanderingWisp LC LCE: Sri LankaMidget EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) DDOnychargia atrocyanaSelys, 1865 E: Marsh Dancer VU B1ab(iii) LCParacercion malayanum(Selys, 1876)E: MalayLilysquatter LC LCEnallagma parvum Selys,1876 E: Little Blue DD LCAciagrion occidentaleLaidlaw, 1919 E: Asian Slim VU B1ab(iii) LCIschnura aurora(Brauer, 1865) E: Dawn Bluetail NT LCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)5

Scientific Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS CriteriaIschnura senegalensis(Rambur, 1842)E: CommonBluetail, MarshBluetail LC LCCeriagrion cerinorubellum(Brauer, 1865) E: Painted Waxtail VU B1ab(iii) LCCeriagrioncoromandelianum(Fabricius, 1798) E: Yellow Waxtail LC LCPseudagrion decorum(Rambur, 1842) E: Azure Sprite DDPseudagrion malabaricumFraser, 1924 E: Malabar Sprite LC LCPseudagrionmicrocephalum(Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Sprite LCPseudagrion rubricepsSelys, 1876Family: PlatycnemididaeCopera marginipes(Rambur, 1842)Family: PlatystictidaeDrepanosticta adami(Fraser, 1933)Drepanosticta austeniLieftinck, 1940Drepanosticta brinckiLieftinck, 1971Drepanosticta digna(Hagen in Selys, 1860)Drepanosticta hilaris(Hagen in Selys, 1860)Drepanosticta lankanensis(Fraser, 1931)Drepanosticta montana(Hagen in Selys, 1860)Drepanosticta nietneri(Fraser, 1931)Drepanostictasubmontana (Fraser, 1933)Drepanosticta tropica(Hagen in Selys, 1860)E: Sri LankaOrange-facedSpriteLCE: YellowFeatherleg LC LCE: Sri LankaAdam'sShadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CRE: Sri LankaAustin'sShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CRE: Sri LankaBrinck'sShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaNobelShadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaMerryShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CRE: Sri LankaDroopingShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaDark Knob-tippedShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CRE: Sri LankaNietner'sShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaBorderedKnob-tippedShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) CRE: Sri LankaDark-shoulderedCornutedShadowdamsel CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii)B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii)6

Scientific Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS CriteriaDrepanosticta subtropica(Fraser, 1933)Drepanosticta walli(Fraser, 1931)E: Sri LankaBlue-shoulderedCornutedShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaWall'sShadowdamsel CR B2ab(iii) DDDrepanosticta anamiaBedjaniĉ, 2010 CR B2ab(iii)Drepanosticta bineBedjaniĉ, 2010 CR B2ab(iii)Drepanosticta mojcaBedjaniĉ, 2010 CR B2ab(iii)Platysticta apicalis Kirby,1894Platysticta maculata Selys,1860E: Sri Lanka DarkE: Forestdamsel EN B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaBlurryForestdamsel EN B2ab(iii)Platysticta greeni Kirby,1891 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Family: ProtoneuridaeEllatoneura oculata(Kirby, 1894)Elattoneura caesia(Hagen in Selys, 1860)Elattoneura centralis(Hagen in Selys, 1860)Elattoneura leucostigma(Fraser, 1933)Elattoneura tenax (Hagenin Selys, 1860)Prodasineura sita(Kirby, 1894)Family: GomphidaeAnisogomphus solitarisLieftinck, 1971E: Sri Lanka TwospottedThreadtail EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) ENE: Sri LankaJungle Threadtail VU B1ab(iii) ENE: Sri LankaDark-glitteringThreadtail VU B1ab(iii)E: Sri LankaSmoky-wingedThreadtail CR B2ab(iii) CRE: Sri Lanka RedstripedThreadtail EN B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaStripe-headedThreadtailLCE: Sri LankaSolitaire Clubtail DD CRBurmagomphus pyramidalisLaidlaw, 1922 E: Sinuate Clubtail CR B2ab(iii)Cyclogomphusgynostylus Fraser, 1926Megalogomphusceylonicus (Laidlaw, 1922)Paragomphus henryi(Campion and Laidlaw,1928)Heliogomphus ceylonicus(Hagen in Selys, 1878)Heliogomphus lyratusFraser, 1933E: Sri LankaTransvestiteClubtail CR B2ab(iii) VUE: Sri LankaSabretail EN B2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaBrook Hooktail EN B2ab(iii) NTE: Sri LankaGrappletail DD CRE: Sri LankaLyrate Grappletail CR B2ab(iii) CRB1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii)B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii)B1ab(ii,iii)+2ab(ii,iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)7

Scientific Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS CriteriaHeliogomphus nietneri(Hagen in Selys, 1878)Heliogomphus walliFraser, 1925Macrogomphuslankanensis Fraser, 1933Macrogomphus annulatus(Selys, 1854)Microgomphus wijayaLieftinck, 1940Gomphidia pearsoniFraser, 1933Ictinogomphus rapax(Rambur, 1842)Family: AeshnidaeAnax gutattus(Burmeister, 1839)E: Sri LankaNietner'sGrappletail DD CRE: Sri LankaWall's Grappletail EN B2ab(iii) NTE: Sri LankaForktail EN B2ab(iii) VUE: Keiser'sForktail DD DDE: Sri LankaWijaya'sScissortail EN B2ab(iii) ENE: Sri LankaRivulet Tiger EN B2ab(iii) ENE: RapaciousFlangetail LC LCE: Pale-spottedEmperor LC LCAnax immaculifronsRambur, 1842 E: Fiery Emperor VU B1ab(iii) LCAnax indicus Lieftinck, 1942 Elephant Emperor LC LCAnax tristis Hagen, 1867DDHemianax ephippiger(Burmeister, 1839)Gynacantha dravidaLieftinck, 1960E: VagrantEmperor DD LCE: IndianDuskhawkerNTAnaciaeschna donaldiFraser, 1922 E: Dark Hawker CR B2ab(iii) LCFamily: CorduliidaeEpophthalmia vittataBurmeister, 1839Macromia flinti Lieftinck,1977Macromia zeylanicaFraser, 1927Family: LibellulidaeHylaeothemis fruhstorferi(Karsch, 1889)Tetrathemis yerburii Kirby,1893Brachydiplax sobrina(Rambur, 1842)Cratilla lineata (Brauer,1878)Lathrecista asiatica(Fabricius, 1798)Lyriothemis defonsekaivan der Poorten, 2008Orthetrum chrysis(Selys, 1891)E: Blue-eyedPondcruiser NT LCE: Sri LankaFlint's Cruiser DD CRE: Sri LankaCruiser CR B2ab(iii)E: Fruhstorfer'sJunglewatcher CR B1ab(iii) ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Sri LankaYerbury's Elf EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii)E: SombreLieutenant LC LCE: Pale-facedForestskimmer EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCE: PruinosedBloodtailNTE: Sri LankaVermilion Forester CR B1ab(iii)E: Spine-tuftedSkimmer VU B1ab(iii) LCOrthetrum glaucum(Brauer, 1865) E: Asian Skimmer NT LC8

Scientific Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS CriteriaOrthetrum luzonicum(Brauer, 1868) E: Marsh Skimmer NT LCOrthetrum pruinosum(Burmeister, 1839) E: Pink Skimmer NT LCOrthetrum sabina(Drury, 1770) E: Green Skimmer LC LCOrthetrum triangulare(Selys, 1878)E: TriangleSkimmer EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCPotamarcha congener(Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Pursuer LC LCAcisoma panorpoidesRambur, 1842 E: Asian Pintail LC LCBrachythemis contaminata(Fabricius, 1793)Bradinopyga geminata(Rambur, 1842)E: AsianGroundling LC LCE: IndianRockdweller LC LCCrocothemis servilia(Drury, 1770) E: Oriental Scarlet LC LCDiplacodes nebulosa(Fabricius, 1793)E: Black-tippedPercher NT LCDiplacodes trivialis(Rambur, 1842) E: Blue Percher LC LCIndothemis carnatica(Fabricius, 1798)Indothemis limbata(Selys, 1891)Neurothemis intermedia(Rambur, 1842)E: Light-tippedDemon NT NTE: RestlessDemon NT LCE: PaddyfieldParasol NT LCNeurothemis tullia(Drury, 1773) E: Pied Parasol LC LCRhodothemis rufa(Rambur, 1842)Sympetrum fonscolombii(Selys, 1840)Trithemis aurora(Burmeister, 1839)Trithemis festiva(Rambur, 1842)Trithemis pallidinervis(Kirby, 1889)Onychothemis tonkinensisMartin, 1904Rhyothemis triangularisKirby, 1889Rhyothemis variegata(Linnaeus, 1763)Hydrobasileus croceus(Brauer, 1867)Pantala flavescens(Fabricius, 1798)Tramea basilaris(Palisot de Beauvois, 1805))E: Spine-leggedRedbolt NT LCE: Red-veinedDarter EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: CrimsonDropwing LC LCE: IndigoDropwing VU B1ab(iii) LCE: DancingDropwing NT LCE: AggressiveRiverhawk EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCE: SapphireFlutterer VU B1ab(iii) LCE: VariegateFlutterer LC LCE: Amber-wingedGlider NT LCE: GlobeSkimmer,Wandering Glider LC LCE: Keyhole Glider,Wheeling Glider VU B1ab(iii) LC9

Scientific Name Common Name NSG Criteria GCS CriteriaTramea limbata(Desjardins, 1832) E: Sociable Glider LC LCTholymis tillarga(Fabricius, 1798)E: Foggy-wingedTwister LC LCZyxomma petiolatumRambur, 1842 E: Dingy Duskflyer NT LCAethriamanta brevipennis(Rambur, 1842)E: ElusiveAdjutant LC LCMacrodiplax cora(Kaup in Brauer, 1867) E: Costal Pennant VU B1ab(iii) LCUrothemis signata(Rambur, 1842) E: Scarlet Basker LC LCZygonyx iris Selys, 1869 E: Cascader VU LC10

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Ants(Order: Hymenoptera, Family: Formicidae) in Sri LankaR. K. S. Dias, K. R. K. A. Kosgamage and H. A. W. S. PeirisDepartment of Zoology, University of Kelaniya, KelaniyaIntroductionAnts are a common group of insects in most terrestrial habitats in Sri Lanka. Their habitatsvary from highly disturbed urbanized areas to undisturbed forests. Further, the ants occupy awide variety of microhabitats ranging from soil (up to a depth of about 20 cm) decaying wood,plants, trees, litter, termite nests etc. Bingham (1903) was the first to attempt documentingof the ant species in Sri Lanka. For the next 50 years, ants of Sri Lanka have received littleattention. During the past five decades several taxonomic works on ants of Sri Lanka havebeen published (Bolton & Belshaw, 1987; Dorow & Kohout, 1995; Jayasooriya & Traniello,1985; Wilson, 1964; Wilson, et al., 1956). A revival of taxonomic work on ants of Sri Lankain recent times began with the work initiated by the author in 2000. A preliminary taxonomicstudy of the ants collected from the premises of the Kelaniya University (Gampaha District)was carried out (Dias & Chaminda, 2000; Dias, et al., 2001) and this work was later extendedto other Districts such as Colombo, Ratnapura and Galle (Dias & Chaminda, 2001; Chaminda& Dias, 2001). Books and articles that are relevant to systematics of ants published up to 2003has been summarised by Dias (2005, 2006). Classification of ants has been revised by Bolton(2003) and the recent revisions are presented in Bolton, et al., (2006, 2012). In addition, severalwebsites are available on world ants (www.antbase.org) and the ants of several countries(Japanese ants colour image database, Ants of India, Ants of Papua New Guinea etc.). Thewebsite on ants of Sri Lanka has been launched in 2011.Current taxonomic status and taxonomic issuesAccording to the currently valid classification (Bolton, 2003; Bolton, et al., 2006), antsbelonging to twelve subfamilies, sixty three genera and, two hundred and fifteen species andmorphospecies have been recorded from Sri Lanka (Table A).The provisional checklist of ants is based on Bolton (1995), specimens deposited at NationalMuseum, Colombo, the collections of the first author from the wet and dry zones during 2000- 2011 and the collection from dry, intermediate and arid zone districts, namely, Anuradhapura,Polonnaruwa, Kurunegala and Puttalam, by the other two authors for their postgraduatestudies. Solenopsis geminata, Oecophylla smaragdina, Meranoplus bicolor, Paratrechinalongicornis and Tapinoma melanocephalum have been listed from Vantharumoolai regionin Batticaloa District (Vinobaba L., personal communication). Based on the IUCN criteria,nineteen ‘Endangered’ and thirty three ‘Critically Endangered’ species have been identified.The Sri Lankan Relict Ant, Aneuretus simoni Emery is currently included in the ‘Endangered’category.11

Table A. Number of genera and species in each of the twelve ant subfamilies recordedfrom Sri Lanka.Subfamily Genera Species Morpho-speciesAenictinae 1 5Amblyoponinae 2 1 3Aneuretinae 1 1Cerapachyinae 1 6 1Dolichoderinae 5 8 4Dorylinae 1 3Ectatomminae 1 1Formicinae 12 54 3Leptanillinae 2 01 3Myrmicinae 23 79 1Ponerinae 11 31 6Pseudomyrmecinae 1 461 194 21In addition to the generic and species level classification, a number of ant genera have beenclassified to subgenera, subspecies and varieties (Bolton et al. 2006) but the generic nameand species name of any ant is presented in Appendix Table 1. Also, Carebara is the currentlyvalid generic name of Oligomyrmex (Fernandez, 2004; Bolton et al. 2006). Among the antgenera listed in Appendix Table 1 the following ant genera, Acanthomyrmex, Anillomyrma,Gnamptogenys, Metapone, Paratopula, Rophalomastix, Myopias and Myopopone were neverobserved during 2000 to 2011 period. Therefore, they are included in the ‘Data Deficient (DD)’category. Inadequate research on ant systematics, lack of funding for accessing foreign antrepositories and lack of morphological descriptions for identification to the species levels arethe major taxonomic issues in ant systematics. Also, identification to the species level requiresthe collection of major and minor workers (at the same time) of certain ant genera such asPheidole but the sampling methods did not fulfil this need. Sampling methods that were suitablefor ground ants and ground-foraging ants were employed for our research and therefore, antspecies that occupy other microhabitats (e.g. arboreal – Polyrhachis spp., Tetraponera spp.)and forage elsewhere had a very low representation in this collection.DistributionIn order to determine the distribution pattern of ants in Sri Lanka an extensive survey wasconducted in Gampaha, Colombo, Galle and Kalutara Districts and intensive surveys conductedin other Districts from 2000-2011. Two new records, the presence of Aneuretus simoni Emery(Sri Lankan Relict Ant) in “Kirikanda” forest (Dias, et al., 2011 in press) and “Kalugala Kanda”forest in Kalutara District (by the first author), were reported in 2010 and 2011 respectively.Members of Ectatomminae were never observed in our collection.ThreatsDue to the lack of adequate research on individual ant species very little is evident as threats tothe ant fauna. Lack of ground vegetation and leaf litter seems to be the reason for the absenceof leaf litter ants, mostly common ponerines, in cultivated lands when compared with the ant12

fauna in the nearby forests. Further, setting fire to land before cultivating or to promote grassgrowth in pasture lands, which is a common practice in most parts of Sri Lanka has beenidentified as a major threat to many species of ground dwelling ant fauna.ConservationAwareness programmes on the ecological and economic (where applicable) importance,general biology and distribution of ants should be conducted at schools, universities andthrough media. Ants that are considered as agricultural pests (e.g. Solenopsis geminata,Meranoplus bicolor, Acropyga acutiventris), nuisance insects or household pests (trampspecies) and the medically important species (Dias, 2011) should be recognized and excludedfrom the list. Habitats that are critically important for endemic and threatened ant species(e.g. Aneuretus simoni, Stereomyrmex horni) that do not come within the protected areanet work must be identified and actions should be taken to ensure that these habitats aremaintained to ensure the survival of these species.Research gaps and research needsThe inadequacy of research that focuses on forest ants of Sri Lanka (except for Perera 2003,Dias and Perera, 2011, Gunawardene et al., 2008, Kosgamage, 2011, Peiris, 2012) with onlya few sporadic publications by foreign researchers is a major barrier for the developmentof myrmecology in Sri Lanka. Available information on ants in Sri Lanka is restricted to fewDistricts of Sri Lanka. Therefore, the survey on ants should be extended to natural and manmade habitats in all other Districts of Sri Lanka that are under different levels of disturbance.Research projects on ant systematics, biology and ecology of individual species and distributionof endemic species should be encouraged among undergraduate and postgraduate students.One of the main reasons for lack of research on ants of Sri Lanka can be attributed to lackof trained personnel in this field of specialization. Therefore, the curricula in the Universitiesshould be revised in order to enhance the theoretical knowledge and practical skills requiredin ant systematics. Further, short training workshops should be conducted to field biologistswho are currently engaged in entomology research to encourage more research on ant faunaConclusions and recommendationsCurrent Red Listing of ant species has been based on the existing information (1960 - 2011)and a detailed check list including the conservation status of species that were evaluated isgiven in Appendix 1. Aneuretus simoni, Cardiocondyla nuda, Centromyrmex feae, Cerapachysaitkini, Cerapachys fossulatus, Cerapachys fragosus, Cerapachys typhlus, Ochetellus glaber,Polyrhachis illaudatus, Polyrhachis rastellata, Pseudolasius isabellae, Stereomyrmex horni,Technomyrmex brunneus, Technomyrmex elatior, Prenolepis naorojii, Myrmecina striata andDorylus labiatus could especially be considered as Critically Endangered among them. Lackof adequate surveys on ants in various microhabitats and taxonomic issues pertaining to antidentification are the major reasons identified for the current scarcity of information on antsof Sri Lanka. Therefore, the ant list given in this paper may not include all the species thatare present in Sri Lanka today and therefore, needs to be improved in the future. In order toachieve this goal, more surveys on ants should be conducted with the participation of universitystudents and other enthusiasts. Further, a book on the ants of Sri Lanka, giving morphologicaldescriptions and colour photographs (where possible), should be published to encouragepeople to work on this lesser known yet common group of insects.13

ReferencesBingham, C. T., (1903). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma: Hymenoptera -Vol. 2: Ants andCuckoo-wasps. London.Bolton, B., (1994). Identification Guide to the Ant Genera of the World. USA: Harvard University Press.Bolton, B., (1995). New General Catalogue of the Ants of the World. USA: Harvard University Press.Bolton, B., (2003). Synopsis and classification of Formicidae. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute, 71,pp.1 - 370.Bolton, B. & Belshaw, R., (1993). Taxonomy and biology of the supposedly lestobiotic ant genus Paedalgus(Hym:Formicidae). Systematic Entomology, 18, pp.18 –189.Bolton, B., Alpert, G., Ward, P. S. & Naskrecky, P., (2006). Bolton’s Catalogue of Ants of the World. 1758–2005.[CDROM], USA: Harvard University Press.Chaminda, K. M. G .R. & Dias, R. K. S., (2001). Taxonomic key for the identification of Sri Lankan ants: Subfamilies -Proceedings of the Third ANeT. ANeT Newsletter, 4, Abstract only.Dias, R. K. S., (2005). Ants – Diversity and importance of ants in Sri Lanka as a component of biodiversity (in Sinhala).In: H. Amarasekera, ed. 2005. Biodiversity heritage of Sri Lanka – Invertebrates. Nugegoda: Piyasiri PrintingSystems.Dias, R. K. S., (2006). Current taxonomic status of ants of Sri Lanka. In: C. N. B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. The faunaof Sri Lanka: Status of taxonomy, research and conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union (IUCN)of Sri Lanka & the Government of Sri Lanka, pp. 43-52.Dias, R. K. S., (2008). Amazing ants – present status of research on ants of Sri Lanka. In: N.C. Kumarasinghe,ed. 2008. Social Insects and their Economic Importance and Conservation. Colombo: SLAAS and BiodiversitySecretariat of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, pp. 1 - 9.Dias, RKS, Peiris, HAWS and HPGRC Ruchirani. 2011. Discovery of Aneuretus simoni Emery in a disturbed forest inKalutara, and Stereomyrmex horni Emery in Anuradhapura Sanctuary, Sri Lanka, Asian Myrmecology, 3, inpressDias, R. K. S. and K. A. M. Perera. 2011. Worker ant community observed by repeated sampling and information onendemic Aneuretus simoni Emery in the Gilimale Forest Reserve in Sri Lanka. Asian Myrmecology, 4: 69 –78 ppDias, R. K. S., (2011). Biology of medically important ants in Sri Lanka. In: A. Ratnatilaka, ed. 2011. Medically importantants, bees, wasps and spiders. pp. 30 – 68.Dias, R. K. S. & Chaminda, K. M. G. R., (2000). A preliminary taxonomic study of Sri Lankan ants. In: UniversityMalaysia Sabah, the Second ANeT workshop and seminar. Kota Kinabalu, East Malaysia: University MalaysiaSabah.Dias, R. K. S. & Chaminda, K. M. G. R., (2001). Systematics of some worker ants (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) collectedfrom several regions of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the Third ANeT workshop and seminar held in Hanoi, Vietnam.ANeT Newsletter, 4. Abstract only.Dias, R. K. S., Chaminda, K.M.G.R. & Yamane, S., (2001). Systematics of the worker ant fauna collected from thepremises of Kelaniya University. Proceedings of the 57th SLAAS Annual Session, Abstract only.Dias, R. K. S., Peiris, H. A. W. S. & Ruchirani, H. P. G. R. C., (2011). Discovery of Aneuretus simoni Emery ina disturbed forest in Kalutara, and Stereomyrmex horni Emery in Anuradhapura Sanctuary, Sri Lanka. AsianMyrmecology, 4, pp.99-102.Dorow, W. H. O. & Kohout, R. J., (1995). A review of the Subgenus Hemioptica Roger of the genus Polyrhachis Fr.Smith with description of a new species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Formicinae). Zool. Med. Leiden., 69, pp.93-104.Jayasooriya, A. K. & Traniello, J. F. O., (1985). The biology of the primitive ant Aneuretus simoni Emery (Formicidae:Aneuretinae) – Distribution, abundance, colony structure and foraging ecology. Insectes Sociaux, 32(4), pp.363-374.Kosgamage, K. R. K. A., 2011. Diversity and distribution of worker ants (Family: Formicidae) in selected sites in twodry zone Districts of Sri Lanka and the potential of Neemazal-F and citronella oil in the control of selected antspecies. M. Phil. Thesis, University of Kelaniya, 249 p.Peiris, H. A. W. S., 2012. Similarities and differences of worker ant fauna in three types of habitats in four districts ofSri Lanka. Thesis submitted for the Degree of M. Phil., University of Kelaniya.Perera, K. A. M. 2003. The relative abundance and density of Aneuretus simoni Emery (Order: Hymenoptera, Family:Formicidae) in a selected region in the forest (“Pompekelle”) associated with water pumping station inRatnapura. Thesis submitted for the B. Sc. Special Degree in Zoology, Department of Zoology, University ofKelaniya.Wilson, E. O., (1964). The true army ants of the Indo-Australian area (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Dorylinae). PacificInsects, 6(3), pp.427 - 483.Wilson, E. O., Eisner, T., Wheeler, G. C. & Wheeler, J., (1956). Aneuretus simoni Emery, a major link in ant evolution.Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 115(03), pp.81 -105.14

Table 02: List of Ants in Sri LankaScientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaSubfamily: AenictinaeAenictus biroi Forel DDAenictus ceylonicus (Mayr)E: Asian Reddish Brown ArmyAnt DDAenictus fergusoni (Karavaive) EN B2ab(iii)Aenictus pachycerus (Dalla Torre) E: Army Ant EN B1ab(iii)Aenictus porizonoides Walker DDSubfamily: AneuretinaeAneuretus simoni Emery E: Sri Lankan Relict Ant EN B1+2ab(iii)Subfamily: MyrmicinaeMyrmecina striata Emery CR B2ab(iii)Acanthomyrmex luciolae Emery DDAnillomyrma decamera Emery DDCalyptomyrmex tamil Baroni Urbani DDCalyptomyrmex vedda Baroni Urbani DDCalyptomyrmex singalensis Baroni Urbani DDCardiocondyla nuda (Mayr) CR B2ab(iii)Cataulacus simoni Emery DDCataulacus taprobanae Smith F. DDCrematogaster anthracina Smith F. DDCrematogaster biroi Mayr EN B2ab(iii)Crematogaster apicalis Motchoulsky DDCrematogaster brunnescens Motchoulsky DDCrematogaster dohrni Mayr S: Kodaya VU B1ab(iii)Crematogaster pellens Walker DDCrematogaster politula Forel CR B1+2ab(iii)Crematogaster ransonneti Mayr DDCrematogaster rogenhoferi Mayr E: Thai Tree Ant CR B2ab(iii)Crematogaster rogeri Mayr DDCrematogaster rothneyi Forel S: Kodaya LCLophomyrmex quadrispinosus (Jerdon) LCMeranoplus bicolor (Guerin-Meneville) LCMetapone greeni Forel DDMetapone johni Karavaiev DDMonomorium floricola (Jerdon)E: Flower Ant S: Thel KoombiyaLCMonomorium subopacum (Smith F.) DDMonomorium taprobanae Forel E: Sri Lanka Flower Ant DDMonomorium latinode Mayr DDMonomorium criniceps (Mayr) EN B1+2ab(iii)Monomorium destructor (Jerdon)E: Singapore Ant S: RathuKoombiya LCMonomorium mayri Forel DDMonomorium pharaonis (L.) E: Pharaoh Ant LCMonomorium rogeri (Mayr) DD15

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaMyrmicaria brunnea Saunders LCCarebara bruni (Forel) DDCarebara butteli (Forel) DDCarebara deponens (Walker) DDCarebara taprobanae (Forel) DDCarebara escherichi (Forel) DDParatopula ceylonica (Emery) DDPheidole latinoda Roger DDPheidole nietneri Emery DDPheidole sulcaticeps Roger DDPheidole barreleti Forel DDPheidole ceylonica (Motchoulsky) DDPheidole diffidens (Walker) DDPheidole gracilipes (Motschoulsky) DDPheidole horni Emery DDPheidole malinsii Forel DDPheidole megacephala Forel E: Big Head Ant DDPheidole noda Forel DDPheidole parva Mayr DDPheidole pronotalis Fore DDPheidole rhombinoda Mayr CR B2ab(iii)Pheidole rugosa Smith F. DDPheidole spathifera Forel DDPheidole templaria Forel DDPheidologeton ceylonensis Forel DDPheidologeton diversus (Smith F.) E: East Indian Harvesting Ant VU B1ab(iii)Pheidologeton pygmaeus Forel DDRecurvidris pickburni Bolton DDRecurvidris recurvispinosa (Forel) VU B1ab(iii)Rophalomastix escherichi Forel DDSolenopsis geminata (Fabricius)E: Red Tropical Fire Ant S:Nayi Koombiya LCSolenopsis nitens Bingham E: Fire Ant DDStereomyrmex horni Emery CR B2ab(iii)Strumigenys godeffroyi Mayr DDStrumigenys lyroessa (Roger) EN B1+2ab(iii)Tetramorium bicarinatum (Nylander) LCTetramorium pacificum Mayr DDTetramorium simillimum (Smith) DDTetramorium curvispinosum Mayr DDTetramorium pilosum Emery DDTetramorium smithi Mayr VU B1ab(iii)Tetramorium tortuosum Roger VU B1ab(iii)Tetramorium transversarium Roger DDTetramorium walshi (Forel) VU B1ab(iii)16

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaTetramorium yerburyi Forel DDVollenhovia escherichi Forel DDSubfamily: CerapachyinaeCerapachys fossulatus Forel CR B2ab(iii)Cerapachys luteoviger Brown DDCerapachys coecus (Mayr) DDCerapachys fragosus (Roger) CR B2ab(iii)Cerapachys typhlus (Roger) CR B2ab(iii)Cerapachys aitkenii Forel CR B1+2ab(iii)Subfamily: DolichoderinaeDolichoderus taprobanae (Smith F.) CR B2ab(iii)Ochetellus glaber (Mayr) E: Black House Ant CR B2ab(iii)Tapinoma indicum Forel LCTapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius) E: Ghost Ant S: Hini Koombiya LCTechnomyrmex bicolor Forel VU B1ab(iii)Technomyrmex albipes (Smith F.) S: Kalu Koombiya LCTechnomyrmex detorquens (Walker) DDTechnomyrmex elatior Forel CR B1+2ab(iii)Subfamily: DorylinaeDorylus labiatus Shuckard CR B2ab(iii)Dorylus laevigatus (Smith F.) E: Driver Ant EN B1+2ab(iii)Dorylus orientalis Westwood E: Red Ant EN B1+2ab(iii)Subfamily: EctatomminaeGnamptogenys coxalis Brown DDSubfamily: PonerinaeAnochetus consultans (Walker) DDAnochetus graeffei Mayr VU B1ab(iii)Anochetus longifossatus Mayr EN B1ab(iii)Anochetus madaraszi Mayr DDAnochetus nietneri (Roger) CR B2ab(iii)Anochetus yerburyi Forel DDCentromyrmex feae (Emery) EN B1+2ab(iii)Cryptopone testacea Emery DDDiacamma ceylonense Emery S: Kadiya EN B1+2ab(iii)Diacamma rugosum ForelE: Queenless Ponerine AntS: Kadiya EN B1+2ab(iii)Harpegnathos saltator Jerdon E: Jerdon's Jumping Ant EN B1+2ab(iii)Hypoponera ceylonensis (Mayr) DDHypoponera confinis (Roger) CR B2ab(iii)Hypoponera taprobanae (Forel) DDLeptogenys exudans (Walker) DDLeptogenys hysterica Forel DDLeptogenys processionalis (Jerdon) LCLeptogenys pruinosa Forel EN B2ab(iii)Leptogenys yerburyi Forel DD17

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaLeptogenys diminuta (Smith F.) DDLeptogenys falcigera Roger DDLeptogenys meritans (Walker) DDLeptogenys peuqueti (Andre) CR B2ab(iii)Myopias amblyops Roger DDOdontomachus simillimus Smith F.E: Indian Trap-jaw AntS: Dala Kadiya LCPachycondyla luteipes (Mayr) LCPachycondyla rubiginosa (Emery) CR B2ab(iii)Pachycondyla sulcata (Forel) CR B2ab(iii)Pachycondyla tesseronoda (Emery) LCPlatythyrea clypeata Forel DDPlatythyrea parallela (Smith F.) VU B1ab(iii)Subfamily: AmblyoponinaeMyopopone maculata DDSubfamily: LeptanillinaeLeptanilla besucheti Baroni Urbani DDSubfamily: PseudomyrmecinaeTetraponera allaborans (Walker, 1859) VU B2ab(iii)Tetraponera nigra (Jerdon) DDTetraponera petiolata (Smith F.) DDTetraponera rufonigra (Jerdon)E: Arboreal Bicolored AntS: Hathpolaya LCSubfamily: FormicinaeAcropyga acutiventris Roger LCAnoplolepis gracilipes (Smith F.)E: Yellow Crazy AntS: Ambalaya LCCamponotus compressus Fabricius LCCamponotus irritans (Smith F.) LCCamponotus latebrosus Donisthorpe DDCamponotus mitis (Smith F.) DDCamponotus ominosus Forel DDCamponotus simoni Emery DDCamponotus thraso Forel DDCamponotus wedda Forel DDCamponotus albipes Emery DDCamponotus auriculatus Mayr DDCamponotus barbatus Roger DDCamponotus fletcheri Donisthorpe DDCamponotus greeni Forel DDCamponotus indeflexus (Walker) DDCamponotus isabellae Forel DDCamponotus mendax Forel DDCamponotus oblongus Forel EN B1+2ab(iii)Camponotus reticulatus Roger LCCamponotus rufoglaucus (Jerdon) VU B1ab(iii)18

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaCamponotus sericeus (Fabricius)E: Golden Backed CarpenterAnt LCCamponotus sesquipedalis Roger DDCamponotus varians Roger DDCamponotus variegatus (Smith F.) CR B2ab(iii)Lepisiota capensis (Mayr) E: Black Sugar Ant CR B2ab(iii)Lepisiota frauenfeldi (Mayr) VU B1ab(iii)Lepisiota opaca (Mayr) VU B1ab(iii)Myrmoteras ceylonica Gregg DDOecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius) E: Weaver ant S: Dimiya LCParatrechina longicornis (Latrielle)E: Longhorn Crazy AntS: Kalu Koombiya LCParatrechina indica Forel EN B1+2ab(iii)Paratrechina taylori (Forel) DDNylanderia yerburyi (Forel) LCPlagiolepis jerdonii Forel VU B1ab(iii)Plagiolepis pissina Roger DDPolyrhachis bugnioni Forel DDPolyrhachis exercita (Walker) DDPolyrhachis horni Emery DDPolyrhachis jerdonii Forel EN B1+2ab(iii)Polyrhachis nigra Mayr DDPolyrhachis rupicapra Roger DDPolyrhachis thrinax Roger DDPolyrhachis tibialis Santschi DDPolyrhachis xanthippe Forel DDPolyrhachis yerburyi Forel DDPolyrhachis convexa Roger VU B1ab(iii)Polyrhachis illaudata Walker CR B1+2ab(iii)Polyrhachis punctillata Roger VU B1ab(iii)Polyrhachis rastellata (Latreille) CR B2ab(iii)Polyrhachis scissa (Roger) EN B2ab(iii)Polyrhachis sophocles Forel DDPrenolepis naorojii Forel CR B2ab(iii)Pseudolasius isabellae Forel CR B1+2ab(iii)No of species: 194 (Due to the recent revisions in the ant taxonomy and removal of morphospecies this numberhas gone down)No of endemics: 33 (based on "so far recorded from Sri Lanka only")Global list contains only Aneuretus simoni as CR (B1+2c)19

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Bees(Hymenoptera: Apoidea) in Sri LankaW. A. Inoka P. Karunaratne and Jayanthi P. EdirisingheDepartment of Zoology, University of Peradenya, PeradeniyaIntroductionBees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apiformes) are the most important pollinators of flowering plantsincluding agricultural crops resulting in fruits and seed production. Most of the world’s cropsare pollinated by bees comprising more than 20,000 identified species and a similar number ofspecies awaiting identification. The distribution of bees depends on climate and their ability todisperse to suitable areas (Michener, 2000). The highest bee diversity has been recorded fromwarm temperate desert regions of the world.The earliest work on bees of Sri Lanka dates back to the British Colonial period where Dalla Torre(1896) listed 17 species of bees and Bingham (1897) recorded and described 42 species of beesfrom Sri Lanka. During the post-colonial period Sakagami and Ebmer (1987), Schwarz (1990),Sakagami (1978 & 1991), Sakagami, Ebmer and Tadauchi (1996 and 1998), Snelling (1980)and Baker (1996) worked on bees of Sri Lanka. The Smithsonian - Sri Lanka Insect Surveyconducted from 1969 through 1975 up to 1987 resulted in the identification of several more beespecies and led to several publications. Duplicate specimens of bees identified through thissurvey have been deposited in two locations: the Sri Lanka National Museums, Colombo (58spp.) and in the Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya (42 spp.). Through a survey ofpublished literature on bees of Sri Lanka, Wijesekara (2001) compiled an annotated list of beesof Sri Lanka documenting 132 bee species belonging to 25 genera and 4 families. The landmark publication on the ‘Bees of the world’ by Michener (2000) includes 29 genera and severalsubgenera of bees from Sri Lanka. Later surveys conducted by local scientists resulted in theupdating of the checklist of bees of Sri Lanka with the addition of 5 new genera and 15 newspecies including one species new to Science (Karunaratne, Edirisinghe & Pauly, 2005).TaxonomyDifficulty in accessing the published keys and descriptions of selected bee groups in theregion and the lack of an expert identified reference bee collection in the country are the majorimpediments to the advancement of bee taxonomy. Further, lack of cooperation between beespecialists in the region and the absence of a forum for exchanging scientific/research findingsare also major constraints faced by bee taxonomists in Sri Lanka. As a result there are manymorpho-species awaiting proper identification. The need for revising the bee taxa of Sri Lankais a major requirement as evidenced by the recent upgrading of the subfamily Nomiinae in SriLanka (Karunaratne, Edirisinghe & Pauly, 2005) that resulted in 11 genera of bees that werepreviously classified under 3 genera.DistributionField studies conducted in the recent past have shown that most bee species are distributedacross a range of altitudes while few species are restricted to specific habitats above 900 m.They are Homalictus singhalensis, Lasioglossum (Sudila) bidentatum, L. (Sudila) alphenum,20

L. (Sudila) aulacophorum, and L. (Evylaeus) carnifrons. The Low country Dry zone harboursthe majority of bee species where disturbed habitats such as scrublands that comprise of adiverse assemblage of herbaceous flowering plants, support the largest number of generalistbee species.ThreatsThe most serious threat faced by bees is the decline and fragmentation of natural habitats thatharbour their feeding plants and nesting sites. Encroachment of exotic invasive tall grass speciessuch as Panicum maximum into scrublands and agricultural lands that harbour large number ofbee species can be considered as a serious threat to the bees. These invasive grass specieseventually eliminate the herbaceous flowering plants that provide food and the nesting grounds forbees. In agricultural habitats, uncontrolled application of insecticides and weedicides, especiallyduring the active period of bees, has lowered their populations significantly.ConservationAs bees are the major pollinators of our crops and flowering plants, priority should be given toproper management of this faunal group. Conservation of natural habitats is an essential task inbee conservation. Presence of a variety of pollen and nectar producing plants that can providea year-around supply of food that is necessary to retain bees even during off seasons. Further,ground nesting bees should have undisturbed soil to make their nests. Therefore, at least 25%of the area covered by cultivated landscapes should be set aside for natural vegetation to keepbeneficial insects including bees. Also application of insecticides and weedicides in agriculturalhabitats should be carried out during periods when bees are less active.Conserving flowering plants that provide nectar and pollen for bees and establishing sites thatare suitable for nesting is another priority area that needs to be addressed. Further, applicationof insecticides and weedicides should be carried out in a manner that would have the leastaffect on bees. Measures such as application of insecticides prior to flowering and at a time ofthe day when bees are less active on flowers would minimize their exposure to such chemicals.Research gapsThe need for revising the bee taxa of Sri Lanka is a major requirement as evidenced by therecent studies that have led to the discovery of several new species in Sri Lanka. Further,much of the data available for bees in Sri Lanka is restricted to few locations. Therefore, lackof knowledge about the distribution of bees is also a major gap in the knowledge on Sri Lankanbees. Thus, an island-wide survey should be conducted to document distribution patterns ofthe bees. This can be coupled with the establishment of a reference collection at the NationalMuseum. Bees play a crucial role as pollinators, especially in crop plants. Yet bee pollinatorsof many crop plants are yet to be identified and documented. Therefore, an attempt shouldbe taken to identify and document bees that function as pollinators of crop plants and plantsthat are of conservation value such as threatened and endemic plants. Studies done in Indiahave indicated that a significant increase in the yields can be achieved by augmenting thepollinator bee populations. Similar studies can be undertaken in Sri Lanka as to how croppollination can be enhanced in both natural and built environments. The current trends in beepopulations remain unknown and as population fluctuations of bees will have a direct bearing21

on agriculture, a mechanism must be established for monitoring the changes in bee diversityand density in specific landscapes.Conclusions and recommendations1. It is necessary to enhance the capacity of bee taxonomists to undertake the much neededtaxonomic revisions on bees of Sri Lanka, through education and training2. It is also important to educate the local communities on the important role played by beesas pollinators and encourage them to actively engage in the conservation of bees3. Develop an user friendly field guide on bees that to enable and popularize the study ofbees4. Prepare an information booklet outlining actions that can be taken to enhance thepopulation of bees5. Introduce agronomic practices that requires a lesser usage of agrochemical that aredetrimental to bees6. Undertake a coordinated programmes to enhance the bee diversity and density, especiallyin agricultural landscapesReferencesBaker, D. B., (1996). Notes on some palearctic and oriental Systropha, with descriptions of new species and a keyto the species (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Halictidae), J. Nat. Hist., 30, pp.1527-1547Bingham, C. T., (1897). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, Hymenoptera Vol. 1, Wasps andBees. London: Taylor and Francis.Dalla Torre, C. G., (1896). Catalogus Hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus.X: Aphidae (Anthophilla). Leipzig, pp. 643.Gupta, R. K., (2003). An annotated catalogue of bees of the Indian Region, [online]Available at: Karunaratne, W. A. I. P., (2004). Taxonomy and Ecology of Bees of Sri Lanka. PhD. University of Peradeniya.Karunaratne, W. A. I. P., Edirisinghe, J. P., & Pauly, A., (2005). An updated checklist of bees of Sri Lanka with newrecords - MAB Checklist and Handbook Series. Publication No. 23. Colombo: National Science Foundation.Krombein, K. V. & Norden, B. B., (2001). Notes on trap-nesting Sri Lankan wasps and bees (Hymenoptera: Vespidae,Pompilidae, Sphecidae, Colletidae, Megachilidae), Proc. of the Ent. Soc, 103(2), pp.274-281.Michener, C. D., (2000). The Bees of the World. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkin University Press.Punchihewa, R. W. K., (1994). Beekeeping for honey production in Sri Lanka: management of Asiatic Hive honeybeeApis cerana in its natural tropical monsoonal environment. Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka.Roubik, D. W., (1992). Ecology and Natural History of tropical bees. New York: Cambridge University Press.Sakagami, S. F. & Ebmer, P. A., (1987). Taxonomic notes on Oriental halictine bees of the genus Halictus (Subgen.Seladonia) (Hymenoptera Apoidea), Linzer Biol. Beitr, 192, pp.301-357.Sakagami, S. F., Ebmer, A. W. & Tadauchi, O., (1996). The Halictine bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. III. Sudila(Hymenoptera: Halictidae) Part 1. Esakia, 36, pp.143-189.Sakagami, S. F., Ebmer, A. W. & Tadauchi, O., (1998). The Halictine bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. III. Sudila(Hymenoptera: Halictidae) Part 2. Esakia, 38, pp.55-83.Sakagami, S. F., (1978). Tetragonula stingless bees of the Continental Asia and Sri Lanka (Hymenoptera, Apidae).Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Series VI, Zoology, 21(2), pp.165-247.Sakagami, S. F., (1991). The halictid bees of Sri Lanka and the vicinity. II. Nesohalictus (Hymenoptera: Halictidae).Zool. Sci., 8, pp.169-178.Snelling, R. R., (1980). New bees of the genus Hylaeus from Sri Lanka and India (Hymenoptera: Colletidae).Contributions in Science, (328), pp.1-18.Wijesekara, A., (2001). An annotated list of bees (Hymenoptera:Apodea: Apiformes) of Sri Lanka. Tijdschrift VoorEntomologie, 144, pp.145-158.22

Table 03 : List of Bees in Sri LankaScientific Name NCS CriteriaFamily: ColletidaeHylaeus krombeini Snelling, 1980 CR B2ab(iii)Hylaeus sedens Snelling, 1980 CR B2ab(iii)Family: HalicitidaeAustronomia krombeini Hirashima, 1978 NTAustronomia notiomorpha Hirashima, 1978 NTCeylalictus cereus (Nurse, 1901) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylalictus horni (Strand, 1913) CRCeylalictus taprobanae (Cameron, 1897) EN B2ab(iii)Curvinomia formosa (Smith, 1858) EN B2ab(iii)Curvinomia iridiscens (Smith, 1857) EN B2ab(iii)Gnathonomia nasicana Bingham, 1897 EN B2ab(iii)Halictus (Seladonia) lucidipennis Smith, 1853 LCHalictus trincomalicus Cameron, 1903 CR B2ab(iii)Homalictus paradnanus (Strand, 1914) EN B1ab(iii)Homalictus singhalensis (Blüthgen, 1926) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Hoplonomia westwoodi (Gribodo, 1894) LCLasioglossum (Ctenonomia) amblypygus (Strand, 1913) VU B1ab(iii)Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) cire (Cameron, 1897) VU B1ab(iii)Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) clarum (Nurse, 1902) NTLasioglossum (Ctenonomia) semisculptum (Cockerell, 1911) CR B2ab(iii)Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) semisculptum (Cockerell, 1911) CRLasioglossum (Ctenonomia) vagans (Smith, 1857) VU B1ab(iii)Lasioglossum (Ctenonomia) albescens (Smith, 1853) EN B1ab(iii)Lasioglossum (Evylaeus) carinifrons (Cameron, 1904) LCLasioglossum (Nesohalictus) halictoides (Smith, 1859) VU B1ab(iii)Lasioglossum (Nesohalictus) serenum (Cameron, 1897) LCLasioglossum (Sudila) alphenum (Cameron, 1897) LCLasioglossum (Sudila) aulacophorum (Strand, 1913) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Lasioglossum (Sudila) bidentatum (Cameron, 1898) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Lasioglossum (Sudila) kandiense (Cockerell, 1913) CR B2ab(iii)Lipotriches (Austronomia) ustula (Cockerell, 1911) EN B2ab(iii)Lipotriches austella (Hirashima, 1978) EN B1ab(iii)Lipotriches cromberi (Cockerell, 1911) EN B2ab(iii)Lipotriches edirisinghei Pauly, 2006 VU B1ab(iii)Lipotriches exagens (Walker, 1860) EN B1ab(iii)Lipotriches fulvinerva (Cameron, 1907) ENLipotriches pulchriventris (Cameron, 1897) CR B2ab(iii)Lipotriches sp nr. Comperta (Cockerell, 1912) CR B2ab(iii)Nomia (Hoplonomia) strigata (Fabricius, 1793) CR B2ab(iii)Nomia biroi Friese, 1913 EN B1ab(iii)Nomia butteli Friese, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)Nomia crassipes Fabricius 1798 NTNomia crassiuscula Friese, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)23

Scientific Name NCS CriteriaNomia elegantula Friese, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)Nomia matalea Starnd, 1913 EN B1ab(iii)Nomia oxybeloides Smith, 1875 EN B1ab(iii)Nomia puttalama Starnd, 1913 EN B1ab(iii)Nomia rufa Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii)Pachyhalictus bedanus (Blüthgen, 1926) CR B2ab(iii)Pachyhalictus kalutarae (Cockerell, 1911) VU B1ab(iii)Pachyhalictus sigiriellus (Cockerell, 1911) CR B2ab(iii)Pachyhalictus vinctus (Walker, 1860) CR B2ab(iii)Pseudapis oxybeloides (Smith, 1875) LCSphecodes biroi Friese, 1909 CR B2ab(iii)Sphecodes crassicornis Smith, 1875 VU B1ab(iii)Steganomus nodicornis (Smith, 1875) EN B2ab(iii)Systropha tropicalis Cockerell, 1911 EN B2ab(iii)Family: MegachilidaeAnthidiellum ramakrishnae (Cockerell, 1919) CR B2ab(iii)Coelioxys angulata Smith, 1870 VU B1ab(iii)Coelioxys apicata Smith, 1854 CR B1ab(iii)Coelioxys capitata Smith, 1854 VU B1ab(iii)Coelioxys confusus Smith, 1875 EN B2ab(iii)Coelioxys fenestrata Smith, 1873 EN B1ab(iii)Coelioxys fuscipennis Smith, 1854 CR B2ab(iii)Coelioxys intacta Friese, 1923 CR B2ab(iii)Coelioxys minutus Smith, 1879 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Coelioxys nitidoscutellaris Pasteels, 1987 CR B2ab(iii)Coelioxys taiwanensis Cockerell, 1911 EN B1ab(iii)Euaspis edentata Baker, 1995 EN B2ab(iii)Heriades binghami Cameron, 1897 NTLithurgus atratus Smith, 1854 VU B1ab(iii)Megachile amputata Smith, 1858 CR B2ab(iii)Megachile ardens Smith, 1879 CR B2ab(iii)Megachile conjuncta Smith, 1853 NTMegachile disjuncta Fabricius, 1781 NTMegachile hera Bingham, 1897 VU B1ab(iii)Megachile kandyca Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii)Megachile lanata Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii)Megachile mystacea Fabricius, 1775 CR B2ab(iii)Megachile nana Bingham, 1897 VU B1ab(iii)Megachile nigricans Cameron, 1898 CR B2ab(iii)Megachile reepeni Friese, 1918 CR B2ab(iii)Megachile relata Smith, 1879 CR B2ab(iii)Megachile umbripennis Smith, 1853 VU B1ab(iii)Megachile vestita Smith, 1853 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Megachile vigilans Smith, 1878 EN B2ab(iii)24

Scientific Name NCS CriteriaFamily: ApidaeAmegilla (Glossamegilla) violacea Lepeletier, 1841 VU B1ab(iii)Amegilla (Zebramegilla) fallax Smith, 1879 NTAmegilla (Zebramegilla) subcoerulea Lepeletier, 1841 CR B2ab(iii)Amegilla (Zonamegilla) cingulifera Cockerell, 1910 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Amegilla (Zonamegilla) comberi Cockerell, 1911 NTAmegilla (Zonamegilla) niveocincta (Smith, 1854) CR B2ab(iii)Amegilla (Zonamegilla) puttalama Strand, 1913 VU B1ab(iii)Amegilla (Zonamegilla) subinsularis (Strand) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Amegilla (Zonamegilla) zonata Linnaeus, 1758 VU B1ab(iii)Apis cerana Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii)Apis dorsata Fabricius, 1793 EN B2ab(iii)Apis florea Fabricius, 1787 EN B2ab(iii)Braunsapis cupulifera Vachal, 1894 CR B2ab(iii)Braunsapis mixta Smith, 1852 LCBraunsapis picitarsis Cameron, 1902 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceratina (Ceratinidia) hieroglyphica Smith, 1854 LCCeratina (Pithitis) binghami Cockerell, 1910 LCCeratina (Pithitis) smaragdula Fabricius, 1787 EN B2ab(iii)Ceratina (Simoceratina) tanganyicensis Strand, 1911 CR B2ab(iii)Ceratina (Xanthoceratina) beata Cameron, 1897 CR B2ab(iii)Nomada antennata Meade-Waldo, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)Nomada bicellula Schwarz, 1990 EN B1ab(iii)Nomada priscilla Nurse, 1902 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Nomada wickwari Meade-Waldo, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)Tetralonia commixtana Strand, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)Tetralonia fumida Cockerell, 1911 CR B2ab(iii)Tetralonia taprobanicola Strand, 1913 CR B2ab(iii)Thyreus ceylonicus Friese, 1905 NTThyreus histrio Fabricius, 1775 NTThyreus insignis Meyer, 1912 EN B2ab(iii)Thyreus ramosellus Cockerell, 1919 EN B2ab(iii)Thyreus surniculus Lieftinck, 1959 CR B2ab(iii)Thyreus takaonis Cockerell, 1911 LCTrigona iridipennis Smith, 1854 LCXylocopa amethystina Fabricius, 1793 VU B1ab(iii)Xylocopa auripennis Lepeletier, 1841 CR B2ab(iii)Xylocopa bhowara Maa, 1938 VU B1ab(iii)Xylocopa bryorum Fabricius, 1775 CR B2ab(iii)Xylocopa confusa Perez, 1901 EN B1ab(iii)Xylocopa dejeanii Lepeletier, 1841 EN B1ab(iii)Xylocopa fenestrata Fabricius, 1798 NTXylocopa nasalis Westwood, 1842 CR B2ab(iii)Xylocopa ruficornis Fabricius, 1804 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Xylocopa tenuiscapa Westwood, 1840 LCXylocopa tranquibarica Fabricius, 1804 CR B2ab(iii)25

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Butterflies of Sri LankaGeorge van der PoortenHammaliya Estate, Bandarakoswatte.IntroductionThe study of butterflies in Sri Lanka began with a short account of 7 species from the islandby Sir J. Emerson Tennent in his book Ceylon: An account of the island, Volume 1 (1860).This was followed by a more comprehensive account on the butterflies of Sri Lanka byFrederick Moore in The Lepidoptera of Ceylon Volume 1 (1880-1881) and Volume 3 (1884-87). Several scientific works such as Marshall & de Nicéville (1882-83), de Nicéville (1886,1890), Manders (1899, 1903, 1904), Bingham (1905 & 1907), Ormiston (1924), Evans (1927& 1932), Woodhouse (1942, 1949, 1950), and Talbot (1947) have contributed to furthering theknowledge on butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka. However, much of the information in these bookswas based on the original writings of Moore with some added information generated by studiesdone in India and contributions by local naturalists including E. E. Green, Tunnard, Manders,Wiley and Ormiston. In 1998, d’Abrera published a book with short accounts on all of thespecies accompanied by color photographs. Since then several popular books and articleshave been published on butterflies; most of them however, are based on available literaturerather than new information.To date, 245 species of butterflies (Order Lepidoptera: Superfamily Papilionoidae) have beenrecorded from Sri Lanka, of which twenty-six species are endemic to the island. Sri Lankashares most of its butterfly fauna with peninsular India, with which it is zoographically related.In particular, there are several species regionally endemic to the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.Current taxonomic statusThe phylogenetic analysis of the butterflies and skippers of the world by Ackery et. al., (1999)in which they were classified under three superfamilies (Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea andPapilionoidea), has been superceded by the work of van Nieukerken et. al., (2011) in whichall seven families of butterflies, including the skippers, are now classified in the superfamilyPapilionoidae. In Sri Lanka, all species of butterflies and skippers are classified under thefollowing six families: Papilionidae (15 species), Pieridae (28 species), Nymphalidae (68species), Riodinidae (1 species), Lycaenidae (84 species) and Hesperiidae (49 species).Of the 26 endemic species, 9 species each are found in the Nymphalidae and Lycaenidaefamilies while the remaining 8 species belong to the families Papilionidae (2), Pieridae (2) andHesperiidae (4). However, ongoing taxonomic work on the group may result in a change in thenumber of endemic species (Kunte, K., in prep.).Since the publication of 2007 IUCN Red List, two species new to Sri Lanka have been discovered:Catopsilia scylla (van der Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012c.) and Cephrenes trichopepla (vander Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012b, in press.). These two species are recent arrivals tothe island from possibly Malaysia and Australia, respectively. In addition, Spindasis greeni isnow considered a valid species. Some authors questioned its status as a species because itwas originally described from only one specimen. However, new information confirms that it isindeed a valid species (van der Poorten & van der Poorten, 2012a, in press).26

DistributionThe distribution of butterflies in Sri Lanka is largely determined by climate, topography andthe underlying geology of the land, as these factors determine the types of vegetation that willgrow in a particular area. Many species of butterflies are generalists and occur in a range ofclimatic zones because of their ability to survive on a wide range of larval and adult resources,and their ability to migrate or disperse widely. However, there are few species that display avery local and restricted distribution because they are constrained by one or more resources.The following describes the species restricted to specific climatic zones, types of forests orgrasslands in which they are found and the habitats within them (endemics are indicated by *).Arid zoneNorth and north-westCoastal thorn scrub: Colotis fausta, Junonia hierta, Azanus ubaldus, and ColotisdanaeMeadows with seasonal flooding: Byblia ilithyiaSouth and south-eastCoastal thorn scrub: Tarucas callinaraDry zoneDry mixed evergreen forest (north): Spindasis nubilus*, Tajuria jehana, ViracholaisocratesDry mixed evergreen forest (south-east): Gomalia elma, Graphium nomiusDry intermediate zoneSavannah grassland habitats of the Uva and Sabaragamuwa provinces: Symphaedranais, Ypthima singala*, Pratapa devaWet zone: lowlandGeneralists: Parthenos sylvia, Papilio helenus, Nacaduba ollyetti*, Pachliopta jophon*Bamboo habitats: Mycalesis rama*Riparian habitats: Jamides coruscans*, Kallima philarchus*, Idea iasonia*Seepages and marsh habitats: Thoressa decorata*Dipterocarp forests: Rapala lankana, Arhopala ormistoni*, Horaga onyx, Horagaalbimacula, Nacaduba calauriaMangrove habitats: Euploea phaenareta, Ideopsis similisWet zone: submontaneGeneralists: Prioneris sitaRiparian habitats: Doleschallia bisaltide, Celaenorrhinus spilothyrus*Rocky riparian habitats: Phalanta alcippeBamboo thickets: Lethe dynsate*, Lethe drypetisGrasslands: Baracus vittatus*, Eurema laetaWet zone: montaneGeneralists: Udara lanka*, Udara akasa, Spindasis greeni*, Vanessa indica, Paranticataprobana*, Cepora nadina, Spindasis greeni*, Argynnis hyperbiusBamboo habitats: Lethe daretis*Grassland habitats: Baracus vittatus*, Eurema laeta27

Threats to butterfliesThe most significant threat to the butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka is the disappearance anddegradation of forest, grassland and coastal habitats due to human activity. In the wet zone,the greatest concerns include the ever-increasing illegal encroachment of human settlements,the illegal felling of trees for timber and firewood and the illegal expansion of tea and rubbercultivations into the protected forest reserves. In the dry and arid zones, the situation is similar,though it is the illegal cultivation of rice and other crops that threatens the butterfly habitats.The coastal habitats of butterflies are threatened by a more recent phenomenon: the rapiddevelopment of hotels and resorts in many near-pristine areas of the coast.In addition to these general threats, there are specific ones. For example, the introduction ofthe thorny non-native tree, Prosopis juliflora, to the arid zones has eliminated the native flora,including the larval food plants and nectar sources of many species of butterflies, which wereonce common in that eco-system. In the southern arid zone, the incursion of Prosopis will havea dramatic impact on the survival of Tarucas callinara, which is entirely restricted to the coastalarid zone of the south and south-east. The situation in Mannar and Arippu is the same wherethe most affected species is Junonia hierta, a species entirely confined to the coastal belt ofthe arid zone of the north and north-west. Several other butterfly species of the arid zone (e.g.Ixias pyrene and Colotis amata), which are also found in the dry zone, have undergone localextinctions in places where Prosopis has replaced the native thorn scrub.The Knuckles Conservation Area also faces several specific threats. Pinus caribaea has becomenaturalized and is invading the natural grasslands, which are the habitats of butterflies suchas Baracus vittatus, Eurema laeta, E. brigitta, and Mycalesis mineus. The native undergrowthof much of the forested areas has been taken over by the cultivation of Elettaria cardamomomand the naturalization of Cestrum nocturnum. In addition, the spread of these two speciesalong streams as well has displaced much of the native vegetation. In particular, Asystasiachelonoides and Pseuderanthemum latifolium which are larval food plants of Doleschalliabisaltide have declined and continue to disappear in many stream habitats. Similarly, severalspecies of Strobilanthes, which are the larval food plants of Kallima philarchus have alsodeclined with the consequent adverse effects for the butterfly.The threat faced by Symphaedra nais in the Nilgala-Bibile savanna grasslands is not oneof invasion by foreign plant species, but one of yearly forest fires deliberately set by peopleliving in the area and uncontrolled utilization of its food tree. The fires are set to allow for newgrowth of grass for improved grazing by animals and to promote flushing of the “beedi” tree,Diospyros melanoxylon. The newly matured leaves of this plant are used by the local peopleto manufacture a type of local cigarette called “Beedi”. These maturing leaves are also usedby the larvae of S. nais as their food source. The harvesting of these leaves destroys ova andlarvae in large numbers while adults perish under the fires set to the forests. The fires alsoprevent young trees from developing into mature seed-bearing trees. At times, entire branchesare lopped off mature trees to make collecting the maturing leaves easier. These activitiescoupled with the dying off of mature trees will result in a deficit in the seed bank for the futuregenerations of D. melanoxylon. The direct effects of fire, the harvesting of leaves and the likelydisappearance or drastic reduction of D. melanoxylon from this habitat do not bode well for thesurvival of S. nais.28

Another threat of increasing importance is the illicit removal of very young trees about 4–6cm in diameter from the understorey of the wet zone forests for firewood, fences and otheruses. Several small tree species such as Humboldtia laurifolia (larval host plant of Jamidescoruscans) and several species of Polyalthia (larval food plants of Graphium doson andGraphium agamemnon) are entirely understorey plants and their removal along with otherunderstorey plants will not only impact the larval food source but will also alter the compositionof the understorey by influencing its microclimate and thereby impacting shade-loving butterflyspecies (Discophora lepida) and plant species (Thottea siliquosa, the sole larval food plant ofPachliopta jophon).The disappearance of suitable habitats and larval food plants in all climatic zones is reflectedin the reduced size of many populations of butterflies, particularly those that show seasonalmass movements. This is particularly evident during the mass movements of Appias galene, A.libythea, Catopsilia pomona, Hebomoia glaucippe and Papilo crino; the numbers seen todayare but a fraction of what was seen a few decades ago.ConservationOf the 245 species of butterflies in Sri Lanka, 100 species (41%) are listed as threatened species(21 are critically endangered, 38 are endangered and 40 are vulnerable). A further 21 speciesare listed as Near Threatened. The status of 6 species was not analyzed because of lack ofdata on their occurrence and distribution. However, only Pachliopta jophon is listed as a globallythreatened species (critically endangered) by the IUCN. This indicates the need to update theGlobal Red List with respect to the conservation status of the butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka.These statistics also reflect the dire consequences of many of the threats outlined above aswell as the lack of information on the biology of many species of butterflies in Sri Lanka. Thestatus designated to the butterflies in this report has been based on EOO and AOO and hasnot taken into consideration the rate of decline in numbers over several years (because oflack of data), although this is a very important criterion in determining the loss of ground by aspecies in its environment over time. Nonetheless, several species such as Rapala lankana,Horaga onyx, H. albimacula, Gangara lebadea, Nacaduba calauria, Junonia hierta, Tajuriaarida, Spindasis greeni, Appias indra, and Cepora nadina, have been recorded in such lownumbers and in so few locations over many years that these must certainly be consideredthe most critically endangered in the island and their conservation must be addressed witha sense of urgency. These butterflies have been sighted less than a half dozen times overthe past 7 years since detailed records have been kept. Interestingly, these butterflies havealso been historically very rare even 100 years ago (Ormiston, 1924) and the assessment oftheir status given here can be questioned until their biology is understood. They are also veryrare in museum collections and the information available on the specimens is scanty. Thereis little or no information on what habitats they were found in and in which locations. All ofthese species are habitat specialists of the wet zone lowlands or montane forests and cannotsurvive outside pristine or near pristine forests as shown by the data collected by the Ministryof the Environment and several independent researchers. This highlights the importance ofconserving the rain forests of the south and south-west, particularly those forest reserves thatare under state control, which are probably the last refuges of these species. Another butterfly,Catapaecilma major, falls into this category but it flies in the dry and intermediate zones.29

At least for one butterfly, Arhopala ormistoni, the mystery of its great rarity has been recentlyuncovered. This is a species of the dense Dipterocarp forests of the wet zone, and it spendsits entire life high up in the canopy where it is very difficult to see and therefore record; itseldom descends to levels where it can be observed easily. This points to the importanceof understanding the general biology of the butterflies before assessing the status andconservation importance.On the other hand, there are several species that are well adapted to altered landscapes andthat survive outside forests very well. These include many species (e.g. Ypthima, Leptosiaand Mycalesis) whose larvae feed on annual weed species that grow in abandoned lands androadsides and their populations certainly seem to be increasing compared to the past. Theestablishment of butterfly gardens in urban and non-urban areas has certainly encouragedthese species. The private sector has been particularly active in the promotion of these butterflygardens for eco-tourism and it is hoped that the idea will spread to individuals, government andnon-governmental institutions more rapidly. Fortunately, there is a push by the Ministry of theEnvironment to promote the idea of butterfly gardens by organizing seminars, workshops andpublications. More work need to be done to create awareness on butterfly conservation in ruralareas, particularly in villages that are bordering forests in the wet zone. Further, more fundingopportunities should be created for butterfly conservation projects to ensure long term survivalof butterfly fauna of Sri Lanka.Recommendations for Research and Conservation1. Establish an officially recognized group of amateur and professional lepidopterists to workclosely with designated biologists from the Ministry of the Environment and other affiliatedinstitutions to act as a consultative body on issues relating to butterfly conservation. Thisgroup must be empowered to carry out island-wide surveys to monitor population fluctuationsand to gather information on all aspects of butterfly biology.2. Establish an official website with a comprehensive database containing historical and currentinformation on the butterflies of the island.3. Initiate a project to gather data on the habitats, distribution, flight periods, immature stages,and the general biology of the endangered and critically endangered species. The findingsof such a study will enable identification of areas that can be protected and enhancedfor the conservation of the butterflies of Sri Lanka.4. Conduct DNA and genitalia studies to verify the taxonomic status of the endemic speciesand sub-species in Sri Lanka to compare with those of the Indian mainland, e.g. Tarucascallinara, Tarucas nara, Pelopidas agna, Pelopidas mathias, Halpe egena, Halpe ceylonica,Spindasis ictis, Spindasis elima, Spindasis nubilus, Acytolepis puspa and Acytolepislilacea.ReferencesAckery, P., de Jong, R. & Vane-Wright, R. I., (1999). The Butterflies: Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea and Papilionoidae.In: N.P. Kristensen, ed. 1999. The butterflies: Hedyloidea, Hesperoidea, and Papilionoidea. de Gruyter. Berlin.pp. 263–300.Kunte, K., (in press). A Systematic and Biogeographic Catalogue of Indian Butterflies: Butterfly Diversity andEndemism in India’s Biodiversity Hotspots.Ormiston, W., (1924). The Butterflies of Ceylon. Colombo: H. W. Cave & Co.van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (in press, a). The biology of Spindasis greeni Heron, 1896 and a reviewof the genus Spindasis in Sri Lanka (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). The Journal of Research in Lepidoptera.30

van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (in press, b). Cephrenes trichopepla (Lower, 1908): A new record forSri Lanka with notes on its biology, life history and distribution (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae). The Journal ofResearch in Lepidoptera.van der Poorten, G. & van der Poorten, N., (2012). Catopsilia scylla (Linnaeus, 1763): A new record for Sri Lankawith notes on its biology, life history and distribution (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). The Journal of Research on theLepidoptera, 45, pp.17-23.van Nieukerken, E. K., Kaila, L., Kitching, I. J., Kristensen, N. P., Lees, D. C., Minet, J., Mitter, C., Mutanen, M.,Regier, J. C., Simonsen, T. J., Wahlberg, N., Yen, S-H., Zahiri, R., Adamski, D., Baixeras, J., Bartsch, D.,Bengtsson, B. Å., Brown, J. W. S. R., Bucheli, D.R. Davis, J. De Prins, W. De Prins, M. E. Epstein, P. Gentili-Poole, C. Gielis, P. Hättenschwiler, A. Hausmann, J. D. Holloway, A. Kallies, O. Karsholt, A. Y. Kawahara, S.J. C. Koster, M. Kozlov, V., Lafontaine, J. D., Lamas, G., Landry, J.-F., Lee, S., Nuss, M., Park, K.-T., Penz, C.,Rota, J., Schintlmeister, A., Schmidt, B. C., Sohn, J.-C., Solis, M. A., Tarmann, G. M., Warren, A.D., Weller, S.,Yakovlev, R. V., Zolotuhin, V. V. & Zwick. A., (2011). Order Lepidoptera Linnaeus, 1758. In: Z.-Q. Zhang, ed.2011. Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness. Zootaxa,3148, pp.212-221.31

Table 04 : List of Butterflies in Sri LankaScientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: PapilionidaeGraphium agamemnon Linnaeus, 1758E: Tailed Jay;S: Thudanga PralapaniLCGraphium antiphates Cramer, 1775E: Fivebar Swordtail;S: Pancha iri kaga-waligayaENGraphium doson Felder, 1864E: Common Jay ;S: PralapaniLCGraphium nomius Esper, 1784E: Spot Swordtail;S: Thith Kaga-waligayaVUGraphium sarpedon Linnaeus, 1758E: Bluebottle ;S: NeelabomiLCPachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius, 1775E: Common Rose ;S: SewwandiyaLCPachliopta hector Linnaeus, 1758E: Crimson Rose;S: Arunu SewwandiyaLCPachliopta jophon Gray, 1852E: Sri Lanka Rose;S: Sri Lanka rosa papiliyaPapilio clytia Linnaeus, 1758E: Mime;S: Rawana PapiliyaLCPapilio crino Fabricius, 1792E: Banded Peacock;S: MayurabadaVUPapilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758E: Lime Butterfly;S: DehirisiyaLCPapilio helenus Linnaeus, 1758E: Red Helen;S: Maha Kela PapiliyaVUPapilio polymnestor Cramer, 1775E: Blue Mormon ;S: Neela ParindayaLCPapilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758E: Common Mormon;S: WesgaththiLCE: Sri Lanka Birdwing;Troides darsius Gray, 1852S: Sri Lanka Maha Kurulu LCPiya PaliliyaFamily: PieridaeAppias albina Boisduval, 1836E: Common Albatross;S: Dingupath SamanalayaLCE: Sri Lanka LesserAppias galene Cramer, 1777Albatross; S: Sri LankaThundu DingupathLCSamanalayaAppias indra Moore, 1857E: Plain Puffin;S: Dumbara-sudanaCRAppias libythea Fabricius, 1775E: Striped Albatross;S: Iri SudanaLCAppias lyncida Cramer, 1779E: Chocolate Albatross;S: Dumburuwan SudanaLCBelenois aurota Fabricius, 1793 E: Pioneer ;S: Apsaravi LCCatopsilia pomona Fabricius, 1775E: Lemon Emigrant;S: Dehi seriyaLCCatopsilia pyranthe Linnaeus, 1758E: Mottled Emigrant;S: Lapa seriyaLCCatopsilia scylla Linnaeus, 1763 E: Orange Migrant LCB2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)EN B2ab(iii) CR* B1+2acB2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)32

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCepora nadina Lucas, 1852E: Lesser Gull;S: Heen Panduru-sudanaCRCepora nerissa Fabricius, 1775E: Common Gull;S: Lihini SamanalayaLCColotis amata Fabricius, 1775E: Small Salmon Arab;S: Punchi Rosa SudanaLCColotis danae Fabricius, 1775E: Crimson Tip;S: Rathu-thudu SuddaVUColotis etrida Boisduval, 1836E: Little Orange Tip;S: Heen SudanaNTE: Plain Orange Tip;Colotis aurora Cramer, 1780S: Podu Tembiliwan VUSudanaColotis fausta Olivier, 1807E: Large Salmon Arab;S: Maha Rosa SudanaVUDelias eucharis Drury, 1773 E: Jezebel; S: Pilila Risiya LCE: Three-spot Grass Yellow;Eurema blanda Boisduval, 1836 S: Thun pulli Thruna LCPithayaEurema brigitta Stoll, 1780E: Small Grass Yellow;S: Rubella Thruna pithayaLCEurema hecabe Linnaeus, 1764E: Common Grass Yellow;S: Thruna PithayaLCEurema laeta Boisduval, 1836E: Spotless Grass Yellow;S: Nothith Thruna PithayaVUE: Sri Lanka One-spotEurema ormistoni Moore, 1886 Grass Yellow; S: Sri Lanka VUKela kahakolayaHebomoia glaucippe Linnaeus, 1758E: Great Orange Tip;S: Maha Ramba Thuduwa)LCIxias marianne Cramer, 1779E: White Orange Tip;S: Ela Ramba ThuduwaLCIxias pyrene Linnaeus, 1764E: Yellow Orange Tip;S: Padu Ramba ThuduwaLCLeptosia nina Fabricius, 1793 E: Psyche; S: Manahari LCPareronia ceylanica Felder, 1865E: Dark Wanderer;S: Anduru seriyaLCPrioneris sita Felder, 1865E: Painted Sawtooth;S: Vichitra Maha-suddaENFamily: NymphalidaeAcraea violae Fabricius, 1807 E: Tawny Coster ; S: Viyola LCArgynnis hyperbius Linnaeus, 1763E: Indian Fritillary;S: Indiyanu AlankarikayaENAriadne ariadne Linnaeus, 1763E: Angled Castor;S: Naw-RisiyaLCAriadne merione Cramer, 1777E :Common Castor;S: Podu Pathan-sariyaVUB2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)Byblia ilithyia Drury, 1773 E :Joker; S: Kawataya VU B1ab(iii)Cethosia nietneri Felder, 1867E :Ceylon Lace Wing;S:Lanka Seda-piyapathaLCCharaxes psaphon Westwood, 1848E :Tawny Rajah;S: Maha KumarayaNTCharaxes solon Fabricius, 1793E :Black Rajah; S: KaluRaja-kumarayaNT33

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCirrochroa thais Fabricius, 1787E :Yeoman;S: Kela RaththiyaLCCupha erymanthis Drury, 1773 E :Rustic; S: Raththiya LCDanaus chrysippus Linnaeus, 1758E: Plain Tiger;S: Pahan GomaraLCDanaus genutia Cramer, 1779E: Common Tiger;S: Agni GomaraLCDiscophora lepida Moore, 1857E: Southern Duffer;S: Dumburu KewattayaVUDoleschallia bisaltide Cramer, 1777E: Autumn Leaf;S: Yoda kela-kolayaENDophla evelina Stoll, 1790E: Redspot Duke;S: Rath-neLCElymnias hypermnestra Linnaeus, 1763E: Common Palmfly;S: Ramba-thaliyaLCElymnias singhala Moore, 1875E: Sri Lanka Palmfly; S: SriLanka Thal-dumburuwaENEuploea core Cramer, 1779E: Common Indian Crow;S: Indu KakayaLCEuploea klugii Moore, 1888E: Brown King Crow;S: Raja Kaka-kotithiyaLCEuploea phaenareta Schaller, 1758E: The Great Crow;S: Yoda Kaka-kotithiyaENE: Double- branded BlackEuploea sylvester Fabricius, 1793 Crow; S: De-iri KakakotithiyaNTEuthalia aconthea Cramer, 1777 E: Baron ; S: Sitano LCEuthalia lubentina Cramer, 1779E: Gaudy Baron;S: Kela AchchilayaVUHypolimnas bolina Linnaeus, 1756E: Great Eggfly;S: Maha-siwwaLCHypolimnas misippus Linnaeus, 1758E: Danaid Eggfly;S: Punchi-siwwaLCIdea iasonia Westwood, 1848E: Sri Lanka Tree Nymph;S:Sri Lanka PawennaIdeopsis similis Linnaeus, 1764E: Blue Glassy Tiger;S:Maha Nil-kotithiyaVUJunonia almana Linnaeus, 1758E: Peacock Pansy;S: Mayura PansayaLCJunonia atlites Linnaeus, 1758E: Grey Pansy;S: Alu PansayaLCJunonia hierta Fabricius, 1793E: Yellow Pansy;S: Peetha PansayaCRJunonia iphita Cramer, 1779E: Chocolate Soldier;S: Miyuru-HewaLCJunonia lemonias Linnaeus, 1758E: Lemon Pansy;S: Pangiri PansayaLCJunonia orithya Linnaeus, 1758E: Blue Pansy;S: Nil AlankarikayaNTKallima philarchus Westwood, 1848E :Sri Lanka Blue Oakleaf;S: Sri Lanka Nil Kela-kolayaENKaniska canace Linnaeus, 1763E: Blue Admiral;S: Nil SeneviyaLCB1ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)VU B1ab(iii) NTB1ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)34

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaLethe daretis Hewitson, 1868Lethe drypetis Hewitson, 1868Lethe dynsate Hewitson, 1868Lethe rohria Fabricius, 1787Libythea celtis Laicharting, 1782Libythea myrrha Godart, 1819Melanitis leda Linnaeus, 1763Melanitis phedima Cramer, 1780Moduza procris Cramer, 1777Mycalesis mineus Linnaeus, 1758Mycalesis patnia Moore, 1857Mycalesis perseus Fabricius, 1775Mycalesis rama Moore, 1892Mycalesis subdita Moore, 1857Neptis hylas Linnaeus, 1758Neptis jumbah Moore, 1857Orsotriaena medus Fabricius, 1775Pantoporia hordonia Stoll, 1790Parantica aglea Stoll, 1782Parantica taprobana Felder, 1865Parthenos sylvia Cramer, 1775Phalanta alcippe Cramer, 1780Phalanta phalantha Drury, 1773Polyura athamas Drury, 1770E: Sri Lanka Treebrown;S: Sri Lanka GasdumburuwaE: Tamil Treebrown;S: Maha- Gas-dumburuwaE :Sri Lanka Forester;S: Sri Lanka Kela GasdumburuwaE: Common Treebrown;S: Podu Gas-dumburuwaE: Beak;S: Dumburu-thuduwaE :Club Beak; S: DanduDumburu-thuduwaE: Common EveningBrown; S: Gomman-guruwaE: Dark Evening Brown;S: Anduru Gomman-guruwaE: Commander;S: Maha SelaruwaE: Dark-Brand Bushbrown;S: Anduru-lapa panduruGuruwaE: Gladeye Bushbrown;S: Min-neth panduruGuruwa)E: Common Bushbrown;S: Panduru GuruwaE: Sri Lanka Bushbrown;S: Sri Lanka PandurudumburuwaE: Sri Lanka TamilBushbrown;S: Sri Lanka DamilaPanduru-dumburuwaE: Common Sailor;S: SelaruwaE: Chestnut-streakedSailor; S: Wairan SelaruwaE: Medus Brown;S: Iri Siw-muddaE: Common Lascar;S: Kaha SelaruwaE: Glassy Tiger;S: Palingu GomaraE: Sri Lanka Tiger;S: Sri Lanka Nil-kotithiyaE: Clipper;S: Yoda Kela SelaruwaE: Small Leopard;S: Punchi Thith-thambiliyaE: Leopard;S: Maha Diwi-PulliyaE: Nawab;S: Kaha KumarayaENENENENENVULCNTLCLCLCLCENLCLCLCLCNTLCENLCCRLCLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)NT35

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaRohana parisatis Westwood, 1850Symphaedra nais Forster, 1771Tirumala limniace Cramer, 1775Tirumala septentrionis Butler, 1865Vanessa cardui Linnaeus, 1761Vanessa indica Herbst, 1794Vindula erota Fabricius, 1793Ypthima ceylonica Hewitson, 1864Ypthima singala Felder, 1868Family: LycaenidaeAcytolepis lilacea Hampson, 1889Acytolepis puspa Horsfield, 1828Amblypodia anita Hewitson, 1862Anthene lycaenina Felder, 1868Arhopala abseus Hewitson, 1862Arhopala amantes Hewitson, 1862Arhopala centaurus Doubleday, 1847Arhopala ormistoni Riley, 1920Azanus jesous Guérin, 1847Azanus ubaldus Stoll, 1782Bindahara phocides Fabricius, 1793Caleta decidia Hewitson, 1876Castalius rosimon Fabricius, 1775Catapaecilma major Druce, 1895Catochrysops panormus Felder, 1860Catochrysops strabo Fabricius, 1793E: Black Prince;S: Kalu KumarayaE: Baronet;S: Punchi AchchilayaE: Blue Tiger;S: Neela GomaraE: Dark Blue Tiger;S: Anduruwan Nil-kotithiyaE: Painted Lady;S: Vichithra AlnkarikayaE: Indian Red Admiral;S: Rathu seneviyaE: Cruiser;S: Yoda ThambiliyaE: White Four-ring;S: Sithiri SiwwaE: Sri Lanka Jewel Fourring;S: Sri Lanka RanHeen-dumburuwaE: Hampson's Hedge Blue;S: Hampson Gomu NeelayaE: Common Hedge Blue;S: Gomu NeelayaE: Purple Leafblue;S: Dam-path NeelayaE: Pointed Ciliate Blue;S: Ul Kirana-neelayaE: Aberrant Bushblue;S: Kela Gas-neelayaE: Large Oakblue;S: Maha-siduru NeelayaE: Centaur Oakblue;S: Samila NeelayaE: Sri Lanka Ormiston'sOakblue;S: Sri Lanka SiduruNeelayaE: African Babul Blue;S: Rata NeelayaE: Bright Babul Blue;S: Punchi neelayaE: Plane; S: Visithuru DigupendaNeelayaE: Angled Pierrot;S: Mulu KonangiyaE: Common Pierrot;S: KonangiyaE: Common Tinsel;S: Visithuru Gas-neelayaE: Silver Forget-me-not;S: Rajatha SadasiyaE: Forget-me-not;S:SadasiyaVUENLCNTVUENNTLCENENLCNTLCENLCLCCRLCCRENLCLCENCRLCB1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)36

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCelastrina lavendularis Moore, 1877E: Plain Hedge Blue;S: Sarala Gomu NeelayaCRCheritra freja Fabricius, 1793E: Common Imperial;S: Digu-penda Gas-neelayaVUChilades lajus Stoll, 1780E: Lime Blue;S: Dehi-neelayaLCChilades pandava Horsfield, 1829E: Plains Cupid;S: Meewana-saraLCChilades parrhasius Fabricius, 1793E: Small Cupid;S: Punchi Panu-neelayaLCCuretis thetis Drury, 1773E: Indian Sunbeam;S: Wismi-keetaLCDeudorix epijarbas Moore, 1857E: Cornelian;S: Podu Kirana-neelayaVUDiscolampa ethion Westwood, 1851E: Banded Blue Pierrot;S: Nil KonangiyaLCEuchrysops cnejus Fabricius, 1798 E: Gram Blue; S: Mun-risiya LCEveres lacturnus Godart, 1824E: Indian Cupid;S: Malavi ParasiyaLCFreyeria putli Kollar, 1844 E: Grass Jewel; S: Palamini LCHoraga albimacula Wood-Mason & deNicéville, 1881Horaga onyx Moore, 1857Hypolycaena nilgirica Moore, 1883Ionolyce helicon Felder, 1860Iraota timoleon Stoll,1790Jamides alecto Felder, 1860Jamides bochus Stoll, 1782Jamides celeno Cramer, 1775Jamides coruscans Moore, 1877Jamides lacteata de Nicéville, 1895Lampides boeticus Linnaeus, 1767Leptotes plinius Fabricius, 1793Loxura atymnus Stoll, 1780E: Brown Onyx;S:Guru AgasthiyaE: Blue Onyx;S: Nil AgasthiyaE: Nilgiri Tit; S: NiilgirineelayaE: Pointed Lineblue;S: Thuduri NeelayaE: Silverstreak Blue;S: Redee Gas-neelayaE: Metallic Cerulean;S: Dili SeruliyaE: Dark Cerulean;S: Anduru SeruliyaE: Common Cerulean;S: SeruliyaE: Sri Lanka Cerulean;S: Sri Lanka Seru-nilayaE: Sri Lanka MilkyCerulean; S: Sri Lanka ElaSeruliyaE: Pea Blue; S: MunneelayaE: Zebra Blue;S: Sabaru NeelayaE: Yamfly; S: KadalaSamanalayaMegisba malaya Horsfield, 1828 E: Malayan; S: Malalini LCNacaduba berenice Herrich-Schäffer,1869Nacaduba beroe Felder & Felder, 1865E: Rounded 6-Lineblue;S: Wata Iri NeelayaE: Opaque 6-Lineblue;S: Adisi-Iri NeelayaCRCRLCCRNTLCLCLCVUVULCLCLCDDENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)37

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaNacaduba calauria Felder, 1860E: Dark Ceylon 6-Lineblue;S: Anduru Iri NeelayaDDNacaduba hermus Felder, 1860E: Pale 4-Lineblue; S:Sawri-neelaNTNacaduba kurava Moore, 1857E: Transparent 6-Lineblue;S: Disi-Iri NeelayaVUE: Sri Lanka Woodhouse'sNacaduba ollyetti Corbet, 1947 4-Lineblue; S: Sri Lanka CRWanasi-neelayaNacaduba pactolus Felder, 1860E: Large 4-Lineblue;S: Maha Nil-IriyaNTE: Sri Lanka Pale CeylonNacaduba sinhala Ormiston, 1924 6-Lineblue; S: Sri Lanka VUHela Iri NeelayaNeopithecops zalmora Butler, 1870 E: Quaker; S: Samlani LCPetrelaea dana de Nicéville, 1883E: Dingy Lineblue;S: Dingi Nil-IriyaENPratapa deva Moore, 1857E: White Royal;S: Sudu Raja-nilayaENProsotas dubiosa Semper, 1879E: Tailless Lineblue;S: Apus Iri NeelayaLCProsotas nora Felder, 1860E: Common Lineblue;S: Iri NeelayaLCProsotas noreia Felder, 1868E: White-tipped Lineblue;S: Sudu Nil-iriyaENRapala iarbus Fabricius, 1787E: Indian Red Flash;S: Rathu DebatiDDRapala lankana Moore, 1879E: Malabar Flash;S: Kala KiranayaCRRapala manea Hewitson, 1863E: Slate Flash;S: Anduru KiranayaLCRapala varuna Horsfield, 1829E: Indigo Flash; S: NilDebatiVURathinda amor Fabricius, 1775E: Monkey-puzzle;S: RathindaLCSpalgis epeus Westwood, 1851E: Apefly; S: HanumanSamanalayaLCSpindasis elima Moore, 1877E: Scarce Shot Silverline;S: Hiru Raja-thariyaDDSpindasis greeni Heron, 1896E: Sri Lanka Green'sSilverlineSpindasis ictis Hewitson, 1865E: Ceylon Silverline;S: Hela Raja-thariyaLCSpindasis lohita Horsfield, 1829E: Long -banded Silverline;S: Digu-iri Ridee-neelayaVUE: Sri Lanka CloudedSpindasis nubilus Moore, 1887 Silverline; S: Sri Lanka DDWala Raja-thariyaSpindasis schistacea Moore, 1881E: Plumbeous Silverline;S: Lamba Raja-thariyaVUSpindasis vulcanus Fabricius, 1775E: Common Silverline;S: Raja-thariyLCSurendra vivarna Horsfield, 1829E: Common Acacia Blue;S: Andara NeelayaLCB1ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)38

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaTajuria arida Riley, 1923Tajuria cippus Fabricius, 1798Tajuria jehana Moore, 1883Talicada nyseus Guérin-Méneville, 1843Tarucus callinara Butler, 1886Tarucus nara Kollar, 1848Udara akasa Horsfield, 1828Udara lanka Moore, 1877Udara singalensis R. Felder, 1868Virachola isocrates Fabricius, 1793Virachola perse Hewitson, 1863Zesius chrysomallus Hübner, 1819Zizeeria karsandra Moore, 1865Zizina otis Fabricius, 1787Zizula hylax Fabricius, 1775Family: RiodinidaeAbisara echerius Stoll, 1790Family: HesperiidaeAmpittia dioscorides Fabricius, 1793Badamia exclamationis Fabricius, 1775Baoris penicillata Moore, 1881Baracus vittatus Felder, 1862Bibasis sena Moore, 1865Borbo cinnara Wallace, 1866Burara oedipodea Swainson, 1820Caltoris kumara Moore, 1878Caltoris philippina Herrich-Schäffer,1869E: Sri Lanka Indigo Royal;S: Sri Lanka Raja-neelayaE: Peacock Royal;S: Mayura ParamayaE: Plains Blue Royal;S: Podu Raja-neelayaE: Red Pierrot;S: Rathu KonangiyaE: Butler's Spotted Pierrot;S: Thith KonangiyaE: Striped Pierrot;S: Thith-iri Mal-neelayaE: White Hedge Blue;S: Ela Gomu NeelayaE: Sri Lanka Hedge Blue;S: Sri Lanka Udara-neelayaE: Singalese Hedge Blue;S:Singha Udara-neelayaE: Common Guava Blue;S: DiwlethaE: Large Guava Blue;S:Maha Pera-neelayaE: Redspot; S: RathupulliyaE: Dark Grass Blue;S: Neela KasandraE: Lesser Grass Blue;S: Thuru-thana NeelayaE: Tiny Grass Blue;S: Heen-thana NeelayaE: Plum Judy;S: Dan-samanalayaE: Bush Hopper;S: Panduru PimmaE: Brown Awl ;S: GuruleesaE: Sri Lanka PaintbrushSwift ; S: Si Lanka ThudusaraE: Sri Lanka Hedge Hopper;S: Sri Lanka Gomu PimmaE: Orange-Tailed Awl ;S: Ramba Thudu LeesaE: Wallace's Swift;S: Wolas-sariyaE: Branded Orange Awlet;S : RambaleesaE: Blank Swift; S: KaluPaha SariyaE: Philippine Swift;S: Rata SariyaCRLCCRLCENLCENENENLCVULCLCLCLCLCLCLCCRVUENLCENVUCRB2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)39

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCaprona alida de Nicéville, 1891Caprona ransonnettii Felder, 1868Celaenorrhinus spilothyrus R. Felder,1868E: Ceylon Golden Angle;S: Lak-ran MullaE: Golden Angle;S: Ran MullaE: Sri Lanka Black Flat ;S: Sri Lanka Kala KunchikaCephrenes trichopepla Lower, 1908 E: Yellow Palm Dart LCChoaspes benjaminii Guérin-Méneville,1843Coladenia indrani Moore, 1866Gangara lebadea Hewitson, 1868Gangara thyrsis Fabricius, 1775Gomalia elma Trimen, 1862Halpe ceylonica Moore, 1878E: Indian Awl King ;S:Raja-leesaE: Tricolour Pied Flat ;S: Triwarana KunchikaE: Banded Redeye;S: Irira-thasiyaE: Giant Redeye;S: Mara-thasiyaE: African Marbled Skipper;S: Mabal PimmaE: Ceylon Ace;S: Lanka-siyaCRLCVUVUNTCRVUCRENB2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Halpe egena Felder, 1868 E: Rare Ace; S: Dulabasiya EN B1ab(iii)Hasora badra Moore, 1858Hasora chromus Cramer, 1780Hasora taminatus Hübner, 1818Hyarotis adrastus Stoll, 1780Iambrix salsala Moore, 1866Matapa aria Moore, 1866Notocrypta curvifascia C. & R. Felder,1862Notocrypta paralysos Wood-Mason & deNicéville, 1881Oriens goloides Moore, 1881Parnara bada Moore, 1878Pelopidas agna Moore, 1866Pelopidas conjuncta Herrich-Schäffer,1869Pelopidas mathias Fabricius, 1798Pelopidas thrax Hübner, 1821E: Ceylon Awl; S:HelaLeesaE: Common Banded Awl ;S: Iri-leesaE: White Banded Awl;S: Sudu iri-leesaE: Tree Flitter; S: RuksariyaE: Chestnut Bob;S: Guru BobayaE: Common Redeye;S: RathasiyaE: Restricted Demon;S: Nethu DassaE: Common BandedDemon; S: Iri DassaE: Common Dartlet;S: SariththaE: Smallest Swift ;S: Tikiri sariyaE: Little Branded Swift ;S: Podi Iri-sariyaE: Conjoined Swift ;S: Wihanga sariyaE: Small Branded Swift ;S: Thudu Iri-sariyaE: Large Branded Swift;S: Maha Iri-sariyaPotanthus confuscius C. & R. Felder,1862E: Tropic Dart; S: Gim-sara LCPotanthus pallida Evans, 1932 E: Indian Dart; S:Indu-sara DDPotanthus pseudomaesa Moore, 1881E: Common Dart;S: Hela-saraVUENLCNTLCLCVUVUVUNTNTNTVUNTVUB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)40

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSarangesa dasahara Moore, 1866Spialia galba Fabricius, 1793Suastus gremius Fabricius, 1798Suastus minuta Moore, 1877Tagiades japetus Stoll, 1781Tagiades litigiosa Möschler, 1878Tapena thwaitesi Moore, 1881Taractrocera maevius Fabricius, 1793Telicota bambusae Moore, 1878Telicota colon Fabricius, 1775Thoressa decorata Moore, 1881Udaspes folus Cramer, 1775E: Common Small Flat ;S: Kuda KunchikaE: Indian Skipper ;S: Indu-pimmaE: Indian Palm Bob ;S: Indu-thala BobayaE: Ceylon Palm Bob;S: Hela-thala BobayaE: Ceylon Snow Flat;S: Hima KunchikaE: Water Snow Flat;S: Diya KunchikaE: Black Angle;S: Kalu MullaE: Common Grass Dart;S: Thana-saraE: Dark Palmdart ;S: Anduru Thala-saraE: Pale Palmdart;S: Thala-sara)E: Sri Lanka DecoratedAce;S: Sri Lanka SithirasiyaE: Grass Demon ;S: Thanapath DassaNTLCLCENLCVUENLCVUNTENLCB2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Note 1: Halpe ceylonica and H. egena may prove to be subspecies of H. homolea or seasonal formsNote 2: Pelopidas thrax may prove to be P. subochraceaNote 3: Potanthus confuscius may prove to be P. satraNote 4: Telicota bambusae was previously erroneously identified as T. ancilla41

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Spiders(Arachnida: Araneae) in Sri LankaSuresh P. Benjamin 1 , Ranil P. Nanayakkara 2 , Salindra K. Dayananda 31Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS), Hantana Road, Kandy2Biodiversity Education and Research,3Foundation for Nature Conservation and Preservation, PanaduraIntroductionSpiders are found all over the world and have colonized almost all habitats. Most species ofspiders are relatively small in size (around 2-10 mm in body length) while a few species mayreach up to 90mm in size (Foelix, 2011). Platnick (2011) has compiled a catalog of all the spidersrecorded to date which stands at, approximately, 42,000 species that belongs to 110 families.However, this is only a small fraction of the true diversity of this order as the spider fauna of mostcountries remains grossly understudied. The situation is the same in Sri Lanka that supportsa highly diverse spider assemblage. To date, 501 species representing 48 families have beenlisted for Sri Lanka, including 256 (51.09%) endemic species (Platnick, 2011). Further, 11species (not included in the list) that are only identified upto genus level are also found in SriLanka which includes an additional family Deinopidae. However, this figure is likely to be a grossunderestimate as spiders are perhaps one of the least studied invertebrate groups in Sri Lanka,even though they are one of the most conspicuous elements of the Sri Lankan forest landscape(Benjamin and Bambaradeniya, 2006).The exploration of Sri Lankan spider fauna began with the work of Pickard-Cambridge (1869),followed mainly by species descriptions by the French Arachnologist E. Simon who visited theisland in 1892 to collect spiders (Pethiyagoda, 2007). Sri Lankan species have been regularlyincluded in taxonomic revision of genera and families. However, the exclusive study of SriLanka spider fauna only began in the early 1990s (Benjamin and Bambaradeniya, 2006).Currently, the Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS) is conducting an island-wide survey ofspiders. As this is a daunting task, the immediate focus is to make a complete collection ofspiders that will form the basis for future detailed taxonomic studies.TaxonomyAfter the work done by early arachnologists such as Pickard-Cambridge, Pocock and Simon,there has been little interest in spider taxonomy of Sri Lanka. The work on Sri Lankan spiderswas reinitiated in 1970s when investigations had been carried out on few selected spiderfamilies (Brignoli, 1972, 1975: Van Helsdingen, 1985). Wijesinghe (1987) has reviewed thespiders of Sri Lanka and prepared a preliminary checklist comprising of 402 species. Duringthe last decade much has been done on spiders of Sri Lanka that has resulted in the revisionof several genera and description of few new species (Benjamin, 2006; Benjamin, 2010;Benjamin and Jaleel, 2010; Kronestedt, 2010; Platnick et al., 2011). Further, these studiesalso indicated that older nominal species need to be revised and re-described (Benjamin &Hormiga, 2009; Dimitrov et al., 2009; Álvarez-Padilla & Benjamin, 2011). A comprehensive listof recent publications related to Sri Lankan spiders is given in Platnick (2011) and Benjamin(2006).42

DistributionSpiders are found in all habitats, both natural and man-made. Benjamin (2006) has hypothisedthat the endemic Sri Lankan spider fauna are confined mostly to the intact natural forestremaining in the south-west and central high lands. Further, as in the case of other faunalgroups, the endemic Sri Lankan spiders are thought to be closely related to Western Ghatsin India. These hypotheses are supported by the results of a recent study (Benjamin, 2010).Conclusions and recommendationsSpiders are one of the largest taxonomic groups that are present in Sri Lanka and they playa key role in both man-made and natural ecosystems as predators. However, more than 75%of the spider species assessed during the Red Listing process, have been listed under theData Deficient (DD) category that indicates the huge gap that exist in the knowledge baseon Sri Lankan spiders. The study of spiders in Sri Lanka is still in a neonate stage and manynew genera and species await discovery, particularly from the northern part of the country ashighlighted by the discovery of several new species which belong to the genus Poecilotheria(Nanayakkara & Vishvanath 2011). Particularly the genus Poecilotheria has drawn the attentionof the scientific community across the World and several studies were initiated by differentresearchers at various times within a period of 20 years.Therefore, conducting an island-wide survey on spiders has been identified as a priority need.This activity can be coupled with the establishment of a reference collection at the NationalMuseum as well as establishing a second reference collection in a state academic institution inorder to facilitate the study of spiders. This activity can be funded through the National ScienceFoundation.Number of recent studies indicate the clear need to revise the taxonomy of the spider fauna ofSri Lanka. This reference collection can provide the basis for this activity. Further this can becoupled with training of new taxonomist. The only guide available on Sri Lankan spiders is asuperficial treatment by Pocock (1900), published over a century ago. Therefore, productionof an easy-to-use photographic identification/field guide for the spiders of Sri Lanka is highlyrecommended in order to popularize the study of spiders. Further, a web portal should beestablished for dissemination of information about the Sri Lankan spiders.Due to myths and folklore surrounding the spiders, particularly that of genus Poecilotheria(Tarantulas) due to its imagined virulent poison and its effects on humans, these creaturesface summarily destruction whenever located. This is a great pity as spiders are in realityimportant biological control agents, making a significant contribution to the agriculture and thelocal populace. It is vitally important to educate the local community of the relevant areas onthe need to conserve these creatures, as well as of the benefits that can be accrued from theirpresence and create awareness of the true facts and to dispel the myths.Pesticide use in Sri Lanka is still to be regulated; the pesticides Control of Pesticides Act addressesonly threats to human health and not environmental health or impact on non-target organisms.Therefore, pesticides approved for use in Sri Lanka should also be assessed for impact onspiders as well as other non-target organisms before being approved for use in Sri Lanka.43

Preliminary investigation carried out by Benjamin (2010) has demonstrated that long termsurvival of most of the endemic and threatened spiders depend on protecting the remainingnatural ecosystems of the wet zone of Sri Lanka, as is the case for other taxonomic groups.Therefore, the key habitats necessary for spider conservation must be identified and a planshould be drawn up to determine how these habitats can be protected in the future.ReferencesÁlvarez-Padilla, F. & Benjamin, S. P., (2011). Phylogenetic placement and redescription of the spider genus AtelideaSimon, 1895 (Araneae, Tetragnathidae). Zootaxa, 2761, pp.51-63.Benjamin, S. P., (2010). Revision and cladistic analysis of the jumping spider genus Onomastus (Araneae:Salticidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 159, pp.711-745.Benjamin, S. P. & Bambaradeniya, C. N. B., (2006). Systematics and conservation of spiders in Sri Lanka: currentstatus and future prospects. In: C. N. B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. The Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy,Research and Conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government ofSri Lanka. pp. 70-76.Benjamin, S. P. & Hormiga, G., (2009). Phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic genus Labullinyphia vanHelsdingen, 1985, with redescription of Labullinyphia tersa(Simon, 1894) from Sri Lanka (Araneae: Linyphiidae).Contributions to Natural History, 12, pp.161-181.Benjamin, S. P. & Jaleel Z., (2010). The genera Haplotmarus Simon, 1909 and Indoxysticus gen. nov.: two enigmaticgenera of crab spiders from the Oriental region (Araneae: Thomisidae). Zootaxa, 117, pp.1-9.Dimitrov, D., Benjamin, S. P. & Hormiga, G., (2009). A revised phylogenetic analysis for the genus Clitaetra Simon,1889 (Araneoidea, Nephilidae) with the first description of the male of the Sri Lankan species Clitaetra thisbeSimon, 1903. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 159, pp.301-323.Foelix, R. F., (2011). Biology of Spiders. 3 rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.Kronestedt, T., (2010). Draposa, a new wolf spider genus from South and Southeast Asia (Araneae: Lycosidae).Zootaxa, 2637, pp.31-54.Nanayakkara, R. & Vishvanath, N., (2011). Hitherto unrecorded species of Poecilotheria, (Tarantula) from Sri Lanka.ScinnoTech-Alert, [e-journal] 2(7), Available through: National Science Foundation Sri Lanka Web site Pethiyagoda, R., (2007). Pearls, spices and green gold: a history of biodiversity exploration in Sri Lanka. Colombo:WHT Publications.Pickard-Cambridge, O., (1869). Descriptions and sketches of some new species of Araneidea, with characters of anew genus. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 4, pp.52-74.Platnick, N. I., (2011). The World Spiders Catalog, Version 11.5, [online]Available through: American Museum of Natural History Platnick, N. I., Duperre, N., Ott, R. & Kranz-Baltensperger, Y., (2011). The goblin spider genus Brignolia (Araneae,Oonopidae). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 349, p.131.Pocock, R. I., (1900). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida:I-XII. London: Taylor andFrancis.Wijesinghe, D. P., (1987). The present status of spider taxonomy in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the workshop on“Present Status of Faunal Taxonomy in Sri Lanka”, Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, pp7-19.44

Table 05: List of Spiders in Sri LankaScientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaFamily: AgelenidaeTegenaria taprobanica Strand, 1907DDTegenaria domestica (Clerck, 1757)DDFamily: AraneidaeAnepsion maritatum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1877)DDArachnura scorpionides Vinson, 1863 E: Scorpion spider LCAraneus enucleatus (Karsch, 1879)DDAraneus minutalis (Simon, 1889)DDAraneus mitificus (Simon, 1886)E: Kidney garden spider/ Pale OrbWeaverLCAraneus obtusatus (Karsch, 1891)DDArgiope aemula (Walckenaer, 1841)E: Andrew’s Cross Spider; S: Kahavisithuru kathira dal viyannaLCArgiope aetherea (Walckenaer, 1841)DDArgiope anasuja Thorell, 1887E: Signature Spider;S: Liyana dal viyannaLCArgiope catenulata (Doleschall, 1859)E: Grass cross spider;S: Thana kathira dal viyannaDDArgiope pulchella Thorell, 1881DDArgiope taprobanica Thorell, 1887DDCaerostris indica Strand, 1915E: Indian Bark spider;S: Indu kadan makuluwaCR B2ab(iii)Chorizopes frontalis O. P.-Cambridge, 1870DDChorizopes mucronatus Simon, 1895DDCyclosa quinqueguttata (Thorell, 1881)DDCyclosa bifida (Doleschall, 1859) E: Long-bellied Cyclosa Spider LCCyclosa insulana (Costa, 1834) E: Brown Lobed Spider LCCyrtarachne perspicillata (Doleschall, 1859)DDCyrtarachne raniceps Pocock, 1900DDCyrtophora cicatrosa (Stoliczka, 1869)DDCyrtophora citricola (Forsskål, 1775)DDCyrtophora exanthematica(Doleschall,1859)DDCyrtophora moluccensis (Doleschall, 1857) E: Common Tent-web Spider LCCyrtophora unicolor (Doleschall, 1857)DDEriovixia laglaizei (Simon, 1877)LCGasteracantha cancriformis (Linnaeus, 1758)E: Star Spider, Spiny-backed OrbweaverCR B2ab(iii)Gasteracantha geminata (Fabricius, 1798)E: Common Spiny orb-weavers/Common Kite Spider;LCS: Podu Sarungal makuluwaGasteracantha remifera Butler, 1873DDGea spinipes C. L. Koch, 1843 CR B2ab(iii)Gea subarmata Thorell, 1890DDGlyptogona duriuscula Simon, 1895DDHypsosinga taprobanica (Simon, 1895)DDMacracantha arcuata (Fabricius, 1793)E: Long-horned Orb-weaver;S: Digu agathi sarungala makuluwaCR B2ab(iii)45

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaMangora semiargentea Simon, 1895Neogea nocticolor (Thorell, 1887) CR B2ab(iii)Neoscona nautica (L. Koch, 1875)Neoscona punctigera (Doleschall, 1857)Neoscona theisi (Walckenaer, 1841)E: Brown sailor spider;S: Podu gewathu makuluwaNeoscona vigilans (Blackwall, 1865) E: Neoscona Orb Weaver Spider CR B1+2ab(iii)Ordgarius hobsoni (O. P.-Cambridge, 1877)Parawixia dehaani (Doleschall, 1859)Phonognatha vicitra Sherriffs, 1928 CR B2ab(iii)Poltys columnaris Thorell, 1890 CR B2ab(iii)Poltys illepidus C. L. Koch, 1843Thelacantha brevispina (Doleschall, 1857) EN B1+2ab(iii)Ursa vittigera Simon, 1895Family: BarychelidaeDiplothele halyi Simon, 1892DDPlagiobothrus semilunaris Karsch, 1891DDSason robustum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883)DDSipalolasma ellioti Simon, 1892DDSipalolasma greeni Pocock, 1900DDFamily: ClubionidaeClubiona drassodes O. P.-Cambridge, 1874 E: Common Sac Spider EN B1ab(iii)Matidia flagellifera Simon, 1897DDMatidia simplex Simon, 1897DDNusatidia bimaculata (Simon, 1897)DDSimalio lucorum Simon, 1906DDSimalio phaeocephalus Simon, 1906DDFamily: CorinnidaeAetius decollatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1896DDCoenoptychus pulcher Simon, 1885 CR B2ab(iii)Copa annulata Simon, 1896DDCopa spinosa Simon, 1896DDKoppe armata (Simon, 1896)DDOedignatha affinis Simon, 1897DDOedignatha bicolor Simon, 1896DDOedignatha coriacea Simon, 1897DDOedignatha flavipes Simon, 1897DDOedignatha gulosa Simon, 1897DDOedignatha major Simon, 1896DDOedignatha montigena Simon, 1897DDOedignatha proboscidea (Strand, 1913)DDOedignatha retusa Simon, 1897DDOedignatha scrobiculata Thorell, 1881DDOedignatha striata Simon, 1897DDOrthobula impressa Simon, 1897DDSphecotypus taprobanicus Simon, 1897DDDDLCDDDDDDDDDDDD46

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaTrachelas oreophilus Simon, 1906Trachelas quisquiliarum Simon, 1906Utivarachna accentuata (Simon, 1896)Family: CtenidaeCtenus ceylonensis O. P.-Cambridge, 1897DDCtenus karschi Roewer, 1951DDCtenus thorelli O. P.-Cambridge, 1897DDDiallomus fuliginosus Simon, 1897DDDiallomus speciosus Simon, 1897DDFamily: DictynidaeAnaxibia nigricauda (Simon, 1905)DDAtelolathys varia Simon, 1892DDDictyna turbida Simon, 1905DDDictynomorpha smaragdula (Simon, 1905) CR B2ab(iii)Rhion pallidum O. P.-Cambridge, 1870DDFamily: DipluridaeIndothele dumicola Pocock, 1900DDIndothele lanka Coyle, 1995DDFamily: EresidaeStegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch, 1891DDFamily: HahniidaeAlistra radleyi (Simon, 1898)DDAlistra stenura (Simon, 1898)DDAlistra taprobanica (Simon, 1898)DDHahnia oreophila Simon, 1898DDHahnia pusio Simon, 1898DDFamily: HersiliidaeHersilia pectinata Thorell, 1895DDHersilia savignyi Lucas, 1836E: Comon Two Tailed Spider; S: HersiliyamakuluwaLCHersilia sumatrana (Thorell, 1890)DDHersilia tibialis Baehr & Baehr, 1993DDMurricia crinifera Baehr & Baehr, 1993DDNeotama variata (Pocock, 1899)DDPromurricia depressa Baehr & Baehr, 1993DDFamily: IdiopidaeHeligmomerus taprobanicus Simon, 1892DDScalidognathus oreophilus Simon, 1892DDScalidognathus radialis (O. P.-Cambridge,1869)DDFamily: LinyphiidaeAtypena ellioti Jocqué, 1983DDAtypena simoni Jocqué, 1983DDCeratinopsis monticola (Simon, 1894)DDHelsdingenia ceylonica (van Helsdingen, 1985)DDLabullinyphia tersa (Simon, 1894) EN B1+2ab(III)Microbathyphantes palmarius (Marples, 1955)DDDDDDDD47

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaNematogmus dentimanus Simon, 1886Neriene katyae van Helsdingen, 1969Nesioneta benoiti (van Helsdingen, 1978)Obrimona tennenti (Simon, 1894)Trematocephalus simplex Simon, 1894Trematocephalus tripunctatus Simon, 1894Typhistes antilope Simon, 1894Typhistes comatus Simon, 1894Family: LiocranidaeArgistes seriatus (Karsch, 1891)DDArgistes velox Simon, 1897DDParatus reticulatus Simon, 1898DDSphingius scutatus Simon, 1897DDFamily: LycosidaeDraposa atropalpis (Gravely, 1924)DDDraposa lyrivulva (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906)DDDraposa subhadrae (Patel & Reddy, 1993)DDHippasa greenalliae (Blackwall, 1867)DDHippasa olivacea (Thorell, 1887)DDHogna lupina (Karsch, 1879)DDLycosa indagatrix Walckenaer, 1837DDLycosa nigrotibialis Simon, 1884 CR B2ab(iii)Lycosa yerburyi Pocock, 1901DDOcyale (cf)atalanta Audouni, 1826DDOcyale lanca (Karsch, 1879)DDOcyale pilosa (Roewer, 1960)DDPardosa birmanica Simon, 1884 CR B2ab(iii)Pardosa palliclava (Strand, 1907)DDPardosa pseudoannulata (Bösenberg & Strand,1906)CR B2ab(iii)Pardosa pusiola (Thorell, 1891)DDPardosa semicana Simon, 1885DDPardosa sumatrana (Thorell, 1890)DDPardosa timidula (Roewer, 1951)DDWadicosa quadrifera (Gravely, 1924)DDZoica parvula (Thorell, 1895)DDZoica puellula (Simon, 1898)DDFamily: MimetidaeMimetus indicus Simon, 1906DDMimetus strinatii Brignoli, 1972DDPhobetinus sagittifer Simon, 1895DDFamily: MiturgidaeCheiracanthium incertum O. P.-Cambridge,1869DDCheiracanthium indicum O. P.-Cambridge, 1874DDCheiracanthium insigne O. P.-Cambridge, 1874 CR B2ab(iii)DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD48

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaCheiracanthium melanostomum (Thorell, 1895)Cheiracanthium taprobanense Strand, 1907Family: MysmenidaeMysmenella saltuensis (Simon, 1895)Phricotelus stelliger Simon, 1895Family: NemesiidaeAtmetochilus fossor Simon, 1887Family: NephilidaeClitaetra thisbe Simon, 1903Herennia multipuncta (Doleschall, 1859)E: Ornate Tree trunk Spider; S: Asiavisithuru pathali makuluwaLCNephila pilipes (Fabricius, 1793) E: Giant Wood Spider NTNephilengys malabarensis (Walckenaer, 1841)E: Hermit Spider; S: Podu vayiramnives makuluwaLCFamily: NesticidaeNesticella aelleni (Brignoli, 1972)DDFamily: OchyroceratidaeMerizocera brincki Brignoli, 1975DDMerizocera cruciata (Simon, 1893)DDMerizocera oryzae Brignoli, 1975DDMerizocera picturata (Simon, 1893)DDPsiloderces elasticus (Brignoli, 1975)DDSpeocera taprobanica Brignoli, 1981DDFamily: OecobiidaeOecobius cellariorum (Dugès, 1836) CR B2ab(iii)Family: OonopidaeAprusia kataragama Grismado & Deeleman, 2011 CR B2ab(iii)Aprusia strenuus Simon, 1893 CR B2ab(iii)Aprusia veddah Grismado & Deeleman, 2011 CR B2ab(iii)Aprusia vestigator (Simon, 1893) EN B1ab(iii)Brignolia ambigua (Simon, 1893)DDBrignolia ratnapura Platnick et al., 2011DDBrignolia sinharaja Platnick et al., 2011 CR B2ab(iii)Brignolia trichinalis (Benoit, 1979) ?DDBrignolia nigripalpis (Simon, 1893)DDCamptoscaphiella simoni Baehr, 2010DDEpectris mollis Simon, 1907DDGamasomorpha microps Simon, 1907DDGamasomorpha subclathrata Simon, 1907DDGamasomorpha taprobanica Simon, 1893DDIschnothyreus bipartitus Simon, 1893DDIschnothyreus lymphaseus Simon, 1893DDOrchestina dentifera Simon, 1893DDOrchestina manicata Simon, 1893DDOrchestina pilifera Dalmas, 1916DDOrchestina tubifera Simon, 1893DDXestaspis sublaevis Simon, 1893DDLCDDDDDDDDNT49

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaFamily: OxyopidaeOxyopes ceylonicus Karsch, 1891DDOxyopes daksina Sherriffs, 1955DDOxyopes hindostanicus Pocock, 1901DDOxyopes javanus Thorell, 1887E: White-Striped Lynx Spider; S:Sudu Iri Lynx makuluwaLCOxyopes juvencus Strand, 1907DDOxyopes macilentus L. Koch, 1878E: Yellow-Striped Lynx Spider; S:Kaha Iri Lynx makuluwaLCOxyopes nilgiricus Sherriffs, 1955DDOxyopes rufisternis Pocock, 1901DDPeucetia (cf)thalassina (Koch, 1846)DDPeucetia viridana (Stoliczka, 1869)E: Green Lynx Spider; S: Kola LynxmakuluwaCR B2ab(iii)Family: PalpimanidaeSteriphopus macleayi (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873)DDFamily: PhilodromidaeGephyrota virescens (Simon, 1906)DDTibellus vitilis Simon, 1906DDFamily: PholcidaeArtema atlanta Walckenaer, 1837DDBelisana benjamini Huber, 2005DDBelisana keyti Huber, 2005DDBelisana ratnapura Huber, 2005DDCrossopriza lyoni (Blackwall, 1867)DDHolocneminus multiguttatus (Simon, 1905)DDLeptopholcus podophthalmus (Simon, 1893)DDMicropholcus fauroti (Simon, 1887)DDModisimus culicinus (Simon, 1893)DDPholcus (cf)opilionoides (Schrank, 1781)DDPholcus fragillimus Strand, 1907DDSihala ceylonicus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) EN B1+2ab(iii)Smeringopus pallidus (Blackwall, 1858)DDWanniyala agrabopath Huber & Benjamin, 2005 CR B1+2ab(iii)Wanniyala hakgala Huber & Benjamin, 2005 EN B1+2ab(iii)Family: PisauridaeDolomedes boiei (Doleschall, 1859)DDDolomedes karschi Strand, 1913DDPerenethis sindica (Simon, 1897)DDPerenethis venusta L. Koch, 1878DDNilus albocinctus (Doleschall, 1859)DDFamily: PsechridaeFecenia macilenta (Simon, 1885) EN B1ab(iii)Fecenia travancoria Pocock, 1899DDPsechrus torvus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869)LCFamily: SalticidaeAelurillus kronestedti Azarkina, 2004DD50

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaAelurillus quadrimaculatus Simon, 1889Asemonea tenuipes (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) CR B2ab(iii)Ballus segmentatus Simon, 1900Ballus sellatus Simon, 1900Bianor angulosus (Karsch, 1879)Brettus adonis Simon, 1900Carrhotus taprobanicus Simon, 1902Carrhotus viduus (C. L. Koch, 1846)Chrysilla lauta Thorell, 1887 E: Elegant Golden Jumper EN B1+2ab(iii)Colaxes horton Benjamin, 2004Colaxes wanlessi Benjamin, 2004Cosmophasis olorina (Simon, 1901)Curubis annulata Simon, 1902Curubis erratica Simon, 1902Curubis tetrica Simon, 1902Epidelaxia albocruciata Simon, 1902Epidelaxia albostellata Simon, 1902Epidelaxia obscura Simon, 1902Epocilla aurantiaca (Simon, 1885)Euophrys declivis Karsch, 1879Euryattus bleekeri (Doleschall, 1859)Euryattus breviusculus (Simon, 1902)Evarcha cancellata (Simon, 1902)Evarcha flavocincta (C. L. Koch, 1846) E: Horned Grass Jumper EN B1+2ab(iii)Flacillula lubrica (Simon, 1901)Gelotia lanka Wijesinghe, 1991Harmochirus brachiatus (Thorell, 1877)Hasarius [arcigerus] Karsch, 1891Hasarius adansoni (Audouin, 1826) E: Adanson’s House Jumper LCHispo bipartita Simon, 1903Hyllus semicupreus (Simon, 1885)Icius [discatus] Karsch, 1891Irura pulchra Peckham & Peckham, 1901Maevia [roseolimbata] Hasselt, 1893Marengo crassipes Peckham & Peckham, 1892Marengo inornata (Simon, 1900)Marengo nitida (Simon, 1900) EN B1+2ab(iii)Marengo rattotensis Benjamin, 2006 CR B2ab(iii)Marengo striatipes (Simon, 1900)Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831)Menemerus fulvus (L. Koch, 1878)Modunda aeneiceps Simon, 1901Myrmarachne bicurvata (O. P.-Cambridge,1869)E: Common House Jumper; S: PoduNiwes makuluwaE: Grey house Jumper; S: Alu NiwesmakuluwaDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDNTDDDDDDDDDDDDLCLCDDDD51

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaMyrmarachne imbellis (Peckham & Peckham,1892)DDMyrmarachne maxillosa (C. L. Koch, 1846)E: Giant Ant-like Jumper; S: Kalu kadimakuluwaNTMyrmarachne melanocephala MacLeay, 1839 S: Sipi makuluwa LCMyrmarachne plataleoides (O. P.-Cambridge,1869)Myrmarachne prava (Karsch, 1880)Myrmarachne spissa (Peckham & Peckham,1892)E: Kerengga/Red ant like Jumper;S: Dimi makuluwaOnomastus nigricaudus Simon, 1900 CR B2ab(iii)Onomastus pethiyagodai Benjamin, 2010 CR B2ab(iii)Onomastus quinquenotatus Simon, 1900 CR B2ab(iii)Onomastus rattotensis Benjamin, 2010 CR B2ab(iii)Panachraesta paludosa Simon, 1900DDPanysinus semiermis Simon, 1902DDPhaeacius wanlessi Wijesinghe, 1991LCPhausina bivittata Simon, 1902DDPhausina flavofrenata Simon, 1902DDPhausina guttipes Simon, 1902DDPhintella bifurcilinea (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906)DDPhintella multimaculata (Simon, 1901)DDPhintella vittata (C. L. Koch, 1846)E: Banded Phintella; S: Wayiram kuruPinum makuluwaLCPhintella volupe (Karsch, 1879)DDPhyaces comosus Simon, 1902DDPlexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826)E: Larger Housefly catcher;S: Yoda Makulu masimaaraNTPlexippus petersi (Karsch, 1878)E: Common Housefly catcher;S: Makulu masimaaraLCPlexippus redimitus Simon, 1902DDPortia albimana (Simon, 1900)DDPortia fimbriata (Doleschall, 1859)DDPortia labiata (Thorell, 1887)E: White-mustached Portia;S: Sudu rewulathi Pinum makuluwaNTPtocasius fulvonitens Simon, 1902DDRhene [tamula] (Karsch, 1879)DDRhene albigera (C. L. Koch, 1846)LCRhene flavicomans Simon, 1902DDSaitis chaperi Simon, 1885DDSigytes paradisiacus Simon, 1902DDSiler semiglaucus (Simon, 1901)E: Red and Blue Tiny Jumper;S: Nil Visithuru Pinum MakuluwaLCSimaetha cingulata (Karsch, 1891)DDSimaetha laminata (Karsch, 1891)DDSimaetha reducta (Karsch, 1891)DDSpartaeus spinimanus (Thorell, 1878)E: Spiny-legged Jumper;S: Katupa Pinum makuluwaLCStagetillus taprobanicus (Simon, 1902)DDLCDDDD52

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaStergusa aurata Simon, 1902DDStergusa aurichalcea Simon, 1902DDStergusa stelligera Simon, 1902DDTamigalesus munnaricus Zabka, 1988DDTelamonia dimidiata (Simon, 1899)E: Two-striped Telamonia;S: Yoda deiri Pinum makuluwaLCTelamonia sponsa (Simon, 1902)DDThiania bhamoensis Thorell, 1887E: Fighting Spider;S: Pora pinum makuluwaCR B2ab(iii)Thiania bhamoensis Thorell, 1887DDThiania pulcherrima C. L. Koch, 1846DDThyene imperialis (Rossi, 1846) CR B2ab(iii)Thyene concinna (Keyserling, 1881)DDUroballus henicurus Simon, 1902DDUroballus octovittatus Simon, 1902DDViciria polysticta Simon, 1902DDFamily: ScytodidaeScytodes fusca Walckenaer, 1837DDScytodes lugubris (Thorell, 1887)LCScytodes venusta (Thorell, 1890)DDFamily: SegestriidaeAriadna oreades Simon, 1906DDAriadna taprobanica Simon, 1906DDFamily: SelenopidaeSelenops radiatus Latreille, 1819DDFamily: SicariidaeLoxosceles rufescens (Dufour, 1820)DDFamily: SparassidaeHeteropoda eluta Karsch, 1891DDHeteropoda kandiana Pocock, 1899DDHeteropoda leprosa Simon, 1884Heteropoda subtilis Karsch, 1891Heteropoda thoracica (C. L. Koch, 1845)Heteropoda umbrata Karsch, 1891Heteropoda venatoria (Linnaeus, 1767)Olios ceylonicus (Leardi, 1902)Olios greeni (Pocock, 1901)Olios hirtus (Karsch, 1879)Olios lamarcki (Latreille, 1806)E: Domestic Huntsman Spider; S:Pulun kotta makuluwaOlios milleti (Pocock, 1901)E: Common Green Huntsman Spider;S: Podu kola DahagannaLCOlios punctipes Simon, 1884 CR B2ab(iii)Olios senilis Simon, 1880DDPandercetes decipiens Pocock, 1899DDPandercetes plumipes (Doleschall, 1859)DDRhitymna occidentalis Jäger, 2003DDDDDDDDDDLCDDDDDDDD53

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaSpariolenus taprobanicus (Walckenaer, 1837)Stasina nalandica Karsch, 1891Stasina paripes (Karsch, 1879)Thelcticopis hercules Pocock, 1901Family: StenochilidaeStenochilus crocatus Simon, 1884DDFamily: TetrablemmidaeBrignoliella ratnapura Shear, 1988DDBrignoliella scrobiculata (Simon, 1893)DDGunasekara ramboda Lehtinen, 1981DDPahanga diyaluma Lehtinen, 1981DDShearella lilawati Lehtinen, 1981DDShearella selvarani Lehtinen, 1981DDTetrablemma medioculatum O. P.-Cambridge,1873DDFamily: TetragnathidaeAtelidea spinosa Simon, 1895 EN B1+2ab(iii)Dolichognatha albida (Simon, 1895)DDDolichognatha incanescens (Simon, 1895)DDDolichognatha nietneri O. P.-Cambridge, 1869DDDolichognatha quinquemucronata (Simon,1895)DDDyschiriognatha dentata Zhu & Wen, 1978DDGuizygiella melanocrania (Thorell, 1887) CR B2ab(iii)Leucauge argentata (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869)DDLeucauge celebesiana (Walckenaer, 1841)DDLeucauge decorata (Blackwall, 1864)E: Decorative Leucauge; S: KolaVisithuru digu hanuka makuluwaLCLeucauge ditissima (Thorell, 1887)DDLeucauge lamperti Strand, 1907DDLeucauge undulata (Vinson, 1863)DDOpadometa fastigata (Simon, 1877)E: Pear-Shaped Leucauge; S: Bathikdigu hanuka makuluwaLCSchenkeliella spinosa (O. P.-Cambridge, 1870)DDTetragnatha armata Karsch, 1891DDTetragnatha mandibulata Walckenaer, 1841DDTetragnatha maxillosa Thorell, 1895DDTetragnatha determinata Karsch, 1891DDTetragnatha foveata Karsch, 1891DDTetragnatha geniculata Karsch, 1891DDTetragnatha gracilis (Bryant, 1923)DDTetragnatha planata Karsch, 1891DDTetragnatha tenera Thorell, 1881DDTetragnatha virescens Okuma, 1979DDTetragnatha viridorufa Gravely, 1921E: Common Long-jawed Orb weaver;S: Podu digu hanuka makuluwaLCTylorida culta (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869)DDDDDDDDDD54

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaTylorida striata (Thorell, 1877) E: Striated Tylorida CR B2ab(iii)Tylorida ventralis (Thorell, 1877)Family: TheraphosidaeChilobrachys nitelinus Karsch, 1891 EN B1ab(iii)Plesiophrictus tenuipes Pocock, 1899DDPoecilotheria fasciata (Latreille, 1804)E: Lemon Leg Tiger Spider; S: Thadakaha iri padathi divimakuluwa/ YakshaEN B2ab(iii)divimakuluwaPoecilotheria ornata Pocock, 1899E: Ornate Tiger Spider; S: Kaha iripadathi divimakuluwaEN B2ab(iii)Poecilotheria pederseni Kirk, 2001E: Pederseni's Tiger Spider, HambanthotaTiger Spider; S: Pedarsanige EN B2ab(iii)DiwimakuluwaPoecilotheria smithi Kirk, 1996E: Smithi's Tiger Spider; S: SmithigeDiwimakuluwaCR B2ab(iii)Poecilotheria subfusca Pocock, 1895E: Ivory Birdeating Tiger Spider;S: Eth dala pahe iri padathi divimakuluwaEN B1+2ab(iii)Family: TheridiidaeArgyrodes argentatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880DDArgyrodes fissifrons O. P.-Cambridge, 1869DDArgyrodes flavescens O. P.-Cambridge, 1880E: Red and silver dew drop spider;S: Rathu ridee pinibidu makuluwaNTArgyrodes nasutus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880DDArgyrodes scintillulanus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880DDAriamnes pavesii Leardi, 1902DDCephalobares globiceps O. P.-Cambridge, 1870DDChrysso nigra (O. P.-Cambridge, 1880)E: Cat’s eye Spider; S: Balal aesmakuluwaEN B1+2ab(iii)Chrysso spiniventris (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869) EN B1ab(iii)Coleosoma blandum O. P.-Cambridge, 1882DDCoscinida gentilis Simon, 1895DDCoscinida novemnotata Simon, 1895DDCoscinida triangulifera Simon, 1904DDDipoena sertata (Simon, 1895)DDEmertonella taczanowskii (Keyserling, 1886)DDEnoplognatha oreophila (Simon, 1894)DDEuryopis brevis(Cambridge, 1870)DDEuryopis episinoides (Walckenaer, 1847) CR B2ab(iii)Janula taprobanicus (Simon, 1895)DDKochiura aulica (C. L. Koch, 1838)DDLatrodectus erythromelas Schmidt & Klaas,1991DDLatrodectus hasselti Thorell, 1870 E: Red-back Spider CR B2ab(iii)Molione trispinosa (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873)DDMoneta spinigera O. P.-Cambridge, 1870DDNesticodes rufipes (Lucas, 1846)DDParasteatoda tepidariorum (C. L. Koch, 1841)DDParasteatoda mundula (L. Koch, 1872) E: Comb-footed Platform Spider EN B1+2ab(iii)Parasteatoda tepidariorum (C. L. Koch, 1841)DD55DD

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaPhoroncidia nasuta (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873)Phoroncidia septemaculeata O. P.-Cambridge,1873DDPhoroncidia testudo (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873)DDPhoroncidia thwaitesi O. P.-Cambridge, 1869DDPhycosoma spundana (Roberts, 1978) EN B1+2ab(iii)Platnickina mneon (Bösenberg & Strand, 1906) CR B2ab(iii)Propostira quadrangulata Simon, 1894DDSteatoda rufoannulata (Simon, 1899)DDTaphiassa punctigera Simon, 1895DDTheridion albomaculosum O. P.-Cambridge,1869DDTheridion ceylonicus Dunlop & Jekel, 2009DDTheridion gabardi Simon, 1895DDTheridion modestum (Simon, 1894)DDTheridion nilgherinum Simon, 1905DDTheridion nodiferum Simon, 1895DDTheridion quadratum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1882)DDTheridion teliferum Simon, 1895DDTheridula gonygaster (Simon, 1873) E: Cobweb Spider EN B1ab(iii)Theridula opulenta (Walckenaer, 1841)DDThwaitesia margaritifera O. P.-Cambridge, 1881DDFamily: TheridiosomatidaeAndasta semiargentea Simon, 1895DDOgulnius pullus Bösenberg & Strand, 1906DDTheridiosoma genevensium (Brignoli, 1972)DDFamily: ThomisidaeAmyciae forticeps (O. P.-Cambridge, 1873)LCAscurisoma striatipes (Simon, 1897)DDBoliscus decipiens O. P.-Cambridge, 1899DDBorboropactus asper (O. P.-Cambridge, 1884)DDCamaricus formosus Thorell, 1887DDCymbacha simplex Simon, 1895DDDiaea placata O. P.-Cambridge, 1899DDEpidius longipalpis Thorell, 1877DDEpidius parvati Benjamin, 2000DDHolopelus piger O. P.-Cambridge, 1899DDIndoxysticus minutus (Tikader, 1960) CR B2ab(iii)Lysiteles catulus Simon, 1895DDMonaeses attenuatus O. P.-Cambridge, 1899DDMonaeses cinerascens (Thorell, 1887)DDMonaeses greeni O. P.-Cambridge, 1899DDOxytate subvirens (Strand, 1907)E: Sri Lanka Elongated Green CrabSpider; S: Digu kola kakulu makuluwaNTOxytate taprobane Benjamin, 2001 CR B1+2ab(iii)Pagida salticiformis (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883)DDDD56

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaPeritraeus hystrix Simon, 1895DDPhrynarachne ceylonica (O. P.-Cambridge,1884)DDPhrynarachne decipiens (Forbes, 1883) CR B2ab(iii)Phrynarachne fatalis O. P.-Cambridge, 1899DDPhrynarachne rothschildi Pocock & Rothschild,1903DDRuncinia bifrons (Simon, 1895)DDStiphropus sigillatus (O. P.-Cambridge, 1883)DDTagulis mystacinus Simon, 1895DDTalaus oblitus O. P.-Cambridge, 1899DDTarrocanus capra Simon, 1895DDThomisus callidus (Thorell, 1890)DDThomisus elongatus Stoliczka, 1869DDThomisus granulifrons Simon, 1906DDThomisus pugilis Stoliczka, 1869DDThomisus spectabilis Doleschall, 1859DDThomisus stoliczkai (Thorell, 1887)DDTmarus fasciolatus Simon, 1906DDTmarus taiwanus Ono, 1977 CR B2ab(iii)Family: TitanoecidaePandava laminata (Thorell, 1878)DDFamily: UloboridaeHyptiotes analis Simon, 1892DDMiagrammopes ferdinandi O. P.-Cambridge,1870DDMiagrammopes thwaitesi O. P.-Cambridge, 1870DDUloborus bigibbosus Simon, 1905DDUloborus umboniger Kulczyn'ski, 1908*DDZosis geniculata (Olivier, 1789)E: Grey house Spider/ Commonhouse cribellate orb weaver; S: Podu LCpeeru dal viyannaFamily: ZodariidaeCryptothele ceylonica O. P.-Cambridge, 1877DDHabronestes bradleyi (O. P.-Cambridge, 1869)DDHermippus cruciatus Simon, 1905DDSuffasia attidiya Benjamin & Jocqué, 2000 CR B2ab(iiii)Suffasia mahasumana Benjamin & Jocqué,2000DDFamily: ZorocratidaeCampostichomma manicatum Karsch, 1891DDFamily: ZoropsidaeDevendra pardalis (Simon, 1898)DDDevendra pumilus (Simon, 1898)DDDevendra seriatus (Simon, 1898)DD57

Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Freshwater Crabs(Crustacea: Decapoda) in Sri LankaM. M. Bahir and D. E. GabadageTaprobanica Nature Conservation Society, 150/6 Stanley Thilakaratne Mawatha, NugegodaIntroductionThe exploration of Sri Lanka’s freshwater crabs began 132 years ago with the descriptionin 1880 of Thelphusa [Perbrinckia] enodis and Thelphusa [Ceylonthelphusa] rugosa by theAmerican zoologist, J. S. Kingsley. This was followed by several studies by Rathbun, (1904)Roux (1915) and Fernando (1960). The first revision of the freshwater crab fauna of Sri Lankawas carried out by Bott in 1970. A resurgence in the research interest on Sri Lanka’s freshwatercrabs was observed in 1990’s following a joint exploration carried out by the National Universityof Singapore and the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka (Ng, 1994, 1995a, 1995b; Bahir,1998, 1999; Ng & Tay, 2001; Bahir & Ng, 2005; Bahir & Yeo, 2005).Up to 1994, only eight valid species of freshwater crabs belonging to four genera were recognizedfrom Sri Lanka. The extensive exploration work carried out by the National University of Singaporeand the Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka resulted in the discovery of many new species andgenera of freshwater crabs taking the total number of species to 51 and genera to 7. Based onthe present state of knowledge of the peninsular Indian carcinofauna (Bossuyt et al., 2004; Bahir& Yeo, 2005), 50 Sri Lankan freshwater-crab species and five of the genera (Ceylonthelphusa,Perbrinckia, Mahatha, Clinothelphusa and Pastilla) are endemic to Sri Lanka while the twolowland genera, Oziothelphusa and Spiralothelphusa, are shared with southern India. All the SriLankan freshwater crabs belong to a single family, Gecarcinucidae.DistributionSri Lanka supports a rich freshwater crab assemblage in comparison with other similar, wellstudiedtropical Asian countries such as Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, which togetherhave a territory about twice the extent of Sri Lanka, and yet about the same number offreshwater crab species (Ng, 1988), while Taiwan which is about little over half the size of SriLanka (36,000 km 2 ) has 34 species (Ng et al., 2001). Another unique feature of Sri Lankanfreshwater crabs is that they show 98.04% endemicity which has not been observed in anyother faunal group in Sri Lanka.Nearly half the freshwater crabs known to date (23 species) are point endemics, renderingthem extremely vulnerable to habitat loss, degradation and stochastic events. The reason asto why freshwater crabs show such a highly restricted distribution is unclear. However, thisphenomenon has been observed to a lesser extent in other taxa with low mobility such asamphibians and reptiles as well. Out of the 51 known species of freshwater crabs 41 (80%) arerestricted to the wet zone. Only 4.6% of the wet zone (800 km 2 ) now contains natural forest.The wet zone of Sri Lanka also has a very high population density (700 per km 2 ) one of thehighest population densities observed in all of the global biodiversity hotspots of the world(Cincotta et al., 2000). Therefore, conserving freshwater crabs in such a human-dominatedlandscape is going to be a challenging task.58

ThreatsSri Lanka’s aquatic habitats are threatened by invasive alien species. Further, influx of fertilizerand pesticides, local climate change (Schaefer, 1998), rainwater acidification and increasederosion leading to sedimentation of water bodies can be sited as other major threats on thehabitats of the freshwater crabs. The water yield in the freshwater systems is also influencedto a great extent by the loss of forest cover due to encroachment and illegal timber extraction.Pesticides are key pollutants of many aquatic systems as these substances are freely andwidely used in Sri Lanka. Regulation presently addresses only human safety issues, and notimpacts on other non-target organisms or the environment in general (Anon., 1980). Sincenearly half the freshwater crab species (24) of Sri Lanka are restricted to montane andsub-montane habitats, poor sloping-land management and unwise land-use change in thehighlands continues to be a serious problem (Hewawasam et al., 2003). An estimated 292MT ha -1 yr -1 of topsoil is lost to erosion from these lands, degrading habitats and increasingsilt loads in streams and rivers (ADB, 2003). A handful of freshwater-crab species have widedistributions and are clearly tolerant of land-use change, given that they persist in rice fields (e.g.Oziothelphusa spp.) and tea plantations (e.g. Ceylonthelphusa rugosa and Ceylonthelphusasoror). Even such species, however, could suffer catastrophic declines as a result of changesin the hydrology or pesticide-use regimes.ConservationGiven the fact that most of the freshwater crabs have been discovered over the last twodecades and they are poorly represented in museum collections, there is no reliable historicalbaseline against which to judge trends in distributions or population changes. Therefore it isnot possible to ascertain whether there have been any recent extinctions in the freshwatercrab fauna as has been recorded for flowering plants (~ 130 species: Dassanayake et al.,1980–2004); amphibians (19 species: Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005; Stuartet al., 2004; Meegaskumbura et al., 2012; Wickramasinghe et al., 2012); and freshwater fish (2species: Pethiyagoda, 1994). However, according to the outcome of the current conservationstatus review of the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka, nearly 90% of the freshwater crabs in SriLanka are globally threatened with 66% being listed under the critically endangered category.Thus, conservation of the entire freshwater crab fauna of Sri Lanka, given its remarkablediversity, richness and endemism, is a matter of the highest priority. The urgency to takeappropriate conservation action is more so given the fact that freshwater crabs are not targetedfor exploitation in Sri Lanka and yet a high proportion of them are globally threatened. It is notclear whether the exceedingly small populations seen in many species of crabs are a naturalphenomenon or have resulted due to a sudden decline. Further, it is not known whether thefreshwater crabs naturally have a severely restricted distribution, resulting in the extremelysmall extents of occurrence that is observed for nearly 90% of the crabs in Sri Lanka or thissituation has resulted due to habitat loss or some other driver operating on this taxa.As very little is known about the ecology of the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka, it is prudentto take the precautionary approach when determining strategies for conserving this fauna.Therefore, the conservation assessment made here should be accepted at face value, andrecovery strategies devised accordingly, until more data become available to support theconclusion that each threatened species is in fact secure.59

Nearly 80% of the known crab species of Sri Lanka are restricted to the wet zone where 95%of the forest cover has been converted for human use during the last century. The remainingforests are also severely fragmented with three fragments (Knuckles, Sinharaja and PeakWilderness) accounting for half of the remaining forest cover and the balance are contained in> 100 fragments of varying size. Studies done in Brazil (Bierregaard et al., 2001; Ferraz et al.,2003) have shown that extreme rainforest fragmentation could lead to catastrophic declinesand extinction of species within a short period of time. Therefore, the long-term security of SriLanka’s biodiversity will depend on minimizing fragmentation impacts through effective landuseplanning and restoration initiatives while maximizing habitat connectivity between forestsites. Such goals can be met only through a policy framework built on sound scientific data,implemented through sustained, long-term financing mechanisms.Given the fact that conservation of freshwater crabs hinges almost entirely on preservingpatches of natural forest large enough to maintain good water quality, it is of concern that waterquality is deteriorating even in key natural habitats (Gunawardena et al., 1998). Many freshwatercrabs are extremely sensitive to polluted or silted waters and will not survive when exposed tothese factors. In Singapore for example, the small patch of primary forest of Bukit Timah Hill(~70 ha) has been sufficient to maintain a thriving population of the endemic potamid Johorasingaporensis (Ng, 1988; 1989; 1990). The same is also true for Parathelphusa reticulata,which is known to occur in only a small remnant patch of peat-swamp forest patch of less thanfive hectares (Ng, 1989; 1990). Decade-long monitoring of these populations demonstratesthat crab species will persist even in small habitat fragments if these are managed well, thoughexposed to extirpation by stochastic events (Brook et al., 2003).Recommended conservation actionsThe fact that exploration carried out during the last two decades alone has resulted in thedescription of 43 new species, provide strong support for the necessity of a national freshwatercrab survey, leading to a gap analysis and the identification of key habitats for conservationattention. It is also necessary to closely monitor at least the Critically Endangered species,especially to detect actions that could alter habitat, so that these could be treated before theyimpact on the population involved. Further, as discussed above, the long term conservation offreshwater crabs depends heavily on maintaining water quality of their habitat. Since one ofthe key drivers of freshwater habitat change is pesticides, it should become mandatory for allpesticides be assessed for impact on non-target organisms and the environment in general, andthe labeling of such products should include information on environmental safeguards beforebeing approved for use within Sri Lanka. Many of the freshwater crabs occur outside the protectedarea network in private lands (e.g. Perbrinckia armata, Perbrinckia callista and Clinothelphusakakoota). Therefore, introducing legal and institutional reforms necessary to engage localcommunities in the in situ conservation of point-endemic freshwater crabs is an important step. Atthe same time it is necessary to establish an ex situ management programme to maintain captivepopulations of at least the Critically Endangered species. Finally, lack of information on many ofthe freshwater crab species signifies the need for promoting further research and awarenesson this unique taxonomic group. Therefore, developing a user-friendly guide for identificationof freshwater crabs and conducting education and awareness programmes for school children,university students, policy makers and the civil society are also identified as key elements of asuccessful campaign to conserve the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka.60

ReferencesADB, (2003). Sri Lanka: environmental statistics [pdf]Available at: Anonymous, (1980). Control of Pesticides Act. Colombo: Government Publications Bureau.Bahir, M. M., (1998). Three new species of montane crabs of the genus Perbrinckia (Crustacea, Parathelphusidae)from the central mountains of Sri Lanka. Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3, pp.197–212.Bahir, M. M., (1999). Description of three new species of freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parathelphusidae:Ceylonthelphusa) from the south-western rain forests of Sri Lanka. Journal of South Asian Natural History, 4,pp.117–132.Bahir, M. M. & Ng, P. K. L., (2005). Description of ten new species of freshwater crabs (Parathelphusidae:Ceylonthelphusa, Mahatha, Perbrinckia) from Sri Lanka. In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda, eds.2005. Contributions to Biodiversity Exploration and Research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology,Supplement, 12, pp.47–75.Bahir, M. M. & Yeo, D. C. J., (2005). A revision of the genus Oziotelphusa Müller, 1887 (Crustacea: Decapoda:Parathelphusidae), with descriptions of eight new species In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda, eds.2005. Contributions to Biodiversity Exploration and Research in Sri Lanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology,Supplement, 12, pp.77–120.Bierregaard, R. O., Gascon, C., Lovejoy T. E. & Masquita, R., (2001). Lessons from Amazonia: the ecology andconservation of a fragmented forest. New Haven: Yale University Press.Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D. J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A.,Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M. M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P. K. L., Schneider, C. J., Oommen, O. V. &Milinkovitch, M. C., (2004). Local endemism within the Western Ghats–Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot. Science,306(5695), pp.479–481.Bott, R., (1970). Die Süßwasserkrabben von Ceylon. Arkiv för Zoologi, 22, pp.627–640.Brook, B. W., Sodhi, N. S. & Ng, P. K. L., (2003). Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature,424, pp.420–423.Cincotta, R. P., Wisnewski, J. & Engelman, R., (2000). Human populations in the biodiversity hotspots. Nature, 404,pp.990–992.Dassanayake, M. D., Fossberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. eds., (1980–2004). A revised handbook to the flora ofCeylon. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.Fernando, C. H., (1960). The Ceylonese Freshwater Crabs (Potamonidae). Ceylon Journal of Science (BiologicalSciences), 3(2), pp.191–222.Ferraz, G., Russel, G. J., Stouffer, P. C., Bierregaard, R. O., Pimm, S. L. & Lovejoy, T. E., (2003). Rates of speciesloss from Amazonian forest fragments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, pp.14069–14073.Gunawardena, E. R. N., Rajapakshe, U., Nandasena, K. A. & Rosier, P. T. W., (1998). Water quality issues inthe uplands of Sri Lanka. In: H.P.M. Gunasena, ed., 1998. Proceedings of the final workshop: University ofPeradeniya— Oxford Forestry Institute Link Project. Peradeniya: Faculty of Agriculture, Univ. Peradeniya, pp.37–44.Hewawasam, T., von Blanckenburg, F., Schaller M. & Kubik, P., (2003). Increase of human over natural erosionrates in tropical highlands constrained by cosmogenic nuclides. Geology, 31(7), pp.597–600.Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2005). The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus PhilautusmGistel, 1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae), with description of 27 new species. In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng &R. Pethiyagoda, eds., 2005. Contributions to biodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka. The RafflesBulletin of Zoology, Supplement, 12, pp.5–145.Meegaskumbura, M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Bowatte, G. & Meegaskumbura, S., (2012). Rediscovery ofPseudophilautus semiruber, a diminutive shrub frog (Rhacophoridae: Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka.Zootaxa, 3229, 58-68.Ng, P. K. L., (1988). The freshwater crabs of peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Singapore: Department Zoology,National University of Singapore.Ng, P. K. L., (1989). Endemic freshwater crabs in Singapore: discovery, speciation and conservation. SingaporeInstitute of Biology Bulletin, 13, pp.4551.Ng, P. K. L., (1990). Endemic freshwater crabs and prawns of Singapore. In: L. M. Chou & P. K. L. Ng, eds., 1990.Essays in Zoology. Singapore: Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore. pp. 189–204.Ng, P. K. L., (1994). A note on the freshwater crabs of the genus Spiralothelphusa Bott, 1968 (Crustacea: Decapoda:Brachyura: Parathelphusidae), with description of a new species from Sri Lanka. Journal South Asian NaturalHistory, 1(1), pp.27–30.61

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Table 06: List of Freshwater Crabs in Sri LankaScientific NameFamily: GecarcinucidaeCommonName NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCeylonthelphusa alpina Bahir &Yeo, 2005 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa armata(Ng, 1993) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa callista(Ng, 1995) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa cavatrix(Bahir, 1998) CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa diva Bahir &Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa durrelli Bahir &Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa kandambyiBahir, 1999 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) NTCeylonthelphusa kotagama(Bahir, 1998) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa nata Ng & Tay,2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa orthos Ng &Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa rugosa(Kingsley, 1880) NT LCCeylonthelphusa sanguinea(Ng, 1995) CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa savitriae Bahir &Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Ceylonthelphusa sentosa Bahir ,1999 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCCeylonthelphusa soror(Zehntner,1894) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCCeylonthelphusa venusta(Ng,1995) CR B2ab(iii) NTClinothelphusa kakoota Tay & Ng,2001 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)Mahatha adonis Ng & Tay, 2001 NT LCMahatha helaya Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Mahatha iora Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)Mahatha lacuna Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Mahatha ornatipes (Roux,1915) NT LCMahatha regina Bahir & Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Oziothelphusa ceylonensis (Fernando,1960) NT LCOziothelphusa dakuna Bahir &Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)Oziothelphusa gallicola Bahir &Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)63

Scientific NameCommonName NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaOziothelphusa hippocastanum(Muller, 1887) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VUOziothelphusa intuta Bahir & Yeo,2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Oziothelphusa kodagoda Bahir &Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Oziothelphusa mineriyaensisBott,1970 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCOziothelphusa populosa Bahir &Yeo, 2005 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)Oziothelphusa ritigala Bahir &Yeo, 2005 EN B1ab(iii) VU D2Oziothelphusa stricta Ng & Tay,2001 NT VU B1ab(iii)Pastilla ruhuna Ng & Tay, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia cracens Ng,1995 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia enodis Kingsley,1880 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia fenestra Bahir & Yeo,2005 CR B2ab(iii) VU D2Perbrinckia fido Bahir, 2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia gabadagei Bahir &Yeo, 2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia glabra Ng, 1995 CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia integra Ng, 1995 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VU D2Perbrinckia morayensis Ng & Tay,2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia nana (Bahir,1999) EN B1ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia punctata Ng, 1995“Pulli PathanKakuluwa” CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia quadratus Ng & Tay,2001 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia rosae Bahir & Yeo,2005 CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Perbrinckia scitula Ng, 1995 CR B2ab(iii) LCPerbrinckia uva Bahir,1998 CR B2ab(iii)Spiralothelphusa fernando Ng,1994 EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)Spiralothelphusa parvula(Fenando,1961) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)Perbrinckia scansor (Ng, 1995) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LC64

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Land snails in Sri Lanka:K. B. Ranawana 1 and T. G. M. Priyadarshana 21Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya210/8 Theleawala Road, Mount LaviniaIntroductionMolluscs (snails and slugs) are the second most diverse animal phyla after arthropods (Solem,1981; Emberton et al., 1997). Majority of the molluscs are aquatic (marine and freshwater),whereas only 25% comprise of terrestrial species (Emberton et al., 1997). Class Gastropodais the largest class of mollusks, which is considered as the most successful of all molluscanclasses and they have colonized a wide range of habitats including land, freshwater andmarine environments. Prosobranchia, Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata are the three majorsubclasses of class Gastropoda. Majority of Opisthobranchs are marine inhabitants. Molluscsare important elements in the studies on mechanisms of evolution and examining the effects ofecology on evolutionary change (Crampton, 1932; Cain and Sheppard 1950; Cain and Currey,1963; Cowie, 1992; Johnson et al., 1993). Their low vagility also makes them suitable asindicators for biogeographical studies of early tectonic events (Solem, 1981). Due to their lowmobility, land snails have become models for studying the effects of pesticides and influenceof the activities of man in altering the environment.Of the 253 species of land snails recorded from the country, 166 species belong to Sub classPulmonata and is represented by 28 families. The remaining 87 species belong to the subclassProsobranchia, which is represented by four families. This indicates that the pulmonate groupdominates land snails in Sri Lanka. The families Ariophantidae (mainly Cryptozona andEuplecta) with 50 species and Glessulidae (22 species) are the largest pulmonate familiesfound in the country. Cyclophoridae (54 species) is the largest Prosobranch family.TaxonomyTaxonomic status of some of the land snail groups in Sri Lanka needs to be thoroughly revised.For instance ‘Digoniaxis’ cingalensis (Benson 1863) was described from a single specimencollected by Edgar Layard close to Matale, North of Kandy, Sri Lanka. The taxonomic status of D.cingalensis remains a mystery because the type species of the genus Digoniaxis Jousseaume,1894 was found on a beach near Aden, Yemen, which proves to be a marine pyramidellid.DistributionA significant portion of Sri Lankan snail fauna consists of Gondwana relicts, with origins datingback prior to the breakup of the southern super-continent over 100 million years ago (Naggset al., 2003). Sri Lankan land snails are considered as the most distinct in the South AsianRegion, despite their faunistic affinities with the Indian mainland (Naggs et al., 2003). Speciesrichness and endemicity are high among Sri Lankan land snails (Naggs et al., 2003). Of the253 species of land snails recorded from the country, majority (205 species, approximately81%) are categorized as endemic according to the current available data. Further five landsnail genera are considered to be endemic to Sri Lanka. These include four stylommatophoran65

pulmonates, namely Ravana, Ratnadvipia, Acavus, Oligospira and cyclophorid prosobranchAulopoma. These species show discontinued distribution and are restricted to few specifichabitats in the wet and southwestern portion of the island (Raheem, 2000).Of the land snail genera recorded from the island, 13 (Ruthvenia, Thysanota, Cryptozona,Euplecta, Mariaella, Eurychlamys, Corilla, Beddomea, Trachia, Leptopomodes, Micraulax,Tortulosa and Nicida) are restricted to Sri Lanka and Peninsular India, primarily to WesternGhats; approximately 50% of the 253 species recorded from the island belong to generaendemic to southern India and Sri Lanka. About 18 exotic land snails and slug species, mostof which are agricultural pests, have also been recorded from the country during recent studies(Naggs et al., 2003). However, this has increased up to 21 species according to the mostrecent information.Studies done by Raheem et al. (2000) and Ranawana (2005) showed that the lowland rainforestzone and the montane rainforest zone in Sri Lanka have distinctive snail faunas. The lowlandrainforest fauna is composed of a widely distributed element and a localized or restrictedrangecomponent. Widely distributed lowland rainforest species include Cryptozona chenui,Ratnadvipia irradians, Acavus phoenix, Corilla adamsi, Beddomea albizonatus aggregate andLeptopoma semiclausum. These taxa range across most or all of the forested areas of thelowland wet zone while some species such as Ratnadvipia irradians occur in both forest andnon forest habitats (Raheem et al., 2000).ThreatsMolluscs, together with other animals and plants, are facing a rapid process of extinction largelydue to human activities, and the present extinctions of species occur in time spans of lessthan ten years (Kay, 1995). Majority of the terrestrial molluscs are forest dwellers, sensitiveto habitat disturbance. Therefore, from the biodiversity conservation point of view they are ofregional and global concern (Emberton, 1995; Tattersfield et al., 2001).Habitat loss is the main threat faced by land snails in the country. Highly diverse areassuch as lowland rainforests of the wet zone of the country are highly fragmented. Groundcover of the mountain regions such as in the Knuckles Region are cleared for cardamomcultivation. Most of the land snails are leaf litter inhabitants, thus clearance of forest flooris detrimental to their survival. Vast area of land in the wet and dry zones of Sri Lanka wasinundated due to large scale dam construction for river diversion (especially the Mahaweliriver) and hydroelectric generation. These development activities cause loss of habitats, eitherminimize the area available for a species or completely wipe out a species from a locality.Frequent fires in the grasslands, scrublands and forests are detrimental to the survival of landsnails. This is evidenced by the record of very few snail species from the grasslands, whererepeated fires occurs. Use of agrochemicals is also harmful to native land snail species foundin association with human settlements. Species belonging to endemic genera such as Acavusand Ratnadvipia, found in synanthropic habitats are severely affected by agrochemicals.66

ConservationSurvival of highly diverse land snail fauna of Sri Lanka is therefore dependent on the effectiveconservation of the country’s remaining rainforest fragments in the lowland rainforests of wetzone and the montane forests as endemism is restricted to localized zones within these areas.The following recommendations are made to promote research and conservation activities ofland snails of Sri Lanka (Ranawana, 2006).Conclusions and recommendationsSome of the key recommendations include• Conduct research on the ecology and distribution of land snails of Sri Lanka, with particularemphasis on the endemic and relict taxa which in turn help to identify the land snailhotspots.• Develop plans for population restoration of endemic and relict species which are facingthe danger of extinction due to habitat loss (such as development activities and inundationof land due to dam building). The affected taxa could be translocated to suitable areashaving similar habitat conditions.• Establish strict regulation to control the entry of exotic land snails in to the country mainlythrough the import trade of vegetables and foliage plants. Attempts should be made tocontrol these exotic species as much as possible before they colonize natural forest habitatsin the country• Care should be taken to control the spread of some predatory gastropods, which hasbeen introduced to the country in early 1950s to control Lissachatina fulica. Still, individualsof predatory gastropod Eustreptaxis kibweziensis are recorded from Peradeniya,where it was first introduced. This predatory carnivore population has to be eradicatedbefore it enters the natural habitats.• Increase the awareness of village communities and school children about the importanceof land snails as an integral component of the ecosystem. The message that “not allsnails are pests” should be clearly conveyed to the general public. The role of snails inbreaking down leaf litter should be recognized.ReferencesCain, A. J. & Currey, J. D., (1963). Area effects in Cepaea. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society ofLondon. Series B, Biological Sciences, 246(726), pp.1 -81.Cain, A. J. & Sheppard. P. M., (1950). Selection of in the polymorphic land snail Cepaes nemoralis. Heridity, 4,pp.275– 294.Cowie, R. H., (1992). Variation in species diversity and shell shape in Hawaiian land snails: in situ speciation andecological relationships. Evolution, 49(6), pp.1191 – 1202.Emberton, K. C., Pearce, T. A., Kasigawa, P. F., Tattersfield, P. & Habibu, Z., (1997). High diversity and regionalendemism in land snails of eastern Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation, 6(8), pp.1123 – 1136.Emberton, K. C., (1995). Land-snail community morphologies of the highest-diversity sites of Madagascar, NorthAmerica and New Zealand, with recommended alternatives to height-diameter plots. Malacologia, 36(1 -2),pp.43 -66.Kay, E. A., (1995). Which molluscs for extinction?. In: E. A. Kay, ed. 1995. The conservation Biology of Molluscs.Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Ch. 1, pp.1-11.67

Naggs, F., Raheem, D. C., Mordan, P. B., Grimm, B., Ranawana, K. B. & Kumburegama, N. P. S., (2003).Ancient relicts and contemporary exotics: faunal change and survivorship in Sri Lanka’s snail fauna. Slugs& Snails: Agricultural, Veterinary & Environmental Perspectives. British Crop Protection Council SymposiumProceedings, 80, pp.103 - 108.Raheem, D., Butterworth, T., Inglis, C., Priyadarshana, T. G. M. & Perera, L. J. K. R., (2000). Land snail diversity inSri Lankan rainforest remnants.Ranawana, K. B., (in press). Patterns of diversity and ecology of land snails in the Knuckles region, Sri Lanka.Ranawana, K. B., (2006). Land snails in Sri Lanka. In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed., 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka:Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, SriLanka & Government of Sri Lanka. pp. 84-99.Solem, A., (1984). A world model of land snail diversity and abundance. World – wide snails. In: A. Solem & A.C. vanBruggen, eds. 1984. Biogeographical studies on none-marine Mollusca. Leiden: Brill and Backhuya, pp.6 -62.Solem, A., (1981). Land snail biogeography: a true snail’s pace of change. In: G, Nelson & D. E. Rosen, eds. 1981.Vicariance biogeography: a critique, pp.197 – 237.Tattersfield, P., Warui, C. M., Seddon, M. B. & Kiringe, J. W., (2001). Land - snail faunas of afromontane forests ofMount Kenya, Kenya: ecology, diversity and distribution patterns. Journal of Biogeography, 28(7), pp.843 -861.68

Table 07: List of Land Snails in Sri LankaAbbreviations: Scientific Name EX (Exotic)Family: PupilidaeMicrostele muscerda (Benson 1853)Pupoides coenopictus (Hutton 1834) EXFamily: VertiginidaeScientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaE: Muscerda’sMoss Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)E: CoenopictusMoss Snail NEGastrocopta mimula (Benson 1853)E: Sri LankaWhorl Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)Nesopupa cinghalensis (Guide 1914)E: Toothed WhorlSnail CR B1+2ab(iii)Pupisoma longstaffae (Godwm-Austen 1912)E: Sri LankaGrass Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)Pupisoma miccyla (Benson 1860) DDFamily: PyramidulidaePyramidula halyi (Jousseaume 1894)E: Sri Lanka RockSnail CR B1+2ab(iii)Family: BuliminidaeMirus panos (Benson 1853)E: Sr LankaLesser Bulin EN B2ab(iii)Mirus proletaria (Pfeiffer 1855) EN B1+2ab(iii)Mirus stalix (Benson 1863) EN B1+2ab(iii)Family: CerastuidaeRachis punctatus (Anton 1839) EX E: Pipe Snail NERhachistia adumbratus (Pfeiffer 1855)E: Sri lanka PipeSnail EN B1+2ab(iii)Rhachistia pulcher (Gray 1825) VU B1ab(iii)Family: EndodontidaePhilalanka circumsculpta (Sykes 1897)E: Sri LankaPhilalanka EN B1+2ab(iii)Philalanka depressa (Preston 1909) EN B2ab(iii)Philalanka edithae (Preston 1909) CR B1ab(iii)Philalanka lamcabensis (Jousseaume 1894) CR B1+2ab(iii)Philalanka liratula (Pfeiffer 1860) CR B2ab(iii)Philalanka mononema (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii)Philalanka secessa (Godwin-Austen 1898) EN B1+2ab(iii)Philalanka sinhila (Godwin-Austen 1897) CR B2ab(iii)Philalanka thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii)Philalanka trifilosa (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1ab(iii)Family: CharopidaeRuthvenia biciliata (Pfeiffer 1854)E: Sri LankaMicro Hairy RuthveniaCR B1+2ab(iii)Ruthvenia caliginosa (Sykes 1898) CR B1+2ab(iii)Ruthvenia clathratula (Pfeiffer 1850) EN B1+2ab(iii)Thysanota elegans (Preston 1909)E: Sri LankaMicro Hairy ThysanotaEN B1ab(iii)69

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaThysanota eumita (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii)Thysanota hispida (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii)Family: ClausilioidaePhaedusa ceylanica (Benson 1863)E: Sri Lanka DoorSnail EN B2ab(iii)Family: GastrodontoidaeZonitoides arboreus (Say 1816) EXE: Quick GlossGlass Snail NEFamily: OxychilidaeOxychilus alliarius (Miller, 1822) EXE: Garlic GlassSnailNEFamily: EuconulidaeEurychlamys layardi (Benson 1860)E: Sri Lanka BrilliantGranule EN B1+2ab(iii)Eurychlamys regulata (Benson 1860) EN B1+2ab(iii)Eurychlamys winifredae (Preston 1909) EN B1+2ab(iii)Family: HelicarionidaeKaliella barrakporensis (Pfeiffer 1853) EXE: Common HiveSnail NEKaliella colletti (Sykes 1899)E: Sri Lanka HiveSnail EN B1+2ab(iii)Kaliella delectabilis (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii)Kaliella leithiana (Godwin Austen 1883) EN B1+2ab(iii)Kaliella salicensis (Godwin Austen 1897) DDSivella galerus (Benson 1856) CR B2ab(iii)Sivella hyptiocyclos (Benson 1863) CR B2ab(iii)Family: AriophantidaeCryptozona bistrialis (Beck 1837)E: CommonTranslucent Snail LCCryptozona ceraria (Benson 1853)E: Sri Lanka HardTranslucent Snail VU B1ab(iii)Cryptozona chenui (Pfeiffer 1847) VU B1ab(iii)Cryptozona juliana (Gray 1834) EN B1+2ab(iii)Cryptozona novella (Pfeiffer 1855) EN B2ab(iii)Cryptozona semirugata (Beck 1837) VU B1ab(iii)Euplecta acuducta (Benson 1850)E: Glass TranslucentSnail CR B2ab(iii)Euplecta albizonata (Dohm 1858) CR B2ab(iii)Euplecta binoyaensis (Godwin Austen 1899) EN B1+2ab(iii)Euplecta colletti (Sykes 1897) EN B1+2ab(iii)Euplecta concavospira (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii)Euplecta emiliana (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii)Euplecta gardeneri (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)Euplecta hyphasma (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)Euplecta indica (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)Euplecta isabellina (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)Euplecta laevis (Blanford 1901) DDEuplecta lankaensis (Preston 1909) DD70

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaEuplecta layardi (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii)Euplecta neglecta (Preston 1909) DDEuplecta partita (Pfeiffer 1854) NTEuplecta phidias (Hanley & Theobald 1897) CR B1+2ab(iii)Euplecta prestoni (Godwin-Austen 1897) CR B1ab(iii)Euplecta rosamonda (Benson 1860) DDEuplecta scobinoides (Sykes 1897) CR B1ab(iii)Euplecta semidecussata (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)Euplecta subopaca (Pfeiffer 1854) DDEuplecta trimeni (Jousseaume 1894) DDEuplecta turritella (Adams 1869) DDEuplecta travancorica (Benson 1865) NTEuplecta verrucula (Pfeiffer 1854) DDRatnadvipia edgariana (Benson 1853)E: Sri Lanka RatnadivipaDDRatnadvipia irradians (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)Ratnadvipia karui (Raheem & Naggs 2006) CR B1+2ab(iii)Ravana politissima (Pfeiffer 1854)E: Sri LankaRavana Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)Mariaella dussumieri (Gray 1855) EXE: CommonShelled Slug NEMacrochlamys indica (Godwin Austen 1883)E: Macro LucidSnail DDMacrochlamys kandiensis (Godwin-Austen 1883)E: Sri LankaMacro Lucid Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)Macrochlamys nepas (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii)Macrochlamys perfucata (Benson 1853) DDMacrochlamys tratanensis (Jousseaume 1894) CR B2ab(iii)Macrachlamys umbrina (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B1+2ab(iii)Macrachlamys vilipensa (Benson 1853) DDMacrochlamys woodiana (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii)Microcystina bintennensis (Godwin-Austen 1899)E: Sri Lanka MicroLucid Snail DDMicrocystina lita (Sykes 1898) EN B1+2ab(iii)Satiella membranacea (Benson 1853)E: Sri Lanka LucidSatiella Snail CR B1+2ab(iii)Sitala operiens (Sykes 1898)E: Sri LankaSitala Snail DDSitala phyllophila (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii)Sitala pyramidalis (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii)Family MilacidaeMilax gagates (Draparnaud 1801) EXE: Smooth JetSlugNEFamily: AgriolimacidaeDeroceras reticulatum (Miller 1774) EXE: Gray FieldSlug NEDeroceras laeve (Muller 1774) EX E: Marsh Slug NE71

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaFamily: FerussaciidaeDigoniaxis cingalensis (Benson 1863) LCFamily: GlessulidaeGlessula capillacea (Pfeiffer 1855)E: CorkscrewSnail CR B2ab(iii)Glessula ceylanica (Pfeiffer 1845)E: Sri LankaCorkscrew Snail EN B2ab(iii)Glessula collettae (Sykes 1898) EN B2ab(iii)Glessula deshayesi (Pfeiffer 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii)Glessula fulgens (Pfeiffer 1858) CR B1ab(iii)Glessula inornata (Pfeiffer 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii)Glessula lankana (Pilsbry 1908) EN B1+2ab(iii)Glessula layardi (Pilsbry 1908) CR B2ab(iii)Glessula nitens (Gray 1825) DDGlessula pachycheila (Benson 1853) DDGlessula pallens (Beddome 1906) CR B1+2ab(iii)Glessula panaetha (Benson 1860) CR B1+2ab(iii)Glessula parabilis (Benson 1856) EN B1+2ab(iii)Glessula prestoni (Gude 1914) CR B2ab(iii)Glessula punctogallana (Pfeiffer 1852) EN B1ab(iii)Glessula pusilla (Beddome 1906) EX NEGlessula reynelli (Gude 1914) DDGlessula sattaraensis (Hanley & Theobald 1874) CR B2ab(iii)Glessula serena (Benson 1860) EN B2ab(iii)Glessula simoni (Jousseaume 1894) DDGlessula sinhila (Preston 1909) CR B1+2ab(iii)Glessula veruina (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii)Family: SubulinidaeSubulina octona (Bruguiere 1789) EXE: Common AwlSnail NEAllopeas gracile (Hutton 1834) EXE: Graceful AwlSnail NEAllopeas layardi (Benson 1863)E: Sri Lanka AwlSnail EN B1+2ab(iii)Allopeas mariae (Jousseaume 1894) CR B2ab(iii)Allopeas prestoni (Sykes 1898) CR B1+2ab(iii)Allopeas pussilus (Adams 1867) DDAllopeas sykesi (Pilsbry 1906) CR B2ab(iii)Paropeas achatinaceum (Pfeiffer 1846) EXE: Achatina’s AwlSnail NEZootecus insularis (Ehrenberg 1831) EXE: Chrysalis AwlSnail NEFamily: AchatinidaeLissachatina fulica (Bowdich 1822) EXFamily: StreptaxidaeEustreptexis kideziensis (Smith 1895) EXE: Giant AfricanSnail NEE: EustreptexHunter SnailNE72

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaIndoartemon cingalensis (Benson 1853)E: Sri LankaHunter Snail CR B2ab(iii)Indoartemon gracilis (Collet 1898) CR B2ab(iii)Indoartemon layardianus (Benson 1853) VU B1ab(iii)Perrottetia peroteti (Petit de la Saussaye 1841)E: Perrotte’sHunter Snail DDPerrottetia ravanae (Blanford 1899)E: Sri LankaRavana’s HunterSnail DDGulella bicolor (Hutton 1834) EXE: Two-tonedHunter Snail NESinoennea planguncula (Benson 1863)E: Plangucula’sHunter Snail DDFamily: AcavidaeAcavus haemastoma (Lennaeus 1758)E: Sri Lanka Redmouthed LustfulSnail EN B2ab(iii)Acavus phoenix (Pfeiffer 1854)E: Arabian LustfulSnailNTAcavus superbus (Pfeiffer 1850)E: Superb LustfulSnail VU B1ab(iii)Oligospira polei (Collet 1899)E: Sri LankaWhite Lip BluntedSnail EN B2ab(iii)Oligospira skinneri (Reeve 1854)E: Sri LankaSmall BluntedSnail EN B1+2ab(iii)Oligospira waltoni (Reeve 1842)E: Sri LankaCommon BluntedSnail VU B1ab(iii)Family: CorillidaeCorilla adamsi (Gude 1914)E: Sri LankaToothed Lip Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)Corilla beddomeae (Hanley 1875) EN B1+2ab(iii)Corilla carabinata (Ferussac 1821) EN B1+2ab(iii)Corilla colletti (Sykes 1897) VU B1ab(iii)Corilla erronea (Albers 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii)Corilla fryae (Gude 1896) DDCorilla gudei (Sykes 1897) CR B1+2ab(iii)Corilla humberti (Brot 1864) CR B1+2ab(iii)Corilla lesleyae (Barnacle 1959) EN B1+2ab(iii)Corilla odontophora (Benson 1865) CR B2ab(iii)Family: CamaenidaeBeddomea albizonatus (Reeve 1849) VU B1ab(iii)Beddomea ceylanicus (Pfeiffer 1846)E: Sri Lanka BeddomeaSnail CR B2ab(iii)Beddomea intermedius (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii)Beddomea trifasciatus (Gmelin 1786) VU B1ab(iii)Trachia fallaciosa (Ferussac 1821)E: StrawberrySnail CR B1+2ab(iii)Trachia vittata (Muller 1774) CR B2ab(iii)73

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaLandouria radleyi (Jousseaume 1894)E: Sri LankaLandouria EN B1+2ab(iii)Family: BradybaenidaeBradybaena similaris (Femssac 1822) EXE: Asian TrampSnail NEFamily: SuccineidaeSuccinea ceylanica (Pfeiffer 1855) E: Amber Snail CR B2ab(iii)Family: CochlicopidaeCochlicopa lubrica (Muller 1774) EXE: Glossy PillarSnailNEFamily: ArionidaeArion intermedius (Normand 1852) EXE: HedgehogSlugNEFamily: VeronicellidaeLaevicaulis alte (Femssac 1821)E: LeatherleafSlug LCSemperula maculata (Tempieton 1888)E: Tropical LeatherleafSlug LCSemperula siamensis (Martens 1867) LCFamily: CyclophoroideaCyclophorus alabastrinus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii)Cyclophorus ceylanicus (Pfeiffer 1849)E: Sri LankaLarge OperculateSnail VU B1ab(iii)Cyclophorus involvulus (Muller 1774)E: InvolvulusOperculte Snail EN B2ab(iii)Cyclophorus menkeanus (Philippi 1848) VU B1ab(iii)Aulopoma grande (Pfeiffer 1855)E: Grande’sOperculate Snail VU B1ab(iii)Aulopoma helicinum (Chemnitz 1786)E: HelicinumOperculate Snail VU B1ab(iii)Aulopoma itieri (Guerin 1847)E: Itier’s OperculateSnail EN B1ab(iii)Aulopoma sphaeroideum (Dohrn 1857)E: Sphaeroid’sOperculate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)Cyathopoma album (Beddome 1875)E: Cyathopom’sOperculate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)Cyathopoma artatum (Sykes 1897) DDCyathopoma ceylanicum (Beddome 1875) EN B2ab(iii)Cyathopoma colletti (Sykes 1898) DDCyathopoma conoideum (Sykes 1898) DDCyathopoma innocens (Sykes 1899) CR B2ab(iii)Cyathopoma leptomita (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii)Cyathopoma mariae (Jousseaume 1894) DDCyathopoma ogdenianum (Preston 1909) CR B2ab(iii)Cyathopoma perconoideum (Preston 1909) DDCyathopoma prestoni (Sykes 1897) CR B2ab(iii)Cyathopoma serendibense (Preston 1903) DDCyathopoma turbinatum (Sykes 1897) DDCyathopoma uvaense (Preston 1909) DD74

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaJaponia binoyae (Sykes 1897)E: Japonia’sOperculate Snail DDJaponia occulta (Sykes 1897) CR B1+2ab(iii)Japonia vesca (Sykes 1897) EN B2ab(iii)Leptopoma apicatum (Benson 1856)E: Leptopoma’sOperculate Snail DDLeptopoma elatum (Pfeiffer 1852) DDLeptopoma semiclausum (Pfeiffer 1855)E: Leptopomoid’sOperculate Snail EN B1+2ab(iii)Leptopomoides conulus (Pfeiffer 1855) DDLeptopomoides flammeus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B1+2ab(iii)Leptopomoides halophilus (Benson 1851) DDLeptopomoides orophilus (Benson 1853) DDLeptopomoides poecilus (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B1+2ab(iii)Leptopomoides taprobanensis (Preston 1909) CR B1+2ab(iii)Micraulax coeloconus (Benson 1851)E: MicraulaxOpeculate Snail CR B2ab(iii)Scabrina brounae (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii)Scabrina liratula (Preston 1909)E: Hairy OperculateSnail DDTheobaldius annulatus (Pfeiffer 1847)E: Theobald’sOperculate Snail LCTheobaldius bairdi (Pfeiffer 1854) VU B1ab(iii)Theobaldius cadiscus (Benson 1860) CR B2ab(iii)Theobaldius cratera (Benson 1856) DDTheobaldius cytopoma (Benson 1860) EN B1+2ab(iii)Theobaldius layardi (Adams 1868) VU B1ab(iii)Theobaldius liliputianus (Preston 1909) DDTheobaldius loxostoma (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B1+2ab(iii)Theobaldius parapsis (Benson 1853) DDTheobaldius parma (Benson 1856) EN B1+2ab(iii)Theobaldius subplicatulus (Beddome 1875) VU B1ab(iii)Theobaldius thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii)Pterocyclus bifrons (Pfeiffer 1855) DDPterocyclus bilabiatus (Sowerby 1835)E: Ptero’s OperculateSnail EN B1+2ab(iii)Pterocyclus cingalensis (Benson 1853) NTPterocyclus cumingi (Pfeiffer 1851) NTPterocyclus troscheli (Benson 1851) NTFamily: DiplomatinidaeNicida catathymia (Sykes 1898)E: Sri LankaNicida’s OperculateSnail NTNicida ceylanica (Beddome 1875) CR B1+2ab(iii)Nicida delectabilis (Preston 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii)Nicida lankaensis (Preston 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii)Nicida pedronis (Beddome 1875) DD75

Scientific Name Common Name NCS CriteriaNicida prestoni (Sykes 1897) CR B2ab(iii)Family: PupinidaeTortulosa aurea (Pfeiffer 1855)E: Sri LankaTortu’s OperculateSnail CR B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa austeniana (Benson 1853) CR B2ab(iii)Tortulosa barnaclei (Tomlin 1928) DDTortulosa blanfordi (Dohrn 1862) DDTortulosa colletti (Sykes 1898) CR B2ab(iii)Tortulosa congener (Sykes 1905) CR B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa connectens (Fulton 1903) DDTortulosa cumingi (Pfeiffer 1857) EN B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa decora (Benson 1853) EN B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa duplicata (Pfeiffer 1855) CR B2ab(iii)Tortulosa eurytrema (Pfeiffer 1852) DDTortulosa greeni (Sykes 1899) EN B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa haemastoma (Pfeiffer 1857) EN B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa hartleyi (Tomlin 1928) DDTortulosa layardi (Pfeiffer 1851) EN B2ab(iii)Tortulosa leucocheilus (Adams & Sowerby 1866) DDTortulosa marginata (Pfeiffer 1854) EN B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa nevilli (Sykes 1898) EN B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa nietneri (Nevill 1871) DDTortulosa prestoni (Sykes 1905) DDTortulosa pyramidata (PfeifFer 1852) EN B1+2ab(iii)Tortulosa rugosa (Fulton 1904) DDTortulosa smithi (Sykes 1905) CR B2ab(iii)Tortulosa sykesi (Fulton 1904) CR B2ab(iii)Tortulosa templemani (Pfeiffer 1854) CR B2ab(iii)Tortulosa thwaitesi (Pfeiffer 1852) CR B2ab(iii)Family: TruncatellidaeTruncatella ceylanica (Pfeiffsr 1856) DD76

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of theFreshwater Fishes in Sri LankaSampath de Alwis GoonatilakeIUCN Sri Lanka, 53, Horton Place, Colombo 7.IntroductionSri Lanka supports a rich freshwater fish assemblage that comprises of 91 species including 50endemics (Bailey and Gans, 1998; Goonatialke, 2007; Silva et al., 2008; Meegaskumbura, etal., 2008; Pethiyagoda, 1991; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a; Pethiyagodaet al., 2008b; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c; Silva et al., 2011; Pethiyagoda et al., 2012; Watson,1998). Other than these indigenous species, 24 exotic species have been introduced to theisland, mainly to boost the inland fishery (Goonatilake, 2007). Senanayake and Moyle (1982)have identified four major Ichthyological zones (Southwestern, Mahaweli, Dry and Transition)according to the distribution patterns of freshwater fish in Sri Lanka. Out of these four zones,Southwestern and Mahaweli zones bear the highest freshwater fish diversity in the island.TaxonomyThe island’s freshwater fish fauna has received significant attention from early Europeanichthyologists that dates back to early 19 th Century. Georges Cuvier and Achille Valenciennesdescribed several species of fish (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1828–49) from Sri Lanka basedon a single collection made in 1827 near the Kinniyar hot springs by the French explorer A.Reynaud. However, the first local exploration of the fish fauna by an expert took place in the early1860s, when the Dutch ichthyologist P. Bleeker described several new species of freshwaterfish based on a collection from the Gin River basin. In the early 1900’s Bleeker’s work hasbeen followed by a German ichthyologist, George Duncker, who explored several localitiesincluding Gin river basin that led to the compilation of first checklist of Sri Lankan freshwaterfishes (Duncker, 1912). These early efforts on fish exploration by European ichthyologists werefollowed in the mid 20 th Century by local naturalists of whom the most notable being P.E.P.Deraniyagala who has described several new species and produced the first illustrated bookon Sri Lankan freshwater fish (Deraniyagala, 1952). His work has been followed by Mendis(1954) and Munro (1955).The first systematic exploration of the island’s freshwater fish fauna was carried out during thelate 1970s by Ranil Senanayake for his doctoral dissertation that has led to a comprehensivereview of the conservation status of freshwater fishes for the first time in Sri Lanka (Senanayake,1980; Senanayake and Moyle, 1982). This work was followed by a more extensive survey onfreshwater fish by the Wildlife Heritage Trust that has led to the discovery of many new speciesof freshwater fish (Kottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1991; Meegaskumbura, et al., 2008; Pethiyagodaet al., 2008; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008b; Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c;Pethiyagoda et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2008; Silva et al., 2011).Taxonomic nomenclature of freshwater fish has also been extensively revised during the pasttwo decades, the most recent being the taxonomic revision of the genus Puntius by Pethiyagodaet al. (2012) that has resulted in the splitting of this genus into four genera, namely Puntius,77

Pethia, Systomus and, Dawkinsia. Likewise, revision of the Genera Rasbora (Silva et al., 2011)and Danio (Kevin et al., 2010) resulted in some species of genus Rasbora being placed underthe genus Rasboroides and all species of genus Danio being placed under the genus Devario.Further, what was listed as Chela ceylonensis was split in to three species and placed under thegenus Labuca (Pethiyagoda et al., 2008a). Also, species names of several species have alsobeen revised over the past decade. For instance, Puntius filamentous, Puntius amphibious,Macroganthus aral, Labeo porcellus and Channa marulius have been renamed as Puntiussinghala, Puntius kamalika, Macrognathus pentophthalmos, Labeo lankae and Channa ararespectively (Pethiyagoda & Kottelat, 1991; Silva et al., 2008 and Pethiyagoda et al., 2008c;Pethiyagoda, 1994).DistributionSenanayake and Moyle (1982) have proposed four major Ichtyological zones (Southwestern,Mahaweli, Dry and Transition) based the on distribution pattern of freshwater fishes. Of thesethe South Western and Mahaweli zones support the highest diversity in freshwater fish whilethe Dry Zone species have a higher affinity with the freshwater fish in the Indian peninsula.Number of species such as Pethia bandula (Minipura at Kegalle District) and Stiphodonmartenstyni (Atweltota near Matugama) and Rasboroides nigromaginata are only known froma single location (point endemics). Further, some species such as Dawkinsia srilankensis,Laubuca insularis, Systomus martenstyni, Labeo fisheri and Labeo lankae are only knownfrom a single river basin. However, species such as Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi, Devariopathirana, Rasbora wilpita which were also thought to be restricted to a single river basin,namely the Nilwala basin, have been shown to occur also in the Kelani river basin.ThreatsArguably, the freshwater fish are the most vulnerable taxonomic group as most of the threatenedor endemic freshwater species are found in streams that are lying outside the Protected AreaNetwork of Sri Lanka. Therefore these habitats are highly susceptible to various threats suchas forest clearance, gem mining, expanding agriculture, large and small scale hydro projects,exposure to chemical pollutants including agrochemicals and sedimentation due to soil erosion.Several species such as Ophisternon bengalense, Systomus martenstyni, Labeo fisheriand Labeo lankae have become threatened during the past few decades due to loss of theirhabitat, land reclamation or habitat conversion as a result of reservoir projects. Further, naturalprocesses such as spread of alien invasive plant species such as like Annona gabra, Eichorniacrassipes bring about rapid habitat changes that make these marsh habitats less suitable forfreshwater fish. The water quality of many of the suburban water bodies have also undergonedrastic changes due to accumulation of toxic compounds discharged by industries. A case inpoint is the Attidiya-Bellanwila Sanctuary where the number of freshwater species recorded haschanged from 54 to a mere 8 species (Goonatilake unpublished data, 2012) within a span ofabout 20 years due to pollution and spread of invasive alien plant species. On the other hand, inrural areas heavy use of agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizer has contributed to thepopulation decline of at least two endemic fish species, Pethiya bandula and Aplocheilus dayiand several species of indigenous fish. Intentional and accidental introduction of invasive alien78

fish species such as Chitala chitala (Clown knife fish) and Hypostomus plecostomus (Suckermouthcatfish) is posing a major threat to native fresh water fishes (Gunawardane, 2002).Number of endemic species have a high demand in the aquarium trade and hence overexploitationof naturally occurring populations for export has resulted in marked reductionin their populations and in some instances to local extinctions. Further, destructive fishingtechniques such as the use of Kala wel (a plant that is toxic to fish), Dynamite and otherchemicals such as anti-lice compounds by local communities to capture fish lead to completewipe-out of all the fish in a water hole. Therefore, such fishing methods should be banned anddiscouraged through awareness-raising among local communities.ConservationAs mentioned earlier, most of the threatened and endemic freshwater fish are found in habitatslocated outside the Protected Area Network. These habitats are under high human pressure.Therefore, they need to be protected; especially their catchment areas that will decide thewater yield as well as the quality of water. Any type of development affecting these habitatsneeds to be clearly assessed before granting approval. Further, species oriented conservationprogrammes and habitat oriented conservation programmes should be developed for at leastthe critically endangered species. As most of the species occur outside the protected areas thelocal communities have to be involved in conservation of these species. Such a programmehas been successfully implemented for Pethia bundula that has resulted in curtailing of illegalcollection of the fish and the recovery of the population. Likewise conservation action plansshould be drawn up for all identified threatened species.Ex-situ breeding programmes should also be established with the aim of boosting dwindlingwild population. However, translocation or reintroduction programmes should be plannedwith utmost care to prevent hybridisation and introduction of diseases to the population. Thusfar, a number of translocations have been attempted in Sri Lanka with the aim of conservingthreatened species. Some of these translocation programmes have been highly successfulwhile some have failed to achieve the desired objectives. Therefore, these programmes shouldbe carefully reviewed to document the lessons learnt before attempting further translocations.Research gaps and research needsThe recent field surveys in both the dry and wet zone, and phylogenetic studies havedemonstrated that there still are new species to be discovered. Therefore, island-widesystematic surveys should be carried out to document the distribution and ecological conditionsnecessary for freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. The baseline data generated from such as asurvey can be used to make proper assessments of the conservation status of species aswell as to draw up species conservation plans. Lack of financial support is the main obstaclefor such a systematic island-wide survey. A model already exists in the neighbouring India,where they have a dedicated zoological survey to gather baseline data not only for fishes butfor other taxonomic groups as well. The National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka had such aprogramme in the 1980’s which needs to be resurrected.79

Conclusions and recommendationsSri Lanka has a rich freshwater fish fauna of which more than 50% are endemic species.However, nearly 50% freshwater fish are also listed as threatened species due to a number ofthreats. Therefore, it is important to develop a conservation action plan for the endemic andthreatened freshwater fish of Sri Lanka. Such an action plan should first identify priority list ofspecies as well as critical habitats of freshwater fish that require immediate conservation action.This should be followed with preparation and implementation of species specific recoveryplans. The implementation of such plans requires large investments and therefore, possibilityof private sector involvement in financing such recovery plans should be pursued. Also, anational programme to protect catchments as well as enforce river and stream reservationsis another identified need which will benefit not only fish but other terrestrial species as well.As most of the species occur in human dominated landscapes a conservation model involvinglocal communities in conservation of freshwater fish should be developed, at least for therestricted range species. At the same time, the ex situ breeding programmes should obtain theexpertise available in the ornamental fish industry, especially to develop breeding techniquesfor threatened species that are difficult to breed in captivity. All pesticides approved for releasein Sri Lanka should be assessed for impact on non-target organisms and the environmentin general, and the labelling of such products should include information on environmentalsafeguards. Further, all future intentional release of exotic fishes should be preceded by anenvironmental impact assessment involving specific safeguards against invasiveness, and atthe same time a ban should be imposed on importation of exotic fish species that are knownto be invasive in other countries. Also, international agencies that fund development projectsmust be appraised of the negative consequences that can arise due to fisheries developmentprojects in Sri LankaReferencesBailey, R. M. & Gans, C., (1998). The new synbranchid fishes, Monopterus roseni from Peninsular India and M.desilvai from Sri Lanka. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, 726, p.18.Cuvier, G. & Valenciennes, A., (1842). Histoire naturelle des poissons, vol. 16. Paris: P. Bertrand. xx+472 pp., pls465–487.Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1952). A coloured atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon, 1: fishes. Colombo: NationalMuseum.Duncker, G., (1912). Die Susswasserfische Ceylons. Jahrb. Hamburg Wiss. Anst., Beiheft 2, 29 (2): pp.241–272.Goonatilake, S. de A., (2007). Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka.Goonatilake, S. de A., (2012). Personal records. [field records] (Personal communication, 2012).Gunawardane, J., (2002). Occurrence of Chitala chitala (Syn. Notopterus chitala) in native freshwater habitats. SriLanka Naturalist, 5(1), pp.6-7.Tang, K. L., Agnew, M. K., Hirt, M. V., Sado, T., Schneider, L. M., Freyhof, J., Sulaiman, Z., Swartz, E., Vidthayanon,C., Miya, M., Saitoh, K., Simons, A. M., Wood, R. M. & Mayden, R. L., (2010). Systematics of the subfamilyDanioninae (Teleostei: Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 57(1), pp.189-214.Kottelat, M. & Pethiyagoda, R., (1991). Descriptions of three new species of cyprinid fishes from Sri Lanka. In: R.Pethiyagoda., 1991. Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.Meegaskumbura, M., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2008). Puntius reval, a new barb from Sri Lanka(Teleostei; Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19 (2), pp.141-152.Mendis, A. S., (1954). Fishes of Ceylon. Colombo: Fisheries Research Station.Munro, I. S. R., (1955). The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of Ceylon. Canberra: Department of External Affairs.Pethiyagoda, R. & Kottelat, M., (2005). A review of the barbs of the Puntius filamentosus group (Teleostei: Cyprinidae)of southern India and Sri Lanka. In: D. C. J. Yeo, P. K. L. Ng & R. Pethiyagoda, eds. 2005. Contributions tobiodiversity exploration and research in Sri Lanka: The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement 12. pp.127–144.80

Pethiyagoda, R., (1991). Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.Pethiyagoda, R., Kottelat, M., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Meegaskumbura, M., (2008a). A review of the genus Labucain Sri Lanka, with description of three new species (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19(1), p. 726.Pethiyagoda, R., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Meegaskumbura, M., (2008b). Puntius kelumi, a new species of cyprinidfish from Sri Lanka (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 19, pp. 201- 214.Pethiyagoda, R., Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Kariyawasam, L., (2008c). The Sri Lankan spiny eel, Macrognathuspentophthalmos (Teleostei: Mastacembelidae), and its enigmatic decline. Zootaxa, 1931, pp.37–48.Pethiyagoda, R., Meegaskumbura, M. & Maduwage, K., (2012). A synopsis of the South Asian fishes referred toPuntius (Pisces: Cyprinidae.) Ichthyol. Explor. Fresh waters, 23 (1), pp.69-95.Senanayake, F. R., (1980). The biogeography and ecology of the inland fishes of Sri Lanka. PhD. University ofCalifornia.Senanayake, F. R. & Moyle, P. B., (1982). Conservation of freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation,22, pp.181-195.Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2008). Puntius kamalika, a new species of barb from Sri Lanka(Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Zootaxa, 1824, pp.55–64.Silva, A., Maduwage, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2011). A review of the genus Rasbora in Sri Lanka, with description oftwo new species (Teleostei: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, 21, pp.27- 50.Watson, R. E., (1998). Stiphodon martenstyni, a new species of freshwater goby from Sri Lanka (Teleostei: Gobiidae:Sicydiini). Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3(1), pp.69-78.81

Table 08: List of Freshwater Fish in Sri LankaScientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: CyprinidaeAmblypharyngodon grandisquamisJordan & Starks, 1917Amblypharyngodon melettinus(Valenciennes,1844)Dawkinsia singhala (Dunker, 1912)syn. Puntius singhalaDawkinsia srilankensis(Senanayake,1985) syn. PuntiussrilankensisDevario aequipinnatus (McClelland,1839)Devario malabaricus (Jerdon,1849)Devario pathirana (Kottelat &Pethiyagoda, 1990)Esomus thermoicos(Valenciennes,1842)Garra ceylonensis Bleeker,1863Garra phillipsi Deraniyagala, 1933Labeo dussumieri(Valenciennes,1842)Labeo fisheri Jordan & Starks,1917Labeo lankae Deraniyagala, 1952Laubuca insularis Pethiyagoda,Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage &Meegaskumbura, 2008Laubuca lankensis (Deraniyagala,1960)Laubuca ruhuna Pethiyagoda,Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage &Meegaskumbura, 2008E:Sri Lanka LargeSilver Carplet;S:GangiliyaE: Silver Carplet;S: SorayaE: Sri LankaFilamented Barb;S:Damkola pethiyaE:Sri Lanka BlotchedFilamented Barb ;S:Dankuda pethiyaE:Sri Lanka KnucklesDanio; S:Dumbarasaalaya, DamkolasaalayaE:Giant Danio;S:Rath kailaya,Damkola saalayaE:Sri Lanka BarredDanio;S: Pathirana saalayaE:Sri Lanka FlyingBarb; S:Ravul dandiya,Thatu dandiyaE:Sri Lanka StoneSucker;S:Gal paanduruva, GalpaandiyaE:Sri Lanka Philips'Garra;S:Gal paanduruva, GalpaandiyaE:Common Labeo;S:Hiri kanaya, GankanayaE:Sri Lanka MountainLabeo; S:Loku gadaya,Kalu gadaya, Weligadaya, GadayaE:Sri Lanka Orange-FinLabeo; S:Thambalaya,Thambalaya vanna,Hiri kanayaE: Sri Lanka KnucklesLaubuca;S: Dumbara karaadayaE: Sri Lanka BlueLaubuca;S: Nilkara kara-adayaE:Sri Lanka RuhunuLaubuca;S: Ruhunu kara-adayaENLCLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCLCCR B2ab(iii) CRCR B2ab(iii) LCLCCRLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCENLCVU B2ab(iii) ENDDLCDDLCB1ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii) CR A1c+2c, C1CR B2ab(iii)VUENB1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)82

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaLaubuca varuna Pethiyagoda,Kottelat, Silva, Maduwage &Meegaskumbura, 2008Pethia bandula (Kottelat &Pethiyagoda, 1991) syn. PuntiusbandulaPethia cumingii (Gunther, 1868) syn.Puntius cumingiiPethia melanomaculata(Deraniyagala, 1956) syn. PuntiusmelanomaculatusPethia nigrofasciata (Gunther, 1868)syn. Puntius nigrofasciatusPethia reval (Meegaskumbura, Silva,Maduwage & Pethiyagoda, 2008)syn. Puntius revalPuntius bimaculatus (Bleeker,1863)Puntius dorsalis (Jerdon,1849)Puntius kamalika Silva, Maduwage& Pethiyagoda, 2008Puntius kelumi Pethiyagoda, Silva,Maduwage & Meegaskumbura, 2008Puntius layardi (Günther, 1868)Puntius tetraspilus (Günther, 1868)Puntius thermalis (Valenciennes, inCuvier & Valenciennes, 1844)Puntius titteya Deraniyagala 1929Puntius vittatus (Day,1865)Rasbora armitagei Silva, Maduwage& Pethiyagoda, 2010Rasbora dandiya (Valenciennes, inCuvier & Valenciennes, 1844)Rasbora microcephalus (Jerdon,1849)E:Sri Lanka VarunaLaubuca; Varuna karaadayaE:Sri Lanka BandulaBarb;S: Bandula pethiya,JayanthiyaE: Sri Lanka Cuming'sBarb; S:Depulliya,PothyaE: Sri Lanka tic tacBarb;S: PothayaE:Sri Lanka Black RubyBarb; S:Bulath hapaya,ManamaalayaE: Sri Lanka RedfinedBarb;S: Ratuwaral pothayaE:Redside Barb;S: Ipili kadayaE:Long-Snouted Barb;S:Katu pethiya, Katukuriya, Rathu varalpethiyaE: Sri Lanka Kamalica'sBarb; S: Mada pethiyaE: Sri Lanka RedeyeBarb;S: Rathu-eskatupethiyaE: Sri Lanka Layardsbard;S: LeyardgekatupethiyaE: Sri Lanka four spotLong snouted bard;S: Siu tit katupethiyaE:Swamp Barb; S:Kotapethiya:S: Kota pethiyaE:Sri Lanka CherryBarb;S: Le thiththayaE:Silver Barb;S: Bandi thiththaya,Podi pethiya, IpilikadayaE: Sri Lanka ArmitagiRasbora;S: Rakvana dandiyaE:Broad line StripRasbora;S: Dandiya, KudamassaE:Narrow line RasboraS: Kiri dandiya,KudamassaCRCRENVUB2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)CRLR/cdEN B2ab(iii) LR/cdENLCLCENENDDDDLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCLCEN B2ab(iii) LR/cdLCCRLCLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCLCB1+2c, C183

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaRasbora naggsi Silva, Maduwage &Pethiyagoda, 2010Rasbora wilpita Kottelat &Pethiyagoda, 1991Rasboroides atukorali (Deraniyagala,1943)Rasboroides nigromaginataMeinken, 1957Rasboroides vaterifloris(Deraniyagala,1930)Systomus pleurotaenia(Bleeker,1863) syn. PuntiuspleurotaeniaSystomus asoka (Kottelat &Pethiyagoda, 1989) syn. PuntiusasokaSystomus martenstyni (Kottelat &Pethiyagoda, 1991) syn. PuntiusmartenstyniSystomus spilurus (Günther, 1868)syn. Puntius spilurusSystomus timbiri (Deraniyagala,1963) syn. Puntius timbiriTor khudree Sykes, 1841Family: BalitoridaeAcanthocobitis urophthalmus(Gunther, 1868)Schistura notostigma (Bleeker,1863)Family: CobitidaeLepidocephalichthys jonklaasi(Deraniyagala,1956)Lepidocephalichthys thermalis(Valenciennes,1846)Family - BagridaeMystus gulio (Hamilton,1822)Sri Lanka NaggasiRasbora;S: Belihuloya dandiyaE:Sri Lanka WilpitaRasbora; S: WilpitadandiyaE: Horadandiaathukorale;S: HoradandiaE: Sri Lanka blacklinegolden Rasbora;S: KaluirihalmaldandiyaE: Sri Lanka GoldenRasbora;S:Halmal dandiya,Halmal thiththayaE: Sri Lanka Black-Lined Barb;S:Heetha mathsayaE:Sri Lanka AsokaBarb;S: Ran manissa, AsokapethiyaE:Sri LankaMartenstyn's Barb;S: Dumbara pethiyaE: Sri Lanka OliveBarb;S: Sri Lanka maspethiyaE: Sri Lanka thibiriBarb;S: Sri Lanka pethiyaE:Mahseer;S: Lehella, HorapolayaE:Sri Lanka TigerLoach; S: Wairanahirava, Pol ahiravaE:Sri Lanka BandedMountain Loach;S:Kandu ahirava,Pol ahirava, GomaraahiravaE:Sri Lanka Jonklaas'sLoach; S:Ahirava,Wairan ahiravaE:Common SpinyLoach; S:Ahirava,Wairan ahiravaE:Long-WhiskeredCatfish; Anguluwa,Maana ankuttaCRENVUCRENENCRCRDDDDB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)ENLR/cdLR/cdENENB1+2cA1c, B1+2cB1+2cNT EN A2acdeENNTB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LR/cdCR B2ab(iii) EN B1+2c, C1LCLCLCLC84

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMystus vittatus (Bloch,1794)Mystus ankutta Pethiyagoda, Silva &Maduwage, 2008Mystus seengtee (Sykes, 1839)Family: ClaridaeClarias brachysoma Gunther 1864Family: SiluridaeOmpok bimaculatus (Bloch,1794)Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider,1801)Family: HeteropneustidaeHeteropneustes fossilis (Bloch,1797)Family: GobiidaeAwaous melanocephalus(Bleeker,1849)Glossogobius giuris Hamilton, 1822Oligolepis acutipennis (Valenciennes,1837)Schismatogobius deraniyagalaiKottelat & Pethiyagoda, 1989Sicyopterus griseus Day,1878Sicyopterus halei (Day,1888)Sicyopus jonklaasi (Klausewitz &Henrich,1986)Stenogobius malabaricus (Day,1865)Stiphodon martenstyniWatson,1998Family: AnguillidaeAnguilla bicolor Mc Clelland, 1844Anguilla nebulosa Mc Clelland, 1844E: Striped DwarfCatfish; S: Iri ankutta,Hiri ankuttaE: Sri Lanka DwarfCatfish; S: Sri LankaankuttaE: Yellow Catfish;S: Path ankuttaE:Sri Lanka WalkingCatfish; S:Magura,Velmagura, Kaha maguraE: Butter Catfish;S: Walapoththa,Penavalaya,KokassaE:Shark Catfish;S:Walaya, MahaWalayaE:Stinging Catfish;S:Hunga, Kaha hunga,Le hungaE: Scribbled Goby;S:Bali WeligowwaE:Bar-Eyed Goby;S:Maha weligowwa,Bali weligembaE: Sharptail goby;S: WeligowwaE:Redneck Goby;S:Kata rathuweligowwaE:Stone Goby;S:Maha gal weligowwaE:Red-Tailed Goby;S:Gal weligowwaE:Sri Lanka LipstickGoby; S:Thol rathuweligowwaE:Malabar Goby;S:WeligowwaE:Sri LankaMartenstyn's Goby;S: WeligowwaE:Level Finned Eel;S:Mada aandha,kakkutu aandha,kalapu aandhaE:Long Finned Eel;S: Vairan aandha,polmal aandha,kabaraaandha, kahaaandha, pulli aandhaLCENLCNTLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCNTEN B2ab(iii) NTLCLCLCDDENCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCLCCR B2ab(iii) DDENDDCR(PE)LCLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)DDLCLC85

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: MastacembelidaeMastacembelus armatus (Lacepede,1803)Macrognathus pentophthalmosGronowFamily: SynbranchidaeMonopterus desilvai Bailey & Gans,1998Ophisternon bengalense Mc Clelland,1844Family: ChannidaeChanna ara (Deraniyagala,1945)Channa gachua (Bleeker,1877)Channa orientalis (Bloch &Schneider, 1801)Channa punctata (Bloch,1794)Channa striata (Bloch,1793)Family: AplocheilidaeAplocheilus dayi (Steindachner,1892)Aplocheilus parvus (Raj,1919)Aplocheilus werneri Meinken, 1966Family: BelonidaeXenentodon cancila Hamilton, 1822Family: CichlidaeEtroplus suratensis (Bloch, 1785)Etroplus maculatus (Bloch, 1785)Family: BelontidaeBelontia signata (Gunther 1861)Malpulutta kretseri Deraniyagala,1937E:Marbled Spiny Eel;S:Gan theliya, OyatheliyaSri Lanka spiny eelE:Sri Lanka LesserSwamp Eel;S:Dumburu pottaaandha, potta aandhaE:'Asian Swamp Eel;S:Potta aandhaE:Sri Lanka GiantSnakehead; S:Aara,Kalumaha, GangaraE: Brown Snakehead;S:Paradal kanaya,kanayaE:Smooth-BreastedSnakehead; S:Kolakanaya, Gas kanayaE:Spotted Snakehead;S:Mada kanaya, madaara, madakariyaE:Murrel;S: Loola, Halpath mahaE:Sri Lanka Day'sKillifish;S:Uda handayaE:Dwarf Panchax;S:Kalapu handaya,Uda handayaE:Sri Lanka Werneri'sKillifish; S: Iri handayaE:Freshwater Gar Fish;S:YonnaE:Green Chromide;S:Koraliya, Mal koraliyaE:Orange Chromide;S:Kaha koraliya,Ralliya, Ran koraliyaE:Sri Lanka Combtail;S: Thalkossa, Pulutta,Kola modaE:Sri Lanka OrnateParadise Fish;S: MalpuluttaLCCR(PE)CRCRENLCVULCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)LCLCLCLCLC LCENLCENNTB2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCLC LCLCNTLCLR/cdCR B2ab(iii) LR/cd86

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPseudosphromenus cupanus (Cuvier,1831)Family: AnabantidaeAnabas testudineus (Bloch,1795)Family: EleotridaeButis butis (Hamilton, 1822)Eleotris fusca (Forster, 1801)Family: AdrianichthyidaeOryzias dancena (Hamilton 1822)Oryzias carnaticus (Jerdon, 1849)E:Spike Tailed ParadiseFish;S: Pulutta, Thalkossa,Thal kadayaE:Climbing Perch;S:Kaavaiya, PolkaavaiyaE: Upside-downSleeper; S: Uduppuva,VaniyaE:Brown Gudgeon,Dusky Sleeper;S: PuwakbadillaE: Common Blue Eye;Indian ricefish;S: Handi hadayaE: Spotted RicefishS: Handi hadayaLCLCLCLCDDDDLCDDLCLCLCLC87

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Amphibians in Sri LankaKelum Manamendra-Arachchi 1 and Madhava Meegaskumbura 21Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya2Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, PeradeniyaIntroductionKnowledge on Sri Lanka’s amphibians has increased rapidly during the past decade. The firstreview of this fauna, Kirtisinghe, (1957) recognized 35 species. This figure was increased to 53species by Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi (1996) based on examination of museum materialsand the preliminary findings of a field survey that commenced in 1993. This field survey hasresulted in a complete re-evaluation of the Amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka. Further, this surveyfacilitated the re-discovery of several species that had otherwise been known only from typespecimens collected in the 19th century. In 1998, Pethiyagoda & Manamendra-Arachchi,based on the findings of their extensive field survey, announced that Sri Lanka’s amphibianfauna might comprise of as many as 250 species, a figure that was subsequently revised to~ 140 species by Meegaskumbura et al., (2002). To date, descriptions of 111 valid amphibianspecies have been published (Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005; Meegaskumbura& Manamendra-Arachchi, 2005; Mendis, 2012). This includes 95 endemic species and threeendemic genera, Adenomus, Lankanectes and Nannophrys.Bossuyt et al., (2004) demonstrated conclusively that the Sri Lankan Philautids have long beenisolated from the Indian group, with no biotic exchange having taken place between the islandand the mainland populations in the past ~ 500,000 years. The presence of ancient lineages ofamphibians in Sri Lanka was also demonstrated by Roelants et al., (2004), who showed thatthe endemic genus Lankanectes diverged from the mainstream of Ranidae before the India-Sri Lanka plate separated from the Madagascar plate in the Upper Cretaceous. Sri Lanka’sAmphibian fauna are therefore important not just for their species richness, but also for theirrepresentation of ancient lineages.ConservationIn year 2004, the conservation status of all species of amphibians described and consideredvalid world-wide, including 94 species from Sri Lanka, has been carried out (The GlobalAmphibian Assessment). This analysis has shown that out of the 34 species of amphibiansconfirmed as extinct worldwide in the past 500 years, 21 are from Sri Lanka. These comprise of19 species belonging to genus Pseudophilautus, and one species each of the endemic generaAdenomus and Nannophrys. However, Wickramasinghe et al., (2012) have re-discoveredAdenomus kandianus and reported the possible rediscovery of Pseudophilautus stellatus,another species that had been listed as extinct in Sri Lanka, which will bring down the numberof species that are listed as extinct in Sri Lanka to 19.The amphibians are not exploited for commercial purposes in Sri Lanka. Yet, many species ofamphibians are running a high risk of becoming extinct. Habitat loss is the main threat faced bythe amphibian fauna. The vast majority of the amphibians are restricted to the south-westernwet zone quarter of the island (Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi, 1996), where more than 95%88

of the original forest cover has now vanished. Only ~ 800 km² of relatively undisturbed forestnow remain in the wet zone, and even this is severely fragmented. Three fragments (Knuckles,Sinharaja, Peak Wilderness) account for half of these forests while the balance 400 km² arecontained in > 100 fragments of varying size, many of which exist only on maps. Clearly,fragmentation is a threat and needs to be addressed through the active management of habitatquality at key sites, and through the establishment of habitat corridors between them.Fragmentation per se, is however, unlikely to be the only significant threat. Pesticide use in SriLanka is still to be regulated; the Control of Pesticides Act addresses only threats to humanhealth and not environmental health or impact on non-target organisms. Taken together withmassive erosion from sloping lands, aquatic ecosystems in general are at grave risk, andthese risks remain un-assessed to date.The extent of air pollution too, is yet to be assessed in Sri Lanka except in the context of humanhealth in urban areas. Acid rain and mist have been implicated in forest die-back in many othercountries. The single report there has been of this phenomenon in Sri Lanka (Gunawardenaet al., 1998), has largely been ignored by the conservation establishment even though forestdie-back has been reported in several key amphibian habitats in Sri Lanka including HortonPlains, Peak Wilderness and Knuckles.While threats to amphibians mentioned above are self-evident, the causes for the extremerarity of many species and the extinction of relatively high number of species (19 or ca. 17%of the reported species) are as yet not fully understood. In a phase during which new speciescontinue to be discovered, it could be argued that a discussion of either rarity or extinctionis inappropriate, and that rare and even “extinct” species could be discovered with furtherexploration as evidenced by rediscovery of Adenomus kandianus by Wickramasinghe et al.,(2012). However, given the record of exploration of the last decade, Sri Lanka is now one ofthe better-explored countries with respect to amphibians.The population declines observed in many parts of the world have, as yet, not been observedin Sri Lanka, but this could be because no populations have been monitored over sufficientlylong periods of time. Further, amphibian species may be under-sampled in surveys becausetheir populations are in any case small, or because individuals are otherwise difficult to locate(e.g. cryptic coloration; small size; restriction to arboreal or canopy habitats; lack of prominentvocalisation in males). Therefore, it is imperative that monitoring be carried out, at least in majorbio-geo-climatic zones and prominent habitats within these zones. In addition to monitoringpopulations, it is also necessary to acquire data on parameters known to pose threats toamphibians, such as UV radiation, water quality, climatic variation, and infection by knownpathogens such as the oomycete, Saprolegnia ferax (Kiesecker et al., 2001) and the chytridfungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatids (Blaustein et al., 1994; Pounds et al., 2006).Research needsWhile keeping and breeding amphibians as a hobby is commonplace in much of the developedworld, it is both illegal and unfashionable in Sri Lanka. Two consequences of this are a lackof popular empathy with amphibians (which are, by and large, treated with revulsion), and89

a lack of human resources skilled and interested in managing captive populations. Captivebreeding and reintroduction are clearly actions of last resort, but given a track record of 19extinctions and many more species being listed as threatened, it is one that needs to beconsidered at least for some Sri Lankan species. A starting point would be the accumulation oflocal climatic and water quality data, together with in situ observations of activity patterns, dietresource utilization, breeding behaviour and larval development, together with an assessmentof threats at each life-history stage. Such a programme would also need to examine possiblein situ options, such as improved upstream water-quality management and the maintenanceof riparian vegetation. With these data in hand, an informed judgment could be made withregard to restoring degraded former habitats for a rigorous reintroduction programme. Even ifex situ measures were not to be implemented immediately, the importance of developing themethodologies for this cannot be over-emphasized.The keys provided by Dutta & Manamendra-Arachchi (1996); Manamenrda-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda (2005) and Meegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachchi (2005) facilitate theidentification of all currently known Sri Lankan amphibians. With names and diagnosesavailable for these species, reliable work could commence on assessing populations, habitatrequirements and distributions with a view to improving conservation practices. By offeringonly protection, the present regulatory framework discourages engagement with this faunaby scientists and interested citizens. The threats to amphibians in Sri Lanka however, willpersist regardless of how effectively they are protected. The need of the hour is science-basedconservation that seeks to address threats such as environmental pollution, climate changesand habitat degradation.References:Blaustein, A. R., Hokit, D. G., O’Hara, R. K. & Holt, R. A., (1994). Pathogenic fungus contributes to amphibian lossesin the Pacific Northwest. Biological Conservation, 67(3), pp.251–254.Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D. J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A.,Wilkinson, M., Bahir, M. M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P. K. L., Schneider, C. J., Oommen O. V. &Milinkovitch, M. C., (2004). Local endemism within the Western Ghats–Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot. Science,306(5695), pp.479–481.Dutta, S. K. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (1996). The amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Wildlife HeritageTrust of Sri Lanka,Gunawardena, E. R. N., Rajapakshe, U., Nandasena, K. A. & Rosier, P. T. W., (1998). Water quality issues inthe uplands of Sri Lanka. In: H.P.M. Gunasena, ed. 1998. Proceedings of the final workshop: University ofPeradeniya — Oxford Forestry Institute Link Project. Peradeniya: Faculty of Agriculture, Univ. Peradeniya,pp.37–44.Kiesecker, J. M., Balustein A. R. & Belden, L. K., (2001). Complex causes of amphibian population declines. Nature,410, pp.681–684.Kirtisinghe, P., (1957). The Amphibia of Ceylon. Colombo: Published by the author.Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2005). The Sri Lankan shrub-frogs of the genus Philautus Gistel,1848 (Ranidae: Rhacophorinae), with description of 27 new species. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement,12, pp.163–303.Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (2005). Descriptions of eight new species of shrub frogs (Ranidae:Rhacophorinae: Philautus) from Sri Lanka. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Supplement, 12, pp.305–338.Meegaskumbura, M., Bossuyt, F., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Ararchchi, K., Bahir, M., Milinkovitch, M. C. &Schneider, C. J., (2002). Sri Lanka: an amphibian hotspot. Science, 298(5592), p.379.Meegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra-Ararchchi, K., (2011). Two new species of shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae:Pseudophilautus) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 2747, pp.1–18.Pethiyagoda, R. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (1998). Occasional Papers of the Wildlife Heritage Trust, 2: EvaluatingSri Lanka’s amphibian diversity. Colombo: Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.90

Pounds, J. A., Bustamante, M. R., Coloma, L. A., Consuegra, J. A., Fogden, M. P. L., Foster, P. N., Marca, E. L.,Masters, K. L., Merino-Viteri, A., Puschendorf, R., Ron, S. R., Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. A., Still, C. J. & Young, B.E. (2006). Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature, 439,pp.161-167.Roelants, K., Jiang, J. & Bossuyt, F., (2004). Endemic ranid (Amphibia: Anura) genera in southern mountainranges of the Indian subcontinent represent ancient frog lineages: evidence from molecular data. MolecularPhylogenetics and Evolution, 31(2), pp.730–740.Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Vidanapathirana, D. R. & Wickramasinghe, N., (2012). Back from the dead: The world’srarest toad Adenomus kandianus rediscovered in Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 3347, pp.63–68.Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Munindradasa, D. A. I. & Fernando, P., (2012). A new species of Polypedates Tschudi(Amphibia, Anura, Rhacophoridae) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 3498, pp.63–80.91

Table 09: List of Amphibians in Sri LankaScientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: BufonidaeAdenomus dasi Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 1998Adenomus kandianus (Günther,1872)Adenomus kelaartii (Günther, 1858)Duttaphrynus atukoralei Bogert &Senanayake, 1966Duttaphrynus kotagamai Fernando& Dayawansa, 1994Duttaphrynus melanostictusSchneider, 1799Duttaphrynus noellertiManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 1998Duttaphrynus scaber Schneider,1799Family: MicrohylidaeKaloula taprobanica (Parker, 1934)Microhyla karunaratnei Fernando &Siriwardhane, 1996Microhyla ornata (Duméril & Bibron,1841)Microhyla rubra (Jerdon, 1854)Microhyla zeylanica Parker & Hill,1949Ramanella nagaoi Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001Ramanella obscura (Günther, 1864)Ramanella palmata (Parker, 1934)Ramanella variegata (Stoliczka,1872)E:Das's dwarf toad;S: Das ge kuru gembaE:Kandy dwarf toad;S:Mahanuwara kurugembaE:Kelaart's dwarf toad;S: Kelaartge kurugembaE:Atukorale's toadS:Atukoralage gembaE:Kotagama's toad;S:Kotagamage gembaE:Common toad;S:Gey gembaE:Nollert's toad;S: Nollertge gembaE:Schneider's toad;S:Schneiderge gembaE:Sri Lankan bullfrog;S:Visithuru rathugembaE:Karunaratne'snarrow-mouthed frog;S: Karunaratnegemuva patu madiyaE:Ornate narrowmouthed frog;S:Visithuru muva patumadiyaE:Red narrow mouthedfrog; S:Rathu muvapatu madiyaE:Sri Lanka narrowmouthed frog; S:Lankamuva patu madiyaE:Nagao's ramanella;S:Nagaoge motahombu madiyaE:Obscure ramanella;S: Dumburu motahombu madiyaE:Parker's ramanella;S:Parkerge motahombu madiyaE:Variegatedramanella;S:Bada sudu motahombu madiyaCR B2ab(iii) CRCR B2ab(iii) EXVU B1ab(iii) ENNTENLCENVULCENLCLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)ENENCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii))B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii) EN B1+2ENVUCRLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)VUEND2B1ab(iii)92

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaUperodon systoma (Schneider, 1799)Family: RanidaeHylarana gracilis Gravenhorst, 1829Hylarana aurantiaca Boulenger, 1904Hylarana temporalis (Günther,1864)Family: DicroglossidaeEuphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider,1799)Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson,1834)Fejervarya greenii (Boulenger,1904)Fejervarya kirtisingheiManamendra-Arachchi & Gabadage,1994Fejervarya cf. syhadrensis(Annandale, 1919)Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon,1853)Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Daudin,1802)Nannophrys ceylonensis (Günther,1868)Nannophrys guentheri Boulenger,1882Nannophyrus marmorataKirtisinghe, 1946Nannophrys naeyakai Fernando,S. S., Wickramasingha, L.J.M. &Rodrigo, R.K., 2007Sphaerotheca breviceps (Schneider,1799)Sphaerotheca rolandae (Dubois,1983)Family: NyctibatrachidaeE:Marbled baloon frog;S:Baloon madiyaE:Sri Lanka wood frog;S:Lanka diya madiyaE:Golden frog;S:Ranvan diya madiyaE:Bronzed frog;S:Thambavan diyamadiyaE:Indian skipper frog;S:Uthpathana madiyaE:Indian green frog;S:Sayangili palamadiyaE:Sri Lanka frog;S:Lanka kandukaramadiyaE:Kirtisinghe's frog;S: KirtisinghegemadiyaE:Common paddy fieldfrog; S:Vel madiyaE:Jurdon's bullfrog;S:Jurdonge diyamadiyaE:Indian bullfrog;S:Indiya diya madiyaE:Sri Lankan rock frog;S:Lanka galpara diyamadiyaE:Gunther's rock frog;S: Guntherge galparadiya madiyaE:Marbled rock frog;S:Dumbara galparadiya madiyaE:Sri Lanka Tribal rockfrogE:Short-headedburrowing frog;S:Thunhichi veli diyamadiyaE:Roland's burrowingfrog; S:Lapavan velidiya madiyaLCLCEN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii)NTLCLCENVULCLCDDB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)ENEN B2ab(iii) VUEXCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)EXCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)LCLCLankanectes corrugatus (Peters,1863)E:Corrugated waterfrog; S:Vaka reli diyamadiyaVUB1ab(iii)93

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: RhacophoridaePseudophilautus abundusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus adspersus(Günther, 1872)Pseudophilautus alto Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus asankaiManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus auratusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus caeruleusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus cavirostris(Günther, 1869)Pseudophilautus cuspisManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus decorisManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus dimbullae(Shreve, 1940)Pseudophilautus eximius (Shreve,1940)Pseudophilautus extirpoManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus femoralis(Günther, 1864)Pseudophilautus fergusonianus(Ahl, 1927)Pseudophilautus folicolaManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus frankenbergiManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus fulvusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005E:Labugama shrubfrog; S:Labugamapanduru madiyaE:Thwaites's shrubfrog; S:Thwaitesgepanduru madiyaE:Horton Plains shrubfrog; S:Mahaeliyapanduru madiyaE:Asanka's shrub frog;S: Asankage pandurumadiyaE:Golden shrub frog;S:Ranwan pandurumadiyaE:Blue thigh shrubfrog; S:Nil kalawethipanduru madiyaE:Hollow-snoutedshrub frog; S:Hirigadupanduru madiyaE:Sharp-snouted shrubfrog; S: Thiyunu hombupanduru madiyaE:Elegant shrub frog;S:Bhushana pandurumadiyaE:Dimbulla shrub frog;S:Dimbulla pandurumadiyaE:Queenwood shrbfrog; S:Queenwoodpanduru madiyaE:Blunt-snouted shrubfrog; S:Mota-hombupanduru madiyaE:Leaf-nesting shrubfrog; S:Pala pandurumadiyaE:Ferguson's shrubfrog; S:Fergusongepanduru madiyaE:Leaf dwelling shrubfrog; S:Vakutu kolapanduru madiyaE:Frankenberg's shrubfrog; S:Frankenberggepanduru madiyaE:Knuckles shrub frog;S:Dumbara pandurumadiyaENEXENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)EXENCR B2ab(iii) ENENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)ENCR B2ab(iii) ENENENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)ENENCR B2ab(iii) ENEXEXEXEXEXEXCR B2ab(iii) ENVUB1ab(iii)VU B1ab(iii) ENCR B2ab(iii) ENCR B1ab(iii) ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)94

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPseudophilautus halyiManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus hallidayiManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus hoffmanniManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus hoipolloiManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus hypomelas(Günther, 1876)Pseudophilautus leucorhinus(Lichtenstein, Weinland & VonMartens, 1856)Pseudophilautus limbusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus lunatusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus macropus(Günther, 1869)Pseudophilautus malcolmsmithi(Ahl, 1927)Pseudophilautus microtympanum(Günther, 1859)Pseudophilautus mittermeieriMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus mooreorumMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus nanus (Günther,1869)Pseudophilautus nasutus (Günther,1869)Pseudophilautus nemusMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus ocularisMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus oxyrhynchus(Günther, 1872)E:Pattipola shrub frog;S:Pattipola pandurumadiyaE:Halliday's shrub frog;S::Hallidayge pandurumadiyaE:Hoffman's shrubfrog; S:Hoffmangepanduru madiyaE:Anthropogenicshrub frog; S:Gevathupanduru madiyaE:Webless shrubfrog; S:Patala rahithapnduru madiyaE:White-nosed shrubfrog; S:Sudu nasethipanduru madiyaE:Haycock shrub frog;S:Haycock pandurumadiyaE:Handapan Ella shrubfrog; S:Handapan ellapanduru madiyaE:Bigfoot shrub frog;S:Vishala padethipanduru madiyaE:Malcomsmith's shrubfrog; S:Malcomsmithgepanduru madiyaE:Small eared shrubfrog; S:Kudakanpanduru madiyaE:Mittermeier's shrubfrog; S:Mittermeiergepanduru madiyaE:Moore's shrub frog;S:Moorige pandurumadiyaE:Southern shrubfrog; S:Dakunu digapanduru madiyaE:Pointed-snoutedshrub frog; S:Ul hombupanduru madiyaE:Whistling shrub frog;S:Urahanbana pandurumadiyaE:Golden-eyed shrubfrog; S:Ranwan-es ethipanduru madiyaE:Sharp-snouted shrubfrog; S:Thiyunu hombupanduru madiyaEXENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)EXVUCR B2ab(iii) ENENEXEXB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)EXEXB1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii) CRCR B1ab(iii) CREXEXCR B2ab(iii) ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)CREXEXB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)ENEXEXCR B2ab(iii) CRCR B1ab(iii) ENEXEXB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)95

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPseudophilautus papillosusMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus pleurotaenia(Boulenger, 1904)Pseudophilautus popularisMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus poppiaeMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus procaxMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus regiusMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus reticulatus(Günther, 1864)Pseudophilautus rugatus (Ahl,1927)Pseudophilautus rusMegaskumbura & Manamendra-Arachcchi, 2005Pseudophilautus sarasinorum(Müller, 1887)Pseudophilautus schmarda(Kelaart, 1854)Pseudophilautus semiruber(Annandale, 1913)Pseudophilautus silusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus silvaticusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus simbaManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus sordidusManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus stellatus (Kelaart,1853)Pseudophilautus steineriManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005E:Papillated shrubfrog; S:Dive-getithathipanduru madiyaE:Side-striped shrubfrog; S:Pathi thirethipanduru madiyaE:Common shrub frog;S:Sulabha pandurumadiyaE:Poppy's shrub frog;S:Poppyge pandurumadiyaE:Cheeky shrub frog;S:Kammule pellamethipanduru madiyaE:Polonnaruwa shrubfrog; S:Rajaratapanduru madiyaE:Reticulated thighshrub frog; S:Jalabhapanduru madiyaE:Farnland shrub frog;S:Farnland pandurumadiyaE:Kandian shrub frog;S:Nuwara pandurumadiyaE:Muller's shrub frog;S:Mullerge pandurumadiyaE:Schmarda's shrubfrog; S:Gorahendipanduru madiyaE:Annandale's shrubfrog; S:Annandalegepanduru madiyaE:Pug-nosed shrubfrog; S:Mukkan hombuethi panduru madiyaCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)CRCR B2ab(iii) ENNTCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)ENCR B2ab(iii) CRVUB1ab(iii)EN B2ab(iii) ENEXCRENB2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)EXENCR B2ab(iii) ENDDENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E:Forest shrub frog;S:Kela panduru madiya EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E:Sinharaja shrub frog;S:Sinharaja pandurumadiyaE:Grubby shrub frog;S:Anduru lapavanpanduru madiyaE:Spotted shrub frog;S:Pulli sahitha pandurumadiyaE:Steiner's shrub frog;S:Steinerge pandurumadiyaENENCR B2ab(iii) CRVUCR(PE)B1ab(iii)EXCR B2ab(iii) ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)96

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPseudophilautus stictomerus(Günther, 1876)Pseudophilautus stuartiManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus temporalis(Günther, 1864)Pseudophilautus variabilis(Günther, 1859)Pseudophilautus viridisManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus zal Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus zimmeriManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus zorroManamendra-Arachchi &Pethiyagoda, 2005Pseudophilautus pardusMeegaskumbura, M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K & Pethiyagoda, R., 2007Pseudophilautus maia Ferguson,1876Pseudophilautus singuMeegaskumbura, M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K & Pethiyagoda, R., 2009Pseudophilautus tanuMeegaskumbura, M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K & Pethiyagoda, R., 2009Pseudophilautus schneideriMeegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., 2011Pseudophilautus hankeniMeegaskumbura, M. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., 2011Polypedates cruciger Blyth, 1852Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834)Polypedates ranwellaiWickranasinghe, Munindradasa &Fernando, 2012Taruga eques Günther, 1858E:Orange canthalshrub frog; S:Thembilihombuethi pandurumadiyaE:Stuart's shrub frog;S:Stuartge pandurumadiyaE:Striped-snoutedshrub frog; S:Hombuthirethi panduru madiyaE:Gunther's shrub frog;S:Guntherge pandurumadiyaE:Dull-green shrubfrog; S:Anduru kolapanduru madiyaE:White blotched shrubfrog; S:Sudu pulli ethipanduru madiyaE:Rummassala shrubfrog; S:Rummassalapanduru madiyaE:Gannoruwa shrubfrog; S:Gannoruwapanduru madiyaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)CR B2ab(iii) ENEXEXENEXEXB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)EXEXENEXEXCR B2ab(iii) ENE:Leopard shrub frog EX EXEXENE: Sri Lanka petite frog ENE:Schneider's shrubfrog; S:Schneidergepanduru madiyaE:Hanken's shrub frog;S:Hankenge pandurumadiyaE:Common hourglasstree frog; S:Sulabhapahimbu gas madiyaE:Spotted tree frog;S:Pulli gas madiyaENCRLCLCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(iii)E: Ranwellas tree frog CR B2ab(iii)E:Mountain hourglasstree frog; S:Kandukaragas madiyaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)EXENENENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B2ab(ii,iii)B2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)97

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaTaruga fastigo Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda, 2001Taruga longinasus (Ahl, 1931)Family: IcthyophiidaeIchthyophis glutinosus (Linnaeus,1758)Ichthyophis orthoplicatus Taylor,1965Ichthyophis pseudangularis Taylor,1965E:Morningside treefrog; S:Ensal watta gasmadiyaE:Long-snouted treefrog; S:Dik hombu gasmadiyaE:Ceylon caecilian;S: Kaha hiridandaE:Pattipola caecilian;S:Dumburu hiridandaE:Lesser yellowbanded caecilian; S:Kuda kaha hiridandaCRENVUENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)CRENVUB1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)EN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii)98

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of the Reptile Fauna in Sri LankaL. J. Mendis WickramasingheHerpetological Foundation of Sri Lanka, 31/5, Alwis Town, Hendala, Wattala, Sri LankaIntroductionSince the description of the first reptile, Cylindrophis maculate (syn. Anguis maculata) fromSri Lanka by Carl Linnaeus in 1754, large number of reptile species have been recordedfrom Sri Lanka (Batuwita and Bahir, 2005; Batuwita and Pethiyagoda, 2007; Das, et al.2008; Deraniyagala 1953 and 1955; de Silva 1980; de Silva 1990; Gans & Fetcho, 1982;Gower and Maduwage 2011; Greer, 1991; Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007; Pethiyagoda &Manamendra-Arachchi, 1998; Smith 1933, 1935 & 1943, Smith et al. 2008; Taylor 1950a, 1950b& 1953, Wall 1921; Wickramasinghe, et al. 2009, Wood et.al., 2012). These published worksindicates that Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich reptile fauna. The current list of reptile fauna ofSri Lanka comprise of 211 species of which 59% (124) are considered as endemic species. Thereptile fauna can be further categorized in to 103 species of serpentoid reptiles (49 endemic)belonging to 10 families, one Subfamilie and 40 genera (five endemic - Pseudotyphlops,Aspidura, Balanophis, Cercaspis and Haplocercus), and 108 species of tetrapod reptiles(76 endemic) belonging to 12 families with 34 genera (six endemic - Ceratophora, Cophotis,Lyriocephalus, Chalcidoseps, Nessia and Lankascincus).TaxonomySince the publication of the 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka, 24 newspecies have been added to the list of reptiles in Sri Lanka. Out of these, 17 are new to sciencethat includes four species of serpentoid reptiles Calliophis haematoetron (Smith et al. 2008),Rhinophis erangaviraji (Wickramasinghe, et al. 2009), Rhinophis lineatus, and Rhinophiszigzag (Gower and Maduwage 2011), and 13 species of tetrapod reptiles Cnemaspis amith,C. clivicola, C. kallima, C. latha, C. menikay, C. pava, C. phillipsi, C. pulchara, C. punctata,C. silvula, C. upendrai (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007), Lankascincus greeri (Batuwitaand Pethiyagoda 2007), Eutropis tammanna (Das, et al. 2008). The remaining seven specieshas resulted due to three re-validations Hypnale zara (Gray, 1849) by Maduwage et al. 2009and Dendrelaphis schokari (Kuhl, 1820) by Rooijen & Vogel 2008 and Hemidactylus pieresiiKelaart, 1853 by Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2012, a probable new species Hypnale sp. ‘amal’(Maduwage et al. 2009), two new records for Sri Lanka Hydrophis fasciatus (Abyerami andSivashanthini 2008) and Chalcides cf. ocellatus that resulted in a range extension of the genusChalcides from India to Sri Lanka (Karunarathna et al. 2008), and finally Enhydris enhydris(Schneider, 1799) was included since a specimen from Sri Lanka (CAS 12767) was examinedand identified by Murphy & Voris (2005) from the California Academy of Science.Number of taxonomic revisions has taken place during the last decade resulting in changesin reptile nomenclature at family, genus and species level. Nine genera belonging to thefamily Colubridae which consisted of 22 genera earlier have been placed under two otherfamilies based on molecular studies (genera Cerberus, Enhydris and Gerarda are included infamily Homolapsidae, and genera Amphiesma, Atretium, Argyrogena, Aspidura, Balanophis,Macropisthodon,and Xenochrophis are included in family Natricidae Vidal et al. 2009; Zaheret al. 2009). Genus level name changes included Sphenomorphus dorsicatenatus beingchanged to Lankascincus dorsicatenatus (Batuwita and Pethiyagoda, 2007), all members ofthe genus Mabuya being placed under the genus Eutropis (Mausfeld and Schmitz, 2003), andCosymbotus platyurus being changed to Hemidactylus platyurus (Carranza and Arnold, 2006).Several species level name changes have also been affected resulting in Lissemys punctata99

een changed to L. ceylonensis (Praschag et al. 2011), Hemidactylus brookii parvimaculatusto H. parvimaculatus (Bauer et al. 2010a), Hemidactylus maculates hunae to H. hunae (Baueret al. 2010b), Hemidactylus triedrus lankae to H. lankae (Bauer et al. 2010), Hypnale nepato H. zara (Maduwage et al. 2009) and Geckoella triedrus (Günther, 1864) to Cyrtodactylustriedra (Wood, et al. 2012). Further, several species have been removed from the list of reptilesin Sri Lanka due to taxonomic revisions. For instance, Hypnale walli, has been declaredas a junior synonym of Hypnale nepa (Maduwage et al. 2009), Boiga ranawanei, as a juniorsynonym of Boiga beddomei (Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2007) and Cnemaspisranwellai, as a junior synonym of Cnemaspis scalpensis (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007).DistributionThe name changes mentioned above have also resulted in status changes of number of species,where Lissemys ceylonensis, Hemidactylus hunae, and H. lankae are now listed as speciesendemic to Sri Lanka (Praschag et al. 2011; Bauer et al. 2010). Further, Wickramasinghe etal., (2011) have shown that Dasia halianus is also endemic to Sri Lanka. In addition numberof recent studies has provided evidence to change the previously known distribution patternof several species of reptiles. For instance, Cnemaspis kandianus and C. tropidagastur thatwere formerly considered to have a wide distribution in Sri Lanka is now known to be confinedto Kandy district and certain parts of the Matale district (Manamendra-Arachchi, et al. 2007).Likewise, Dendrelaphis tristis, who was thought to have a wide distribution, has now beenconfined to the dry and arid zones, but may be rarely found from the wet zone, while thespecies commonly found in the wet zone was re-validated as D. schokari who can also rarelybe found from the dry zone of the island, but never in the arid zone. On the other hand thedistribution range of number of species such as C. podihuna (Karunarathna et al 2010), C.molligodai, and C. silvulai, (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011a, 2012), Calodactylodesillingworthorum, (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011b), Liopeltis calamaria (Karunarathnaand Perera 2010), Lankascincus greeri (Karunarathna and Amarasinghe 2011a, Karunarathnaet al 2012; Peabotuwage et al 2012) has been expanded with the availability of new information.Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) was not included in the current list despite the fact thatseveral authors (Das & de Silva 2005; Somaweera 2006; Somaweera & Somaweera 2009)have included the species in their publications, due to the fact that there is no evidence for itslanding sights and no sight records for the species in the island’s surrounding oceans.ThreatsDeforestation, leading to loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation are the main threats facedby reptile fauna of Sri Lanka. The rate of forest depletion and loss of wild life habitats in SriLanka is considered one of the highest in South Asia with more than 50% of the forest coverbeing lost during the last century alone. Loss of forest cover is especially prominent in the dryzone of Sri Lanka which may be the reason for low level of endemicity observed in the reptilefauna. This idea is further supported by the fact that most of the dry zone restricted endemicreptiles are found in forests associated with isolated hills (Cnemaspis ritigalaensis in Ritigala,Cnemaspis kumarasinghei in Moneragala and Cnemaspis podihuna in Lahugala), which areperhaps the only forests patches that have been preserved untouched by man for centuries.Majority of the endemic and threatened reptiles are restricted to the Lowland and Montaneforests that are fast disappearing is identified as the biggest threat to the reptile fauna of SriLanka. In addition, mortality related to man-made forest fires, application of agrochemicals,road kills, non selective killing of snakes and predation by farm and domestic animals havealso been identified as threats faced by the reptile fauna.100

The crocodile populations are under increased threat and have even attracted the attentionof the international scientific community. Once again, habitat loss and habitat fragmentationresulting due to ever expanding human population and rapid development projects that bringsthese animals into conflict with humans is considered as the main threat to the two crocodilepopulations in Sri Lanka. Capture and relocation, the main management tool used at presentto mitigate such conflicts, cannot be considered as an effective conservation measure as theremaining natural habitats cannot absorb more animals as they are already near their carryingcapacity. Therefore the next best option would be to devise an alternate location for them suchas a ‘crocodile sanctuary’ so that their destiny will not have to end at the hands of humans.ConservationLess than 33% of the Sri Lankan reptiles are listed in the global list of threatened species. Outof the species of reptiles that are globally assessed, most are listed under the Data Deficient(DD) category. The main reason for this low representation in the global threatened list is thelack of data on many species of reptiles endemic to Sri Lanka, especially species belonging toTyphlopidae, Uropeltidae, and Hydrophidae snake families. Most of the species belonging tofamily Uropeltidae except species with single records have been assessed in the current list.Since systematic studies for the families Typhlopidae, and Hydrophidae have only commencedrecently, species of these families were placed under the DD category for the time being untilmore information becomes available. No specific conservation programmes have been carriedout for reptiles of Sri Lanka except for sea turtles. There is a need to formulate species recoveryplans for at least identified critically endangered and endangered species and their habitats(Erdelen 2012). Further there are habitats that support unique reptile species assemblagessuch as Aruwakkalu which is the type locality of four burrowing reptiles species Rhinophisdorsimaculatus (Orange shield tail), Rhinophis porrectus (Willey’s earth snake), and Nessiahickanala (Sharkhead snakeskink) which is being mined extensively by the Cement industry.Such habitats have to be identified and preserved to ensure long term conservation of thereptile fauna of Sri Lanka.Research NeedsAbsence or lack of accurate data on many species of Sri Lankan reptiles is the major impedimentin correctly assessing their current conservation status as well as preparing species specificconservation action plans for the threatened reptile species. Most of the studies done to datehave focussed mainly on the distribution of reptiles with little attention being paid to studythe ecology and biology of at least the threatened and endemic reptile species. Therefore, aresearch agenda needs to be prepared for the reptiles identifying the priority areas that needto be focussed in order to facilitate research that will address the present information gaps inreptile fauna of Sri Lanka. Further, there is practically no information available on the reptilefauna of Northern and North-eastern parts of the island due to three decades of civil warthat existed in the region. It should be noted that some species of Typhlops that have beendescribed from this region has not been recorded after their initial descriptions (Taylor, 1947;Smith, 1943). Also reptile fauna found in the isolated mountains in the dry zone needs to beinvestigated further as studies done to date have shown that the natural forests associatedwith such isolated hills may be the last refugees for the herpetofauna inhabiting the dry zone(Wickramasinghe & Munindradasa 2007; Gower & Maduwage 2011). A systematic study of thedistribution of reptile fauna in Sri Lanka is also a major research need as 22 reptile species101

have not been recorded after their initial description and 12 species have not been recordedfor nearly a century. Further, the type localities of many reptile species are given as Ceylonor the name of a major town, which is not precise and prevents a proper assessment of thestatus of such species. Study of systematics of the reptile fauna is also another identified needespecially the taxonomic status of the marine snake fauna of Sri Lanka which has not beenrevised for the past 52 years since the work done by Deraniyagala (1955). Since then, virtuallyno in-depth study on systematic has been carried out by scientists on marine snake fauna incoastal waters of Sri Lanka.References:Abyerami, S. & Sivashanthini, K., (2008). Current status of marine snakes from Jaffna Peninsula, Sri Lanka withdescription of hitherto unrecorded Hydrophis fasciatus fasciatus (Schneider, 1799). International Journal ofZoological Research, 4(4), pp.214–224.Bahir, M. M. & Silva, A., (2005). Otocryptis nigristigma, a new species of agamid lizard from Sri Lanka. The RafflesBulletin of Zoology, 12, pp.235–241.Batuwita, S. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2007). Description of a new species of Sri Lankan litter skink (Squamata: Scincidae:Lankascincus). Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.), 36(2), pp.80–87.Bauer, A. M., Jackman, T. R., Greenbaum, E., de Silva, A., Giri, V. B. & Das, I., (2010a). Molecular evidence for thetaxonomic status of Hemidactylus brookii group taxa (Squamata: Gekkonidae). Herpetological Journal, 20,pp.129–138.Bauer, A. M., Jackman, T. R., Greenbaum, E., de Silva, A. & Giri, V. B., (2010b). South Asia supports a majorendemic radiation of Hemidactylus geckos. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 57, pp.343–352.Carranza, S. & Arnold, E. N., (2006). Systematics, biogeography, and evolution of Hemidactylus geckos (Reptilia:Gekkonidae) elucidated using mitochondrial DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetic and Evolution. 38,pp.531–545.Das, I. & de Silva, A., (2005). Snakes and Other Reptiles of Sri Lanka. New Holland Publishers.Das, I., De Silva, A. & Austin, C. C., (2008). A new species of Eutropis (Squamata: Scincidae) from Sri Lanka.Zootaxa, 1700, pp.35–52.de Silva, A., (1990). Colour Guide to the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Avon, England: R & A Publishing Ltd.de Silva, P. H. D. H., (1980). Snake Fauna of Sri Lanka. Colombo: National Museums of Sri Lanka. Colombo.Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1953). A Colored atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon, Vol. 2, Tetrapod Reptilia. Colombo:Ceylon National Museum, Colombo.Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1955). A Colored atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon, Vol. 3, Serpentoid Reptilia.Colombo: Ceylon National Museums, Colombo.Gans, C. & Fetcho, J. R., (1982). The Sri Lankan Genus Aspidura (Serpentes. Reptilia, Colubridae). Annals ofCarnegie Museum, 51(14), pp. 271–316.Gower, D. J. & Maduwage, K., (2011). Two new species of Rhinophis Hemprich (Serpentes: Uropeltidae) from SriLanka. Zootaxa. 2881, pp.51–68.Greer, A. E., (1991). Lankascincus a New Genus of Scincid Lizards from Sri Lanka, with Descriptions of Three NewSpecies. Journal of Herpetology, 25(1), pp.59–64.Karunarathna, D. M. S. S. & Amarasinghe, A. A. T., (2011). Natural history and Conservation status of CalodactylodesIllingworthorum Deraniyagala, 1953 (Sauria: Gekkonidae) in south-eastern Sri Lanka. Herpetotropicos, 6(1&2),pp. 5–10.Karunarathna, D. M. S. S. & Amarasinghe, A. A. T., (2011). Reptile diversity in Beraliya mukalana proposed forestreserve, Galle district, Sri Lanka. Taprobanica, 4(1), pp.20–26.Karunarathna, D. M. S. S., Amarasinghe, A. A. T., Abeywardena, U. T. I., Asela, M. D. C., Jayaneththi, H. B. &Madurapperuma, P. L., (2010). Some observations of Cnemaspis podihuna Deraniyagala, 1944 (Reptilia:Gekkonidae) in Sri Lanka. Gekko, 6(1), pp.23–29.Karunarathna, D. M. S. S. & Perera, W. P. N., (2010). New Distribution Records for Liopeltis calamaria (Günther,1858) (Reptilia: Serpentes: Colubridae), with Notes on its Bioecology and Threats in Sri Lanka. Sauria, 32(2),pp.51–57.Karunarathna, D. M. S. S., Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Samarawickrama V. A. P. & Munindradasa, D. A. I., (2008).The range extension of genus Chalcides Laurenti, 1768 (Reptilia: Scincidae) in to Sri Lanka. Russian Journalof Herpetology, 15(3), pp.225–228.Maduwage K., Silva A., Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2009). A taxonomic revision of the SouthAsian hump-nosed pit vipers (Squamata: Viperidae: Hypnale). Zootaxa, 2232, pp.1–28.102

Murphy, J.C., and Voris, H.K. (2005). A new Thai Enhydris (Serpentes: Colubridae: Homalopsinae). The RafflesBulletin of Zoology, 53(1): 143–147.Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2007). Boiga ranawanei, a junior synonym of Boiga beddomei.Zeylanica, 7(1), pp.123–124.Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Batuwita, S. & Pethiyagoda, R., (2007). A taxonomic revision of the Sri Lankandaygeckos (Reptilia: Gekkonidae: Cnemaspis), with description of new species from Sri Lanka and southernIndia. Zeylanica, 7(1), pp.9–122.Mausfeld, P. & Schmitz, A., (2003). Molecular phylogeography, intraspecific variation and speciation of the Asianscincid lizard genus Eutropis Fitzinger, 1843 (Squamata: Reptilia: Scincidae): taxonomic and biogeographicimplications. Organism Diversity and Evolution, 3, pp.161–171.Peabotuwage, I., Bandara, I. N., Samarasinghe, D., Perera, N., Madawala, M., Amarasinghe, C., Kandambi, H. K.D. & Karunarathna, D. M. S. S., (2012). Range extension for Duttaphrynus kotagamai (Amphibia: Bufonidae)and a preliminary checklist of herpetofauna from the Uda Mäliboda Trail in Samanala Nature Reserve, SriLanka. Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, 5(2), pp.52–64.Praschag, P., Stuckas, H., Päckert, M., Maran, J. & Fritz, U., (2011). Mitochondrial DNA sequences suggest arevised taxonomy of Asian flapshell turtles (Lissemys Smith, 1931) and the validity of previously unrecognizedtaxa (Testudines: Trionychidae). Vertebrate Zoology, 61 (1), pp.147–160.Smith, M. A., (1933). The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I. Loricata.London: Taylor & Francis.Smith, M. A., (1935). The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II. Sauria.London: Taylor & Francis.Smith, M. A., (1943). The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, including the Whole of the Indo-Chinese Sub-Region. Reptilia and Amphibia Vol. III. Serpents. London: Taylor & Francis.Smith, E., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., & Somaweera, R., (2008). A new species of coral-snake of the genusCalliophis (Squamata: Elapidae) from the Central Province of Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 1847, pp.19–33.Somaweera, R., (2006). Sri Lankawe Sarpayin [in Sinhala]. Colombo: WHT Publications.Somaweera, R., & Somaweera, N., (2009). An overview of Sri Lankan sea snakes with an annotated checklist andfield key. Taprobanica, 1(1), pp.43–54.Taylor, E. H., (1950). Ceylonese Lizards of the Family Scincidae. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 33(13),pp.481–518.Taylor, E. H., (1950). A Brief Review of Ceylonese Snakes. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 33(14),pp.519–603.Taylor, E. H., (1953). A Review of the Lizards of Ceylon. University of Kansas Science Bulletin, 35(12),pp.1525–1585.Vidal, N., Rage, J-C., Couloux, A., & Hedges, B., (2009). Snakes (Serpentes). In: S. B. Hedges & S. Kumar, ed.2009. The Timetree of Life. Oxford University Press, pp.390–397Wall. F., (1921). Ophidia Taprobanica or the Snakes of Ceylon. Colombo: H.R. Cottle, Govt. Printer.Wood, P. L., Heinicke, M. P., Jackman, T. R., & Bauer, A. M., (2012). Phylogeny of bent-toed geckos (Cyrtodactylus)reveals a West to East pattern of diversification. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 65(3), pp.992–1003.Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Vidanapathirana, D. R., Wickramasinghe, N., & Ranwella, P. N., (2009). A New Speciesof Rhinophis Hemprich, 1820 (Reptilia: Serpentes: Uropeltidae) from Rakwana massif, Sri Lanka. Zootaxa,2044, pp.1–22.Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Wickramasinghe, N. & Kariyawasam, L., (2011). Taxonomic status of the arborealSkink Lizard Dasia halianus (Haly & Nevill, 1887) in Sri Lanka and the redescription of Dasia subcaeruleum(Boulenger, 1891) from India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 3(8), pp.1961–1974.Wickramasinghe, L. J. M., Wickramasinghe, N. & Kariyawasam, L., (2011). Taxonomic status of the arborealSkink Lizard Dasia halianus (Haly & Nevill, 1887) in Sri Lanka and the redescription of Dasia subcaeruleum(Boulenger, 1891) from India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 3(8), pp.1961–1974.103

Table 10: List of Reptiles in Sri LankaScientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: CrocodylidaeCrocodylus palustris Lesson, 1831Crocodylus porosus Schneider,1801Family: BataguridaeMelanochelys trijuga (Schweigger,1812)Family: CheloniidaeCaretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758)Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758)Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus,1766)Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz,1829)Family: DermochelidaeDermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761)Family: TestudinidaeGeochelone elegans (Schoepff, 1795)Family: TrionychidaeLissemys ceylonensis (Gray, 1856)Family: AgamidaeCalotes calotes (Linnaeus, 1758)Calotes ceylonensis (Müller, 1887)Calotes desilvai Bahir & Maduwage,2005Calotes liocephalus Günther, 1872Calotes liolepis Boulenger, 1885E: Mugger crocodile / Marshcrocodile; S: Hala kimbula;T: Kulathi Muthalei NT VUE: Saltwater crocodile / Estuarinecrocodile; S: Gata kimbula;T: Semmukku Muthalei EN B2ab(iii) LR/lcE: Black turtle; S: Gal ibba;T: Amai, Karuppu Amai LCLR/ntA1a,C2aE: Loggerhead sea turtle;S: Olugedi kasbaeva / Kannadikasbaeva; T: PerunthalaiAmai EN B2ab(iii) EN A1abdE: Green turtle; S: Gal kasbaeva/ Mas kasbaeva / Valikasbaeva; T: Pal Amai EN B2ab(iii) EN A2bdE: Hawksbill sea turtle;S: Pothu kasbaeva / Leli kasbaeva;T: Nanja Amai EN B2ab(iii) CR A2bdE: Olive ridley sea turtle;S: Batu kasbaeva / Madakasbaeva; T: Pul Amai EN B2ab(iii) VU A2bdE: Leatherback sea turtle;S: Dara kasbaeva / Tun Darakasbaeva; T: Dhoni Amai EN B2ab(iii) CR A1abdE: Indian star tortoise;S: Mevara ibba/ Taraka ibba;T: Katu Amai NT LR/lcE: Flapshell turtle; S: Kiri ibba;T: Pal Amai LCE: Green garden lizard;S: Pala katussa; T: PachaiKarataLCE: Painted lip lizard; S: TholavisiturukatussaNTE: Desilvas’ whistling lizard /Desilvas’ forest lizard;S: Desilvage sivuruhandalanakatussa CR B2ab(iii)E: Crestless lizard; S: Kondudatirahita katussa EN B2ab(iii) EN B1+2bcE: Whistling lizard / Forestlizard; S: SivuruhandalanakatussaNT104

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCalotes nigrilabris Peters, 1860Calotes versicolor (Daudin, 1802)Ceratophora aspera Günther, 1864Ceratophora erdeleni Pethiyagoda &Manamendra-Arachchi. 1998Ceratophora karu Pethiyagoda &Manamendra-Arachchi. 1998Ceratophora stoddartii Gray, 1835Ceratophora tennentii Günther andGray, 1861Cophotis ceylanica Peters, 1861Cophotis dumbara Samarawickrama,Ranawana, Rajapaksha, Ananjeva, Orlov,Ranasinghe & Samarawickrama,2006Lyriocephalus scutatus (Linnaeus,1758)Otocryptis nigristigma Bahir & Silva,2005Otocryptis wiegmanni Wagler, 1830Sitana ponticeriana Cuvier, 1829Family: ChameleonidaeChamaeleo zeylanicus Laurenti, 1768Family: GekkonidaeCalodactylodes illingworthorumDeraniyagala, 1953Cnemaspis alwisi Wickramasinghe &Munundradasa, 2007Cnemaspis amith Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cnemaspis clivicola Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cnemaspis gemunu Bauer, De Silva,greenbaum & Jackman, 2007Cnemaspis kallima Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cnemaspis kandiana (Kelaart, 1853)Cnemaspis kumarasinghei Wickramasinghe& Munundradasa, 2007E: Black cheek lizard; S: Kalukopul katussaENE: Common garden lizard;S: Gara katussa LCE: Rough horn lizard;S: Raluang katussa / KuruangkatussaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Erdelen’s horn lizard;S: Erdelenge angkatussa CR B1ab(iii)E: Karunaratne’s horn lizard;S: Karunaratnage angkatusua CR B1ab(iii)E: Rhinohorn lizard;S: Kagamuva angkatussa ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VU B1abB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Leafnose lizard; S: Pethiangkatussa. CR B2ab(iii) EN B1+2bcE: Pygmy lizard; S: KandukarakurukatussaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Knuckles pygmy lizard;S: Dumbara kurukatussa CR B2ab(iii) CR B1ab(iii)E: Lyre head lizard / Humpsnoutedlizard; S: Gatahombukatussa / Karamal bodiliya VU B1ab(iii) NTE: Black spotted kangaroo lizard;S: Wiyali Pinum katussa LCE: Sri Lankan kangaroo lizard;S: Gomu talikatussa / Pinumkatussa /LCE: Fanthroated lizard; S: Pulinatalikatussa / Vali katussa LC LCE: Sri Lankan chameleon;S: Bodilima / Bodiliya EN B2ab(iii)E: Lankan golden gecko;S: Maha galhuna EN B2ab(iii)E: Alwis’s day gecko; S: AlwisgedivasarihunaNTE: Amith’s day gecko;S: Amithge divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Montain day gecko;S: Kandukara divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Gemunu’s day gecko;S: Gemunuge divasarihuna CRE: Gammaduwa day gecko;S: Gammaduva divasarihuna CRE: Kandyan day gecko;S: Kandukara divasarihuna ENE: Kumarasinghe’s day gecko;S: Kumarasinghege divasarihunaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LC105

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCnemaspis latha Manamendra-Arachchi,Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007Cnemaspis menikay Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cnemaspis molligodai Wickramasinghe& Munundradasa, 2007Cnemaspis pava Manamendra-Arachchi,Batuwita & Pethiyagoda, 2007Cnemaspis phillipsi Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cnemaspis podihuna Deraniyagala,1944Cnemaspis pulchra Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cnemaspis punctata Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cnemaspis retigalensis Wickramasinghe& Munundradasa, 2007Cnemaspis samanalensis Wickramasinghe& Munundradasa, 2007Cnemaspis scalpensis (Ferguson,1877)Cnemaspis silvula Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cnemaspis tropidogaster (Boulenger,1885)Cnemaspis upendrai Manamendra-Arachchi, Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Cyrtodactylus cracens Batuwita &Bahir, 2005Cyrtodactylus edwardtaylori Batuwita& Bahir, 2005Cyrtodactylus fraenatus (Günther,1864)Cyrtodactylus ramboda Batuwita &Bahir, 2005Cyrtodactylus soba Batuwita & Bahir,2005Cyrtodactylus subsolanus Batuwita &Bahir, 2005Cyrtodactylus triedra (Günther, 1864)Geckoella collegalensis (Beddome,1870)E: Elegant day gecko;S: Bushana divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Jewel day gecko; S: Ratnadivasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Molligod’s day gecko;S: Molligodage divasarihuna ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Little day gecko; S: Kudadivasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Phillip’s day gecko; S: Phillipgedivasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Dwarf day gecko; S: Kudadivasarihuna / Podi galhuna VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Rakvana day gecko;S: Rakvana divasarihuna CRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Dotted day gecko; S: Thithdivasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Ritigala day gecko; S: Ritigaladivasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Peakwilderness day gecko;S: Samanaola divasarihuna CRE: Gannoruva day gecko;S: Gannoruva divasarihuna ENE: Forest day gecko; S: VanadivasarihunaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Roughbelly day gecko;S: Ralodara divasarihuna DD DDE: Upendra’s day gecko;S: Upendrage divasarihuna CR B2ab(iii)E: Narrow headed forestgecko; S: Hisa-patu MukalamhunaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Taylors forest gecko;S: Taylorge mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii)E: Great forest gecko;S; Maha halae huna / Mukalamhuna CR B1ab(iii)E: Ramboda forest gecko;S; Ramboda mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii)E: Knuckles forest gecko;S: Dumbara mukalam huna CR B2ab(iii)E: Rakwana forest gecko;S: Rakwana mukalam huna CRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Spotted bowfinger gecko;S: Pulli vakaniyahuna VU B1ab(iii) NTE: Collegal rockgecko;S: Collegalge vakaniyahuna DD106

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaGeckoella yakhuna (Deraniyagala,1945)Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1834)Hemidactylus depressus Gray, 1842Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel inDuméril & Bibron, 1836Hemidactylus hunae Deraniyagala,1937Hemidactylus lankae Deraniyagala,1953Hemidactylus leschenaultii Duméril &Bibron, 1836Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Deraniyagala,1953Hemidactylus pieresii Kelaart, 1853Hemidactylus platyurus (Schneider,1792)Hemidactylus scabriceps (Annandale,1906)Hemiphyllodactylus typus Bleeker, 1860Lepidodactylus lugubris (Duméril &Bibron, 1836)Family: LacertidaeOphisops leschenaultii Milne- Edwards,1829Ophisops minor (Deraniyagala, 1971)Family: ScincidaeChalcides cf. ocellatus Forskal, 1775Chalcidoseps thwaitesii (Günther,1872)Dasia halianus (Haly & Nevill in: Nevill,1887)Eutropis beddomii (Jerdon, 1870)Eutropis bibronii (Gray, 1838)Eutropis carinata (Schneider, 1801)Eutropis floweri Taylor, 1950Eutropis macularia (Byth, 1853)Eutropis madaraszi Méhely, 1897E: Blotch bowfinger gecko /Demon gecko; S: Lapavanvakaniyahuna / Yak huna VU B1ab(iii)E: Four-claw gecko;S: Caturanguli huna LCE: Kandyan gecko; S: Haligehuna LC LCE: Common house-gecko;S: Sulaba gehuna LC LCE: Spotted giant-gecko / Rockgecko; S: Davanta tit huna EN B1ab(iii)E: Termite hill gecko; S; HumbashunaLCE: Bark gecko / Sycamoregecko; S: Kimbul huna / Gashuna / Kumbuk hunaLCE: Spotted housegecko;S: Pulli gehuna LCE: Pieresii’s housegecko;S; Pimburu huna EN B1ab(iii)E: Frilltail gecko; S: NagutavakaralihunaDDE: Scaly gecko; S; Korapotuhuna DD DDE: Slender gecko;S: Sihin huna VU B1ab(iii)E: Scaly-finger gecko / Mourninggecko; S: Salkapa huna VU B1ab(iii)E: Leschenault’s Snake eyelizard; S: Panduru sarpakshikatusa CR B2ab(iii)E: Lesser snake eye lizard;S: Kuda sarpakshi katusa CR B2ab(iii)E: White spotted skink;S: Sudu-pulli hikanala DDE: Fourtoe snakeskink;S: Caturanguli sarpiyahikanala CR B2ab(iii)E: Haly’s treeskink; S: HeligerukhiraluvaNTE: Beddome’s stripe skink;S: Vairan hikanala EN B2ab(iii)E: Bibron’s sand skink;S: Vali hikanala ENE: Common skink;S: Sulaba hikanala LCE: Taylor’s skink; S: TaylorgehikanalaENE: Bronzegreen little skink;S: Pingu hikanala LCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Spotted skink; S: Pullihikanala VU B1ab(iii)107

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaEutropis tammanna Das, de Silva &Austin, 2008Lankascincus deignani (Taylor, 1950)Lankascincus deraniyagalae Greer,1991Lankascincus dorsicatenatus (Deraniyagala,1953)Lankascincus fallax (Peters, 1860)Lankascincus gansi Greer, 1991Lankascincus greari Batuwita & Pethiyagoda,2007Lankascincus munindradasai Wickramasinghe,Rodrigo, Dayawansa &Jayantha, 2007Lankascincus sripadensis Wickramasinghe,Rodrigo, Dayawansa &Jayantha, 2007Lankascincus taprobanensis (Kelaart,1854)Lankascincus taylori Greer, 1991Lygosoma punctatus (Gmelin, 1799)Lygosoma singha (Taylor, 1950)Nessia bipes Smith, 1935Nessia burtonii Gray, 1839Nessia deraniyagalai Taylor, 1950Nessia didactylus (Deraniyagala,1934)Nessia hickanala Deraniyagala, 1940E: Tmmanna skink; S: TammannahikanalaLCE: Deignan’s lankaskink;S: Deignange lakhikanala ENE: Deraniyagal’s lankaskink;S: Daraniyagalge lakhikanala EN B2ab(iii)E: Catenated litter skink;S: Damwal singitihikanala ENE: Common lankaskink;S: Sulaba lakhikanala LCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Gans’s lankaskink;S: Gansge lakhikanala VU B1ab(iii)E: Geer’s lanka skink;S: Geerge lakhikanala ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Munidradasa’s lanka skink;S: Munindradasage lakhikanalaCR B1ab(iii)E: Sripada forest skink;S: Sripakandu duburuhikanala CR B2ab(iii)E: Smooth lanka skink;S: Sumudu lakhikanala ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Taylor’s lanka skink;S: Telorge lakhikanala EN B2ab(iii)E: Dotted skink;S: Tit hiraluhikanala LCE: Taylor’s skink;S: Taylorge hiraluhikanala DDE: Smith’s snakeskink;S: Smithge sarpahiraluva ENE: Threetoe Snakeskink;S: Triyanguli sarpahiraluva LCE: Deraniyagala’s snakeskink;S: Derniyagalage sarpahiraluvaDDE: Two toe snakeskink;S: Dvayanguli sarpahiraluva ENE: Sharkhead snakeskink;S: Morahis sarpahiraluva CRE: Layard’s snakeskink;S: Leyardge sarpahiraluva ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Nessia layardi (Kelaart, 1854)E: Toeless snakeskink;Nessia monodactylus (Gray, 1839) S: Ananguli sarpahiraluva EN B2ab(iii)E: Sarasin’s snakeskink;Nessia sarasinorum (Müller, 1889) S: Sarasinge sarpahiraluva VU B1ab(iii)Sphenomorphus dussumieri (Duméril & E: Dussumier’s litter skink;Bibron, 1839)S: Salkasahita singitihikanala DD LCSphenomorphus megalops (Annandale,E: Annandale’s litter skink;1906)S: Annandalege singitihikanala DDFamily: VaranidaeVaranus bengalensis (Daudin, 1802) E: Land monitor; S; Talagoya LC LCVaranus salvator (Laurenti, 1768)E: Water monitor;S: Kabaragoya LC LCNT108

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: AcrochordidaeAcrochordus granulatus (Schneider,1799)Family: BoidaeGongylophis conica (Schneider, 1796)Family: PythonidaeE: Wart snake; S: Diya goya/Redi naya VU B2ab(iii) LCE: Sand boa; B: Vali pimbura,kota pimbura VU B2ab(iii)Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Indian python; S: Pimbura LCFamily: CylindrophidaeCylindrophis maculata (Linnaeus,1758) E: Pipe snake, S: Depath naya NTFamily: NatricidaeE: Buff striped keelback;Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) S: Aharukuka LC B1ab(iii)Aspidura brachyorrhos (Boie, 1827)Aspidura copei Günther, 1864Aspidura deraniyagalae Gans &Fetcho, 1982Aspidura drummondhayi Boulenger,1904Aspidura guentheri Ferguson, 1876Aspidura trachyprocta Cope, 1860Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803)Balanophis ceylonensis (Günther,1858)Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor,1839)Xenochrophis asperrimus (Boulenger,1891)Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider,1799)Family: HomalopsidaeCerberus rynchops (Schneider, 1799)Gerarda prevostianus (Eydoux & Gervais,1837)Enhydris enhydris (Shneider, 1799)Family: ColubridaeAhaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789)Ahaetulla pulverulenta (Duméril, Bibron& Duméril, 1854)Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802)Boiga barnesii (Günther, 1869)LR/ntE: Boie’s roughside;S: Le madilla VU B2ab(iii) DDE: Cope’s roughside;S: Kalumedilla DDE: Deraniyagala’s roughside;S: Kandu madilla CR B1ab(iii)E: Drummond – Hay’s roughside;S: Ketiwalmadilla EN B2ab(iii)E: Guenther’s roughside;S: Kudamadilla NT B1ab(iii)E: Common roughside;S: Dalawa madilla EN B2ab(iii) LCE: The Olive keelback watersnake;S: Diyawarna. LC NTE: Sri Lanka keelback;S: Nihaluwa EN B1ab(iii)E: The green keelback;S: Palabariya NTE: The checkered keelback;S: Diya polonga / Diya bariya LC B2ab(iii)E: Checkered Keelback;S: Diya bariya LCE: Dog-faced water snake;S: Kuna diya kaluwa. LC LCE: Gerard’s water snake;S: Prevostge diyabariya EN B2ab(iii) LCE: Rainbow mud snake;S: Dedunu diyabariyawa DDE: Green vine snake;S: Ahaetulla LCE: Brown vine snake;S; Henakandaya LCE: Banded racer;S: Wal gerandiya DDE: Barnes’s cat snake,S: Panduru mapila VU B1ab(iii)109

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaBoiga beddomei (Wall, 1909)Boiga ceylonensis (Günther, 1858)Boiga forsteni (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril,1854)Boiga trigonatus (Schneider, 1802)Cercaspis carinata (Kuhl, 1820)Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw, 1802)Chrysopelea taprobanica Smith, 1943Coeloganthus helena (Daudin, 1803)Dendrelaphis bifrenalis (Boulenger,1890)Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus (Gray,1834)Dendrelaphis oliveri (Taylor, 1950)Dendrelaphis schokari (Kuhl, 1820)Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803)Dryocalamus gracilis (Günther, 1864)Dryocalamus nympha (Daudin, 1803)Haplocercus ceylonensis Günther,1858E: Beddoms cat snake;S: Kaha mapila NT DDE: Sri Lanka cat snake;S: Nidi mapila LCE: Forsten’s cat snake;S: Naga mapila NT LCE: Gamma cat snake;S: Ran mapila LC LCE: The Sri Lanka wolf snake;S: Dhara radanakaya EN B2ab(iii)E: Ornate flying snake;S: Polmal karawala, Malsara VU B1ab(iii)E: Striped flying snake;S: Dangara danda LCE: Trinket snake;S: Katakaluwa LCE: Boulenger’s bronze back;S: Pandura haldanda NT LCE: Gunther’s bronze back;S: Viri haldanda VU B1ab(iii)E: Oliver’s bronze back;S: Oliverge haldanda DDE: Schokari’s bronze back;S: Schokarige haldanda LCE: Common bronze back;S: Tura haldanda LCE: The scarce bridal;S: Megata radanakaya DD DDE: Bridal snake; S: GetaRadanakaya / Geta karawala LCE: The black spine snake /Mould snake; S: Kurunkarawala.EN B2ab(iii)Liopeltis calamaria (Günther, 1858) E: Reed snake; S: Punbariya NTLycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758)E: Wolf snake, house snake;S: Alu radanakaya LCLycodon osmanhilli Taylor, 1950E: Flowery wolf snake; S: Malradanakaya LC LCLycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802)E: Shaw’s wolf snake;S: Kabara radanakaya LCOligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802)E: Common kukri snake/Banded Kukri; S: Arani dathketiyaLCOligodon calamarius (Linnaeus, 1758)E: Templeton’s kukri snake;S: Kabara dath ketiya EN B2ab(iii) DDOligodon sublineatus Duméril &Bibron, 1854E: Dumerul’s kuki snake;S: Pulli dath ketiya LC LCE: Variegated kukri snake /Russell’s kukri snake;S: Wairi dattketiya LC LCOligodon taeniolata (Jerdon, 1853)Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Rat snake; S: Gerandiya. LC110

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSibynophis subpunctatus (Duméril &Bibron, 1854)Family: ElapidaeBungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801)Bungarus ceylonicus Günther, 1864Calliophis haematoetron Smith,Manamendra-Arachchi & Somaweera,2008Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802)Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758)Family: HydrophidaeAstrotia stokesii (Gray in Stokes, 1846)Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin, 1803)Hydrophis bituberculatus Peters, 1872Hydrophis cyanocinctus Daudin, 1803Hydrophis fasciatus (Schneider, 1799)Hydrophis gracilis (Shaw, 1802)Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray, 1849)Hydrophis mammilaris (Daudin, 1803)Hydrophis ornatus (Gray, 1849)Hydrophis spiralis (Shaw, 1802)Hydrophis stricticollis Günther, 1864Kerilia jerdonii Gray, 1849Lapemis curtus (Shaw, 1802)Pelamis platurus (Linnaeus, 1766)Praescutata viperina (Schmidt, 1852)Family: TyphlopidaeRamphotyphlops braminus (Daudin,1803)Typhlops ceylonicus Smith, 1943Typhlops lankaensis Taylor, 1947E: Jerdon’s polyodent;S: Dathigomaraya NTE: The common krait; S: Thelkarawala/ Maga maruwa LC B2ab(iii)E: Sri Lanka krait / Ceylonkrait; S: Mudu karawala/ Hathkarawala VU B1ab(iii)E: Red bellied coral snake;S: Bada rathu depath kaluwa CR B2ab(iii)E: Sri Lanka coral snake;S: Depath kaluwa NTE: Indian cobra;S: Naya/ Nagaya LCE: Stoke’s sea snake;S: Mahavalakkadiya LCE: Hook nose sea snake;S: Valakkadiya LCE: Peter’s sea snake;S: Peterge muhudunaya DDE: The chitul; S: Wairan muhudunayaLCLCE: John’s sea snake;S: Kudahis Muhudu naya LCE: Persian Gulf seasnake;S: Persiyanu bokke muhudunayaLCDDE: Gray’s sea snake;S: Grayge Muhudu naya LCE: Narrow banded sea snake;S: Sihin Mudhu naya LCE: Guenther’s sea snake;S: Guntherge muhudunaya DDE: Jerdon’s sea snake;S: Jerdonge Muhudu naya LCE: Shaw’s sea snake;S: Shawge kuda muhudunaya LCE: Yellow bellied sea snake;S: Badakaha muhudu naya LCE: Schmidt’s sea snake;S: Polon muhudunaya LCE: Common blind snake;S: Dumuta kanaulla LCE: Smith’s blind snake;S: Smithge kanaulla DDE: Lanka blind snake; S: Lakkanaulla CR B2ab(iii)111

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaTyphlops leucomelas Boulenger, 1890Typhlops malcolmi Taylor, 1947Typhlops mirus Jan in: Jan & Sordelli,1860Typhlops porrectus Stoliczka, 1871Typhlops tenebrarum Taylor, 1947Typhlops veddae Taylor, 1947Typhlops violaceus Taylor, 1947Family: UropeltidaePlatyplectrurus madurensis Beddome1877Pseudotyphlops philippinus Schlegel,1839Rhinophis blythii Kelaart, 1853Rhinophis dorsimaculatus Deraniyagala,1941Rhinophis drummondhayi (Wall,1921)Rhinophis erangaviraji Wickramasinghe,Vidanapathirana, Wickramasinghe& Ranwella, 2009Rhinophis homolepis Hemprich, 1820Rhinophis lineatus Gower & Maduwage,2011Rhinophis oxyrynchus (Schneider,1801)Rhinophis philippinus (Cuvier, 1829)Rhinophis porrectus Wall, 1921Rhinophis punctatus Müller, 1832Rhinophis tricoloratus Deraniyagala,1975Rhinophis zigzag Gower & Maduwage,2011Uropeltis melanogaster Gray, 1858Uropeltis phillipsi (Nicholls, 1929)Uropeltis ruhunae Deraniyagala, 1954E: Pied typhlops; S: Dewarnakanaulla CR B2ab(iii)E: Malcolm’s blind snake;S: Malcomge kanaulla DDE: Jan’s blind snake; S: Heenkanaulla.CR B1ab(iii)E: Stoliczka’s blind snake;S: Stoliczkage kanaulla ENE: Taylor’s blind snake;S: Taylorge kanaulla DDE: Veddha’s blind snake;S: Veddage kanaulla DDE: Violet blind snake;S: Dan kanaulla DDB1ab(iii)+B2abE: Madura blind snake;S: Madura kanaulla DDE: Large shield tail; S: Mahabimulla EN B2ab(iii)E: Blyth’s earth snake;S: Gomarathudulla ENE: Orange shield tail; S: Thambapaniwalga ebaya DDB1ab(iii)+B2abE: Drummond-Hay’s earthsnake; S: Thapothudulla EN B2ab(iii) NTE: Viraj’s shieldtail snake orEranga Viraj’s Rhinophis;S: Eranga Virajge thudulla CRE: Kelaarts earth snake;S: Depaththudulla ENB1ab(iii)+B2abB1ab(iii)+B2abE: Striped rhinophis;S: Dick-iri thudulla CR B2ab(iii)E: Schneider’s earth snake;S: Ulthudulla LC LCE: Cuvier’s earth snake;S: Cuvierge walga ebaya ENE: Willey’s earth snake;S: Digthudulla DDE: Muller’s earth snake;S: Ticthudulla DDB1ab(iii)+B2abE: Deraniyagala’s shield tail;S: Deraniyagalage walgaebaya CR B1ab(iii)+B2abE: Zigzag Rhinophis;S: Ack-wack thudulla CR B2ab(iii)E: Black shield tail;S: Kaluwakatulla EN B1ab(iii)+B2abE: Phillips’s shield tail;S: Iriwakatulla EN B2ab(iii)E: Ruhunu shield tail;S: Ruhunuwakatulla DD112

Family: ViperidaeScientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDaboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797)Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801)Hypnale hypnale (Merrem, 1820)Hypnale nepa (Laurenti, 1768)Hypnale zara (Gray, 1849)Hypnale sp. ‘amal’ Maduwage, Silva,Manamendra-Arachchi & Pethiyagoda,2009Trimeresurus trigonocephalus (Soniniet Latreille, 1801)E: Russell’s viper; S: TithPolonga/ Gata polaga LCE: Saw scale viper; S: Valipolonga VU B2ab(iii)E: The Merrem’s Hump noseviper; S: Polonthelissa LCE: Merrem’s hump-nosedviper; S: Polonthelissa/ KunakatuwaEN B2ab(iii) LCE: Stripe-necked hump-nosedviper; S: Wayiram gelathiKunakatuwa VU Biab(iii)E: Amal’s Hump nose viper; S:A: Amalge polonthelissa CR B2ab(iii)E: Green pit viper; B: PalapolongaLC113

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Birds in Sri LankaDevaka K Weerakoon 1 and Kithsiri Gunawardena 21Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 323E, Kynsey Road, Colombo 8IntroductionThe early formal Sri Lankan literature does not carry detailed descriptions on birds other thancasual references. Since the 14 th century birds have been extensively featured in Sinhalesepoetry Sandesha Kavya. Detailed documentation of the Sri Lankan avifauna began in the 16 thcentury with the arrival of Europeans such as Ribeiro, Baldaeus, Queyroz and Knox. However,the first formal account of a Sri Lankan species, Sri Lanka Lorikeet, was given by George Edwards(1743) in his book Natural History of Uncommon Birds. The systematic study of the avifauna ofSri Lanka began in the mid 18 th century with major contributions from naturalists such as Loten,Joinville, Templeton, Layard, Kelaart and Holdsworth. Then came the monumental four volumepublication by Capt. Vincent Legge, A History of the Birds of Ceylon, which remains the mostcomprehensive account on the birds of Sri Lanka to date. Since then the knowledge on SriLankan avifauna has been updated periodically by many ornithologists such as Murray, Wait,Baker, Ripley, Whistler, Henry, Phillips, Kotagama, Rasmussen, Anderton and WarakagodaSri Lanka supports a rich avifauna that stands at 453 species at present. This include 240species of birds that are known to breed in Sri Lanka, of which 33 are accepted by someornithologists as endemic species while some ornithologists consider only 27 species asendemic and the remaining 6 are considered as proposed endemics. Further, 21 species thatare listed as breeding residents, also have migrant populations which also include migrants ofdifferent races of the species that occur in the country. The remaining 213 species are migrantsof which 72 species are encountered rarely and therefore considered as vagrants. It should benoted that only 240 resident birds have been evaluated in this Red List.TaxonomyThe taxonomy of Asian birds has been subject to many changes over the last two decades,consequent to increased research efforts and new methodologies which were adopted in aviantaxonomy. This resulted in several changes in the scientific nomenclature of Birds of Sri Lanka.Kotagama et. al. (2006) recognized sixty four families representing the bird species presentin Sri Lanka based on Sibley & Monroe (1990). Since then, twenty new families have beenadded, due to elevation of subfamilies or tribes to full family status (Tribes Haematopodini,Recurvirostrini, Stercorariini, Artamini, Rhipidurini, Dicrurini, Monarchini, Dicaeini wereupgraded to family level while tribe Oriolini has been split and upgraded to two families,Oriolidae and Campephagidae which also include members of the tribe Vangini. Further,subfamilies Dromadinae, Hydrobatinae, Aegithininae, Turdinae, Passerinae, Motacillinae,Ploceinae, Estrildinae and Emberizinae are upgraded to family level. Subfamily Garrulacinaeand tribe Timaliini are placed in the family Timaliidae). Members of five families have been“lumped” with other existing families (Dendrocygnidae, Megalaimidae, Centropodidae andBatrachostomidae now placed in Anatidae, Ramphastidae, Cuculidae and Podargidae114

espectively). Further, Halcyonidae and Cerylidae are placed in the family Alcedinidae andmembers of family Irenidae are placed in family Chloropseidae). Therefore, the avifauna of SriLanka is currently represented by 79 families (Dickinson, 2003).Many species level taxonomic changes have also been affected recently, due to either lumpingor splitting of existing species. These include splitting of Phoenicopterus ruber into P. roseus andP. ruber (Knox et al., 2002); Corvus macrorhynchos into C. levaillantii and C. macrorhynchos(Sibley & Monroe, 1990); Hirundo tahitica into H. domicola and H. tahitica (Sibley & Monroe,1990); Mirafra assamica into M. affinis, M. assamica, M. erythrocephala and M. microptera(Alström, 1998); Chloropsis cochinchinensis into C. jerdoni, C. cochinchinensis, and C.kinabaluensis (Wells et al., 2003); Sula dactylatra into S. dactylatra and S. granti (AOU, 2000);Spilornis minimus into S. klossi and S. cheela (Rasmussen & Anderton (2005); Spizaetuscirrhatus into S. cirrhatus and S. floris (Gjershaug et al., 2004); Otus scops into O. senegalensis(Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993), O. sunia (AOU, 1998), O. alius (Rassmussen, 1998) andO. scops; Acrocephalus stentoreus into A. stentoreus and A. orinus (Bensch & Pearson,2002); Seicercus burkii into S. burkii, S. valentini, S. whistleri, S. soror and S tephrocephalus(Alström & Olsson, 1999) and S. omeiensis (Martens et al., 1999); Lonchura malacca intoL. malacca and L. atricapilla (AOU, 2000). Further, Pomatorhinus horsfieldii has been splitinto P. melanurus and P. horsfieldii (Collar, 2006; Rasmussen & Anderton, 2005), of which P.melanurus is listed as endemic to Sri Lanka. Like wise, Dicrurus paradiseus has been split intoD. paradiseus and D. lophorinus of which the latter is endemic to Sri Lanka. Zoothera daumaimbricata previously considered as a subspecies is now recognized as a distinct species, Z.imbricata that is endemic to Sri Lanka (Collar, 2005; Rasmussen & Anderton 2005).Number of species that has been listed for Sri Lanka has been lumped together with otherspecies. These include lumping of Coturnix chinensis and C. adansonii into C. chinensis(Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993); Puffinus bannermani, P. persicus and P. subalaris into P.lherminieri (Brooke, 2004); Butorides sundevalli and B. striatus into B. striata (AOU, 2003);Egretta garzetta and E. dimorpha into E. garzetta (Kushlan & Hancock, 2005); Copsychusmalabaricus and C. stricklandii into C. malabaricus (Collar, 2004); Motacilla alba and M.lugens into M. alba (AOU, 2005); Anthus richardi, A. cinnamomeus, A. camaroonensis and A.latistriatus into A. richardi (Dowsett & Forbes-Watson, 1993).DistributionSri Lanka is divided into 6 Avifaunal Zones based on the distribution patterns of the residentbird species (Kotagama, 1993). These include the Northern or Indian zone that shares manysimilarities with the South Indian avifauna; Low country wet zone, Mid country wet zone andHill country wet zone that contain most of the endemic and threatened species; Dry zone andthe Uva zone, which contain mostly common bird species as well as few rare species that arerestricted to these zones. The Northern avifaunal zone has not been accessible for nearly 30years due to the conflict that existed in the area. However, following the culmination of the warin 2009 these areas have once again become accessible which has resulted in a wealth of newinformation about Sri Lankan avifauna.115

ThreatsIn Sri Lanka, wild birds are rarely exploited as a source of food. However, there is an emergingtrend which began in the recent past of capturing some of the species for the illegal pet trade.As in the case of all other taxa, habitat loss is the main threat faced by the birds of Sri Lanka.Nearly one third of all the resident birds in Sri Lanka are forest birds including all the endemicspecies. Out of the endemic birds, more than 60% are restricted to the forests in the wetzone. These forests are being rapidly depleted to support the needs of the burgeoning humanpopulation. Therefore, loss of forest cover and fragmentation of forests are the main threatsfaced by the birds of Sri Lanka. Wetlands are also an important bird habitat in Sri Lanka withnearly 25% of the resident birds and more than 75% of the migrants depend on such habitats.Many of these wetland habitats are adversely impacted due to conversion, changes in salinityand hydrology, pollution of water ways, spread of invasive species (e.g. spread of Prosopisjuliflora in Bundala and Wankalai, Annona glabra in Bellanwila-Attidiya), expansion of prawnfarming and salt production. As a result, species richness and the carrying capacity of manywetland habitats have declined rapidly. Even though land use change has impacted most birdspecies in a detrimental manner, some species such as Lonchura spp., Psittacula kramerii,Stigmatopelia chinensis, Corvus splendens, Centropus chinensis have shown a markedincrease in their range and numbers.Research NeedsCompared to other taxonomic groups, birds have received a great deal of attention from bothamateur and professional bird watchers. However, information available on birds is restrictedmostly to their distribution while, for most birds, especially the threatened species, informationon their biology and ecology is inadequate. This has been identified as a serious impedimentin formulating species specific conservation plans for threatened species in Sri Lanka. Eventhough the taxonomy of many species of birds have been revised based on regional revisions,a number of taxonomic issues, especially the status of the proposed endemic species, remainunresolved at present. While taking stringent measures to preserve the existing habitat,establishment of a captive breeding programme for the threatened endemic birds, preferablyin the National Zoological gardens as well as at such a facility in the hill country for the hillspecies, is also a critical need, if it becomes necessary in the future to conduct reintroductionor population enhancement as a conservation measure. Lastly, a systematic monitoringmechanism of the critical bird species, important bird habitats and large breeding coloniesneeds to be established for Sri Lanka.ReferencesAlström, P., (1998). Taxonomy of the Mirafra assamica complex. Forktail, 13, pp.97-107.Alström, P. & Olsson, U., (1999). The golden-spectacled warbler: a complex of sibling species, including a previouslyundescribed species. Ibis, 141, pp.545-568.AOU., (1998). Check-list of North American birds. Seventh edition. Washington, D.C.: American Ornithologists’Union.AOU., (2000). Forty-second supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds.The Auk, 117(3), pp.847-858.AOU., (2003). Forty-fourth supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds.The Auk, 120(3), pp.923-931.116

AOU., (2005). Forty-sixth supplement to the American Ornithologists’ Union Check-list of North American Birds. TheAuk, 122(3), pp.1026-1031.Bensch, S. & Pearson, D., (2002). The Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus revisited. Ibis, 144, pp.259-267.Brooke, M., (2004). Albatrosses and petrels across the world. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Collar, N. J., (2004). Species limits in some Indonesian thrushes. Forktail, 20, pp.71-87.Collar, N. J., (2005). Family Turdidae (Thrushes). In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliot, & D.A. Christie, eds. 2005. Handbook ofthe Birds of the World Vol. 10. Cuckoo-shrikes to Thrushes. Barcelona: Lynx Editions. pp.514-810.Collar, N. J., (2006). A partial revision of the Asian Babblers (Timaliidae). Forktail, 22, pp.85-112.Dickinson, E. C., (2003). The Howard and Moore complete checklist of the birds of the world. 3rd edition. London:Christopher Helm.Dowsett, R. J. & Forbes-Watson, A. D., (1993). Checklist of birds of the Afrotropical and Malagasy regions. Liege,Belgium: Tauraco Press.Gjershaug, J. O., Kvalfy, K., Rfv, N., Prawiradilaga, D. M., Suparman, U. & Rahman, Z., (2004). The taxonomicstatus of Flores Hawk Eagle Spizaetus floris. Forktail, 20, pp.55-62.Kaluthota, C. D. & Kotgama, S. W., (2009). Revised avifaunal list of Sri Lanka. Occasional Paper No. 2 of the FieldOrnithology Group of Sri Lanka. Colombo: FOGSL. pp 25.Knox, A. G., Collinson, M., Helbig, A. J., Parkin, D. T. & Sangster, G., (2002). Taxonomic recommendations forBritish birds. Ibis, 144, pp.707-710.Kotagama, S. W., (1993). Wildlife conservation and development of the south east dry zone. In The South-east dryZone of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Agrarian Research and Training Institute.Kotagama, S. W., De Silva, R. I., Wijayasinha, A. S. & Abeygunawardane, V., (2006). Avifaunal list of Sri Lanka.In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed. 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of taxonomy, research and conservation.Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. pp. 164-203.Kushlan, J. A. & Hancock, J. A., (2005). Bird families of the world 14: The herons. U.K.: Oxford University Press.Martens, J., Eck, S., Päckert, M. & Sun, Y. H., (1999). The Golden-spectacled Warbler Seicercus burkii - A speciesswarm (Aves: Passeriformes: Sylviidae) Part 1. Zool. Abh. Staatl. Mus. Tierk. Desden, 50, pp.281-327.Rasmussen, P. C., (1998). A new scopsowl from Great Nicobar Island. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club, 118, pp.141-153.Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C., (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vol, 2. Smithsonian Institutionand Lynx Editions.Sibley, C. G. & Monroe, B. L., (1990). Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven & London: YaleUniversity Press.Warakagoda, D. & Sirivardana, U., (2009). The avifauna of Sri Lanka: An over view of the current status. Taprobanica,1(1), pp. 28-35.Warakagoda, D., Inskipp, I., Inskipp, T. & Grimmett, R., (2012). Birds of Sri Lanka. Christopher Helm, an imprint ofBloomsberry Publishing Plc.Wells, D. R., Dickinson, E. C. & Dekker, R. W. R. J., (2003). A preliminary review of the Chloropseidae and Irenidae.Zool. Verh., 344, pp.25-42.117

Table 11: List of Birds in Sri LankaAbbreviations: Scientific Name PE (possibly Endemic)* Only the breeding population has been considered in this assessmentScientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: PhasianidaeFrancolinus pictus (Jardine &Selby, 1828)Francolinus pondicerianus(Gmelin, 1789)Coturnix chinensis Linnaeus,1766Perdicula asiatica (Latham,1790)Galloperdix bicalcarata(Forster, 1781)Gallus lafayetii Lesson, 1831Pavo cristatus Linnaeus, 1758Family: AnatidaeDendrocygna javanica(Horsfield, 1821)Nettapus coromandelianus(Gmelin, 1789)Anas poecilorhyncha Forster,JR 1781*Family: TurnicidaeTurnix suscitator (Gmelin,1789)Family: PicidaeDendrocopos nanus (Vigors,1832)Dendrocopos mahrattensis(Latham, 1801)Celeus brachyurus (Vieillot,1818)E:Painted Francolin;S: Thith Ussa-watuwa;T: Varna cowthari.E:Grey Francolin;S: Alu Ussa-watuwa;T: Cowthari.E:Blue Quail; S: Nilpiriwatuwa, Wil-watuwa;T: Neelamaarbuk kaadai.E:Jungle Bush-quail;S: Wana panduru watuwa,Wil watuwa;T: Kaatuputhar kaadai.E:Sri Lanka Spurfowl;S: Sri Lanka habankukula;T: Sinnak kaatuk koli.E: Sri Lanka Junglefowl;S: Sri Lanka Wali kukula;T: Kattu-koliE:Indian Peafowl;S: Monara; T: Neela mayil.E:Lesser Whistling-duck;S: Heen thamba seruwa;T: Siriya seelkani siravi.E:Cotton pygmy -goose;S: Mal seruwa;T: Kullathara.E: Spot-billed Duck; S:Thithhota tharavaE: Barred Buttonquail;S: Punchi bolawatuyuruwa; T: KadaiE:Brown-cappedWoodpecker; S:Bora isasipiri-kerala, Mal Kerella;T: Sinna marang kothi.E:Yellow-crownedWoodpecker; S: KahasiluPiri -kerala; T: Manjal nettrimarang kothi.E:Rufous Woodpecker;S: Borath anu-kerela,Dumburu Kerela;T: Karunchirappu marangkothi.CR B1ab(iii) LCNT LCEN B2ab(iii) LCCR B2ab(iii) LCNT LCLC LCLC LCLC LCNT LCCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCLC LCLC LCNT LCLC LC118

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPicus chlorolophus Vieillot,1818E:Lesser Yellownape;S: Heen kahagelasiKerela, Konde -kahaKerela;T: Manjal pidari sirumarang kothi.NT LCPicus xanthopygaeus (Gray &Gray, 1846)Dinopium benghalense(Linnaeus, 1758)E:Streak-throatedWoodpecker; S: IrigelaKerela; T: Sethil vayittrumarang kothi.E:Black-rumpedFlameback; S: Ginipitapili-kerela, Pita-rangKerela; T: Siriya ponmuthuhu marang kothi.Chrysocolaptes lucidus E:Greater Flameback ;(Scopoli, 1786) PE S:Lepita maha-kerela,Mukalang Kerela;T: Periya ponmuthuhumarang kothi.Chrysocolaptes festivus(Boddaert, 1783)Family: RamphastidaeMegalaima zeylanica (Gmelin,1788)Megalaima flavifrons(Cuvier, 1816)Megalaima rubricapillus(Gmelin, 1788) PEMegalaima haemacephala(Müller, 1776)Family: BucerotidaeOcyceros gingalensis(Shaw, 1811)Anthracoceros coronatus(Boddaert, 1783)Family: UpopidaeUpupa epops Linnaeus, 1758E:White -napedWoodpecker;S: Sudugelesi mahakerela,Maha-rang Kerela;T: Karumuthuhu marangkothi.E:Brown-headed Barbet;S: Polos Kottoruwa;T: Paluppu thalaikukkuruvan.E:Sri Lanka Yellow-frontedBarbet; S: Sri Lankakahamunath Kottoruwa,Mukalang Kottoruwa;T:Ilankai manjal kuruttukukkuravan.E: Crimson-frontedBarbet ; S: RathmunathKottoruwa, Mal Kottoruwa;T: Sennettri kukkuravan.E: Coppersmith Barbet; S:Rathlaya Kottoruwa, MalKottoruwa;T: Senmaarbu KukkuruvanE: Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill;S: Sri Lanka Alu Kandetta;T: Ilankai naarai irattaichondu kuruvi.E: Malabar Pied Hornbill;S: Poru Kandetta;T: Malabar karuppuvellaiiruvaayan.E:Eurasian Hoopoe;S: Poroluwa;T: Kondalthi.EN B1ab(iii)+2abI(iii)LCLC LCLCVU B2ab(iii)LC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC NTLC LC119

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: TrogonidaeHarpactes fasciatus (Pennant,1769)Family: CoraciidaeCoracias benghalensis(Linnaeus, 1758)Eurystomus orientalis(Linnaeus, 1766)Family: AlcedinidaeAlcedo atthis (Linnaeus,1758)Alcedo meninting Horsfield,1821Ceyx erithaca (Linnaeus,1758)Pelargopsis capensis(Linnaeus, 1766)Halcyon smyrnensis(Linnaeus, 1758)Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus, 1758)Family: MeropidaeMerops orientalis Latham,1802Merops leschenaulti Vieillot,1817Merops philippinus Linnaeus,1766*Family: CuculidaeClamator jacobinus(Boddaert, 1783)Cuculus varius Vahl, 1797Cacomantis sonneratii(Latham, 1790)E:Malabar Trogon; S:Lohavannichcha, Ginikurulla;T: Malabartheekakai.E:Indian Roller;S:Dumbonna; T: Panankadai,Kottai-kiliE:Asian Dollarbird;S: Dumkava;T: PulupporukkiE:Common Kingfisher;S: Mal Pilihuduwa; T:Siriya neela meen kothi.E:Blue-Eared Kingfisher;S: Nilkan Pilihuduwa; T:Neela kaathu meen kothi.E:Black-BackedKingfisher; S:PitakaluHeen-pilihuduwa, RangPilihuduwa;T: Siru meen kothi.E: Stork-billed Kingfisher;S:Manathudu mahapilihuduwa; T: Paruthaalahu meen kothi.E:White-ThroatedKingfisher; S:Gelasudumedi-pilihuduwa; T: Venmarabu meen kothi.E:Pied Kingfisher;S: Gomara pilihuduwa; T:Siriya karuppu vellai meenkothi.E:Little Green Bee-eater;S:Punchi binguharaya;T: Siriya pachaipanchuruttaan.E:Chestnut-headed Beeeater;S:Thambalahisbinguharaya; T: Senthalaipanchuruttan.E: Blue-tailed Bee-eater;S: Nilpenda binguhariyaE:Pied Cuckoo; S:Gomarakondakoha; T:Kadalaikuyil.E:Common Hawk-cuckoo;S:Ukusu kokilaya; T: KuyilE:Banded Bay Cuckoo;S:Vaira anukoha;T: Sempaluppu vari kuyil.NT LCLC LCEN B2ab(iii) LCLC LCCR B2ab(iii) LCNT LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCCRB1ab(iii)++2ab(iii)LCLC LCEN B2ab(iii) LCNT LC120

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSurniculus lugubris (Horsfield,1821)E:Drongo Cuckoo;S:Kavudukoha; T:Karichankuyil.NTEudynamys scolopaceus(Linnaeus, 1758)Phaenicophaeus viridirostris(Jerdon, 1840)Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii(Lesson, 1830)Phaenicophaeuspyrrhocephalus (Pennant,1769)Centropus sinensis(Stephens, 1815)Centropus chlororhynchusBlyth, 1849Cuculus micropterus Gould,1838 *Family: PsittacidaeLoriculus beryllinus(Forster, 1781)Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus,1766)Psittacula krameri (Scopoli,1769)Psittacula cyanocephala(Linnaeus, 1766)Psittacula calthropae (Blyth,1849)Family: ApodidaeCollocalia unicolor (Jerdon,1840)Hirundapus giganteus(Temminck, 1825)Cypsiurus balasiensis (Gray,1829)E:Asian Koel; S:Kovula; T:Asia Kuyil.E:Blue-faced Malkoha; S:Wathanil malkoha;T: Neela muha malkoha.E:Sirkeer Malkoha;S:Pathan Malkoha;T: Sevvalahu malkoha.E:Sri Lanka Red-facedMalkoha; S:Sri LankaWatharathu Malkoha; T:Ilankai semmuka malkoha.E:Greater Coucal;S:Atikukula;T: Periya sembaham.E:Sri Lanka Green-billedCoucal; S:Sri Lanka BataAtikukula; T: Ilankai pachaialahu sembaham.E:Indian Cuckoo; S: IndukokilayaE:Sri Lanka HangingParrot; S:Sri Lankagiramaliththa;T: Ilankai sinna kili.E:Alexandrine Parakeet;S: Labu girawa; T:Periyapachai KiliE:Rose-ringed Parakeet;S:Rena girawa;T: Pachai KiliE:Plum-headed Parakeet;S:Pandu girawa; T:Senthalai Kili.E:Sri Lanka EmeraldcollaredParakeet;S:Sri Lanka Alu girawa; T:Ilankai naadu Kili.E:Indian Swiftlet;S:Indu upa-thurithaya,Wehilihiniya;T: Sinna ulavaaran.E:Brown-backedNeedletail; S:Pitaborakatu-thurithaya;T: Paluppu muthuhu mulvlulavaaran.E:Asian Palm-swift; S:Asiathal-thurithaya;T: Panai ulavaaran.LC LCLC LCVU B1ab(iii) LCVU B1ab(iii) VU C2a(i)LC LCEN B2ab(iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C2a(i)LCLCLC LCLC LCLC LCNT LCNT LCLC LCNTLC LC121

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaTachymarptis melbaE:Alpine Swift; S:Alpine EN B2ab(iii) LC(Linnaeus, 1758)piri-thurithaya;T: Alphine ulavaaran.Apus affinis (Gray, 1830) E:Little Swift; S: Punchi LC LCthurithaya; T: Naaduulavaaran.Family: HemiprocnidaeHemiprocne coronata (Tickell,1833)Family: TytonidaeTyto alba (Scopoli, 1769)Phodilus badius (Horsfield,1821)Family: StrigidaeOtus sunia Hodgson, 1836Otus bakkamoena Pennant,1769Otus thilohoffmanniWarakagoda & Rasmussen,2004Bubo nipalensis Hodgson,1836Ketupa zeylonensis (Gmelin,1788)Strix leptogrammicaTemminck, 1831Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell,1833)Glaucidium castanonotum(Blyth, 1846)Ninox scutulata (Raffles,1822)Family: PodargidaeBatrachostomus moniligerBlyth, 1846Family:CaprimulgidaeE:Crested Treeswift; S:Silu ruk-thurithaya; T:Kondai ulavaaran.E:Barn Owl; S: Atuwesbassa, Bakamuna; T:Koohai aanthai.E:Oriental Bay-owl;S:Peradigu gurubassa;T: Kaatu sempaluppuaanthai.E:Oriental Scops-owl;S:Peradigu kanbassa; T:Keelai theya sevi aanthai.E:Collared Scops-owl;S: Karapati Kanbassa; T:Pattaikaluthu sevi aanthai.E:Sri Lanka SerendibScops-owl; S: Sri Lankapandu kanbassa;T: Ilankai serendib seviaanthai.E:Spot-Bellied Eagleowl;S:Ukusubakamuna,Ulama; T:Pullivayittrukaluhu aanthai.E:Brown Fish-owl; S:Borakevulbakamuna; T: Meenpidi aanthai.E:Brown Wood-owl;S:Bora Wanabakamuna;T: Paluppu kaatu aanthai.E:Jungle Owlet; S:WanaUpabassa; T: Kaatu siruaanthai.E:Sri Lanka ChestnutbackedOwlet;S:Sri Lanka PitathambalaUpabassa; T: Ilankaisemmanjal muthuhu siruaanthai.E:Brown Hawk-owl;S:Dumburu Ukusubassa;T: Vettaikara aanthai.E:Frogmouth;S:Madimuhuna;T: Ceylon thavalai vaayan.LCNT LCEN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)NTLCLC LCEN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)ENNT LCLC LCNT LCNT LCVU B1ab(iii) NTLC LCLC LCB1ab(ii,iii);C2a(i)122

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCaprimulgus indicus Latham,1790E:Grey Nightjar;S: Alu bimbassa;T: Kaatu pakki.VU B1ab(iii) LCCaprimulgus atripennisJerdon, 1845Caprimulgus asiaticusLatham, 1790E:Jerdon's Nightjar;S: Digupenda bimbassa;T: Jerdon pakki.E:Indian Nightjar;S: Indu Bimbassa; T: Sirupakki.Family: ColumbidaeColumba livia Gmelin, 1789 E;Rock Pigeon; S:Pareviya; T:Maada Puraa.Columba torringtoniae(Blyth & Kelaart, 1853)Stigmatopelia chinensis(Scopoli, 1786)Streptopelia decaocto(Frivaldszky, 1838)Chalcophaps indica(Linnaeus, 1758)E:Sri Lanka Wood-Pigeon; S:Sri Lanka MailaParaviya (Mailagoya); T:Ilankai karuppup Puraa.E:Spotted Dove;S: Alu-kobeiya;T: Pulli Puraa.E:Eurasian CollaredDove; S: Mala kobeiya; T:Panjavaran Puraa.E:Emerald Dove;S: Neela kobeiya;T: Pathekai Puraa.LC LCLC LCCRconsideringonly wildpopulationB2ab(iii) LCVU B1ab(iii) VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C2a(i)LC LCNT LCLC LCTreron bicinctus (Jerdon,1840)E:Orange-breastedGreen-pigeon;S: Layaran batagoya;T: Orange maarbu PachaiPuraa.Treron pompadora (Gmelin, E:Pompadour Green1789) PE Pigeon; S: PitadamBatagoya; T: Sambal nettriPachai Puraa.Treron phoenicopterus(Latham, 1790)Ducula aenea (Linnaeus,1766)Family: RallidaeGallirallus striatus (Linnaeus,1766)Amaurornis phoenicurus(Pennant, 1769)Porzana fusca (Linnaeus,1766)E:Yellow-footed Green-Pigeon; S: RanpaBatagoya; T: Manjal kaalpachai puraa.E:Green Imperial-Pigeon;S: Nil Mahagoya;T: Pachai arasa Puraa.E:Slaty-breasted Rail;S:Layalu Geli-reluwa;T: Saambal maarbusambang koli.E:White-breastedWaterhen; S: Layasudukorawakka; T: Ven maarbukaanaang koli.E:Ruddy-breasted Crake;S: Layarathu vil-keralaiya;T: Sem maarbu kaanaangkoli.LC LCLC LCCR B2ab(iii) LCLC LCVU B2ab(iii) LCLC LCVU B2ab(iii) LC123

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaGallicrex cinerea (Gmelin, E:Watercock; S:Korawa; T: NT LC1789)Thaneer kolli.Porphyrio porphyrio(Linnaeus, 1758)Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus,1758)Fulica atra Linnaeus, 1758Rallina eurizonoidesLafresnaye, 1845*Family: RostratulidaeRostratula benghalensis(Linnaeus, 1758)Family: JacanidaeHydrophasianus chirurgus(Scopoli, 1786)Family: BurhinidaeBurhinus oedicnemus(Linnaeus, 1758)Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier,1829)Family: RecurvirostridaeHimantopus himantopus(Linnaeus, 1758)Family: CharadriidaeCharadrius dubius Scopoli,1786Charadrius alexandrinusLinnaeus, 1758Vanellus malarbaricus(Boddaert, 1783)Vanellus indicus (Boddaert,1783)Family: GlareolidaeGlareola maldivarum Forster,1795Glareola lactea Temminck,1820Cursorius coromandelicusGmelin, 1789E:Purple Swamphen;S:Dam madi-kithala;T: Neela thodai koli.E:Common Moorhen;S: Podu galinuwa, Wilkukkula; T: Thaalai koli.E:Common Coot;S: Podu kithala; T: Namakoli.E: Slaty-legged Crake; S:Alupa keraliyaE:Greater Painted-Snipe;S:Raja ulu-kaswatuwa;T: Mayil ullaan.E:Pheasant-Tailed Jacana;S: Savul-diyasana, Pankukula;T: Neela vaal illaik koli.E:Eurasian Thick-Knee;S:Golu-kirala;T: Perungkanni.E:Great Thick-Knee;S: Gal kirala;T: Valaimukkuperungkanni.E: Black-Winged Stilt;S:Kalupiya ipalpava,Kalapu-kirala;T: Nedungkaal ullaan.E:Little Ringed Plover;S:Punchi mala oleviya; T:Sinna pattani uppuk kothi.E:Kentish Plover; S:Kentoleviya; T: Kentish pattaniuppuk kothi.E:Yellow-Wattled Lapwing;S:Kaha yatimal kirala; T:Manjal mooku aart kaati.E:Red-Wattled Lapwing;S:Rath yatimal kirala; T:Sihappu mooku aart kaati.E:Oriental Pranticole;S: Mala javasariya;T: Thotkuruvi.E:Small Pranticole;S:Ounchi javasariya;T: Sinna Thotkuruvi.E: Indian Courser;S: Javalihiniya124LC LCLC LCLC LCCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)VU B2ab(iii)LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCVU B2ab(iii) LCVU B2ab(iii) LCLC LCLC LCEN B2ab(iii) LCVU B1ab(iii) LCCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LC

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: LaridaeSterna bergii Lichtenstein,1823E:Great CrestedTern; S:Maha kondamuhudulihiniya;T: Periya kondai aalaa.Sterna nilotica Brehm,1830* E:Gull-billed Tern; S:Galuthudu muhudulihiniyaSterna caspia Pallas, 1770* E: Caspian Tern;S:kaspiya muhudulihiniyaSterna dougallii Montagu,1813Sterna hirundo Linnaeus,1758*Sterna albifrons Pallas, 1764*Sterna saundersi Hume,1877*Sterna anaethetus Scopoli,1786*Sterna fuscata Linnaeus,1766*Family: DromadidaeDromas ardeola Paykull,1805*Family: AccipitridaeAviceda jerdoni (Blyth, 1842)Pernis ptilorhyncus(Temminck, 1821)Elanus caeruleus(Desfontaines, 1789)Milvus migrans (Boddaert,1783)Haliastur indus (Boddaert,1783)Haliaeetus leucogaster(Gmelin, 1788)Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus(Horsfield, 1821)E: Roseate Tern; S:ArunumuhudulihiniyaE: Common Tern; S: PodumuhudulihiniyaE: Little Tern; S: PunchimuhudulihiniyaE: Saunder's Tern; S:Sondara muhudulihiniyaE: Bridled Tern; S: KatakalimuhudulihiniyaE: Sooty Tern; S: DumbutumuhudulihiniyaE: Crab Plover; S: kakuluoleviyaE:Jerdon's Baza;S: Bora saratakussa,Kurulugoya;T: Jerdon parunthu.E:Oriental Honey-Buzzard; S: Silubambarakussa, Rajaliya;T: Then parunthu.E:Black-Winged Kite;S: Kaluuris pathanakussa,kurulugoya;T: Karunthol parunthu.E: Black Kite; S: Boraparakussa, Ukussa;T: Karum parunthu.E:Brahminy Kite;S:Bamunu piyakussa,Ukussa; T: Sem parunthu.E:White-Bellied Seaeagle;S: Kusa allimuhudukussa; T: Venvayitru kadat kaluhu.E:Grey-HeadedFish-eagle; S: Aluhismasukussa, Wewarajaliya; T: Siriyasambalthalai meenkaluhu.NT LCCR B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCCR B1ab(iii)+ LC2ab(iii)CR B1ab(iii)+ LC2ab(iii)CR B1ab(iii)+ LC2ab(iii)VU B2ab(iii) LCCRCRCRCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)LCLCLCLCLCNT LCNT LCLCLC LCLC LCNT NT125

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSpilornis cheela (Latham,1790)E:Crested Serpent-eagle;S: Silu sarapakussa;T: Kondai paambu kaluhu.LC LCAccipiter trivirgatus(Temminck, 1824)Accipiter badius (Gmelin,1788)Accipiter virgatus (Temminck,1822)Ictinaetus malayensis(Temminck, 1822)Hieraaetus kienerii (G.deSparre, 1835)Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin,1788)Spizaetus nipalensisHodgson, 1836Family: FalconidaeFalco tinnunculus Linnaeus,1758Falco peregrinus Tunstall,1771Family: PodicipedidaeTachybaptus ruficollis (Pallas,1764)Family: AnhingidaeAnhinga melanogasterPennant, 1769Family: PhalacrocoracidaePhalacrocorax niger (Vieillot,1817)Phalacrocorax fuscicollisStephens, 1826Phalacrocorax carbo(Linnaeus, 1758)Family: ArdeidaeE:Crested Goshawk;S:Silu kurulugoya,kurulugoya; T: Kondaivalooru.E:Shikra; S:Kurulugoya; T:Valooru.E:Besra; S: Besrakurulugoya; T: Kaatukkaluhu.E:Black Eagle;S: Kalukussa, kalurajaliya; T: Karung kaluhu.E:Rufous-bellied Eagle;S:Kusarath rajaliya;T: Sevvayitru kaluhu.E:Changeable Hawkeagle;S: Peralikondakussa, KondeRajaliya; T: Niram marumkaluhu.E:Mountain Hawk-eagle;S:Hel kondakussa, Mahakonde Rajaliya; T: Malaikaluhu.E:Common Kestrel;S: Podu ukusugoya;T: Sivappu valooru.E:Peregrine Falcon,Shahin Falcon;S: Para ukusugoya;T: Periya rasali.E:Little Grebe; S:Punchigembithuruva; T: Sinnamookulippan.E:Oriental Darter;S:Ahikava;T: Paambu thara.E:Little Cormorant;S:Punchi diyakava;T: Siriya neerkaham.E:Indian Cormorant;S: Indu diyakava; T:Naduthoura neerkaaham.E:Great Cormorant;S: Maha diyakava;T: Periya neerkaaham.VU B1ab(iii) LCLC LCVU B2ab(iii) LCNT LCNTLCVU B1ab(iii)EN B2ab(iii) LCVU B2ab(iii) LCLC LCLC NTLC LCLC LCNT LC126

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaEgretta garzetta (Linnaeus, E:Little Egret; S:Punchi LC LC1766)anu-koka, sudu-kokka;T: Sinna kokku.Ardea cinerea Linnaeus, 1758 E:Grey Heron; S: Alukokka; T: Sambal kokku.LC LCArdea purpurea Linnaeus,1766Casmerodius albus(Linnaeus, 1758)Mesophoyx intermedia(Wagler, 1829)Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus,1758)Ardeola grayii (Sykes, 1832)Butorides striata (Linnaeus,1758)Nycticorax nycticorax(Linnaeus, 1758)Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin,1789)Ixobrychus cinnamomeus(Gmelin, 1789)Ixobrychus flavicollis (Latham,1790)Family: ThreskiornithidaeThreskiornis melanocephalus(Latham, 1790)Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus,1758Family: PelecanidaePelecanus philippensisGmelin, 1789Family: CiconiidaeMycteria leucocephala(Pennant, 1769)Anastomus oscitans(Boddaert, 1783)Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert,1783)E:Purple Heron;S: Karaval kokka;T: Senneela kokku.E:Great Egret; S:Sudumahakokka; T: PeriyakokkuE:Intermediate Egret;S: Sudu medi-kokka;T: Naduthara kokku.E:Cattle Egret; S:Gerikokka,Harak kokka;T: Unnik kokku.E:Indian Pond-heron;S:Kana kokka;T: Mudaiyan.E:Striated Heron; S:Palakokka;T: Siriya pachchaikokku.E:Black-Crowned Nightheron;S:Rekana- kokka;T: Irak kokku.E:Yellow Bittern; S: Kahameti-kokka; T: Manjalkuruhu.E:Cinnamon Bittern;S:Kurundu meti-kokka;T: Seng kuruhu.E:Black Bittern;S:Kalu meti-kokka;T: Karung kuruhu.E:Black-headed Ibis;S:Hisakalu dekettha;T: Vellai arivaal mookan.E:Eurasian Spoonbill;S: Hendialava; T: Karandivaayan.E:Spot-billed Pelican;S:Thithhota pasthuduwa;T: Pullialahu koolikkada.E:Painted Stork;S:Lathuvakiya;T: Manjalmooku naarai.E:Asian Openbill;S: Vivarathuduwa;T: Naththai-kuththi-naraiE:Wooly-Necked Stork; S:Padili manava;T: Venkaluthu naarai.LC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCNT LCNT LCNT LCLC LCLC NTLC LCLC NTLC NTLC LCNT LC127

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaEphippiorhynchus asiaticus(Latham, 1790)E:Black Necked Stork;S:Ali manava;T: Karungkaluthu naarai.CR B2ab(iii) NTLeptoptilos javanicus(Horsfield, 1821)Family: ChloropseidaeChloropsis jerdoni (Blyth,1844)Chloropsis aurifrons(Temminck, 1829)Family: LaniidaeLanius schach Linnaeus,1758Family: CorvidaeUrocissa ornata (Wagler,1829)Corvus splendens Vieillot,1817Corvus levaillantii Lesson,1831Family: ArtamidaeArtamus fuscus Vieillot, 1817Family: OriolidaeOriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus,1758)Family: CampephagidaeCoracina macei (Lesson,1831)Coracina melanoptera(Rüppell, 1839)Pericrocotus cinnamomeus(Linnaeus, 1766)Pericrocotus flammeus(Forster, 1781)Hemipus picatus (Sykes,1832)E:Lesser Adjutant; S:Heenbahuru-manava; T:Siriyapotha.E:Jerdon's Leafbird;S:Jaradan kolarisiya, Girakurulla;T: Jerdon pachaichittu.E:Golden FrontedLeafbird; S:Ran nalalkolarisiya;T: Pachaichittu.E:Long Tailed Shrike;S:Dikpenda sabaraiththa;T: Neela vaal keechaan.E:Sri Lanka Magpie; S:SriLanka Kahibella;T: Ilankai neela kuruvi.E:House Crow;S: Colomba kaputa;T: Kaakai.E:Jungle Crow; S:Kalukaputa; T: Andang kaakai.E;Ashy Woodswallow;S:Alu vanalihiniya;T: Sambal kaatu thakaivilaan.E:Black Hooded Oriole;S:Kahakurulla;T: Karunthalai maangkuyil.E:Large Cuckooshrike; S:Maha kovulsaratiththa; T:Periya kuyil keechaan.E:Black-headedCuckooshrike; S:Kaluhiskovulsaratiththa;T: Karunthalai kuyilkeechaan.E:Small Minivet; S:Punchiminiviththa;T: Sinna min sittu.E:Scarlet Minivet;S:Dilirath miniviththa;T: Sihappu min sittu.E:Bar Winged FlycatcherShrike; S:Wairapiyamasisaratiththa, Panukurulla; T: Karuppu vellaieepidi keechaan.VU B2ab(iii) VU A2cd+3cd+4cdLC LCLC LCVU B1ab(iii)VU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)VULC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCB1ab(ii,iii,iv)128

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaTephrodornis pondicerianus E:Common Woodshrike; LC LC(Gmelin, 1789) PES: Podu vanasaratiththa;T: Kaatu keechaan.Family: RhipiduridaeRhipidura aureola Lesson,1830Family: DicruridaeDicrurus macrocercus Vieillot,1817Dicrurus caerulescens(Linnaeus, 1758)Dicrurus paradiseus(Linnaeus, 1766)Dicrurus lophorhinusVieillot, 1817Family: MonarchiidaeHypothymis azurea(Boddaert, 1783)Terpsiphone paradisi(Linnaeus, 1758)Family: AegithinidaeAegithina tiphia (Linnaeus,1758)Aegithina nigrolutea(Marshall, 1876)Family: TurdidaeMyophonus blighi(Holdsworth, 1872)Zoothera spiloptera (Blyth,1847)Zoothera imbricataE.L. Layard, 1854Turdus merula Linnaeus,1758E:White-browed Fantail;S:Bamasudu pavanpenda;T: Venpuruva visirivaaleepidippaan.E:Black Drongo; S:Kalukavuda; T: Karungkarichaan.E:White-bellied Drongo;S:Kavuda;T: Venvayittru karichaan.E:Greater Racket-tailedDrongo; S:Maha kavuda;T: Thuduppuval karichaan.E: Sri Lanka CrestedDrongoE:Black-naped Monarch;S: Kalu gelasi radamara;T: Karumpidari arasaeepidipaan.E:Asian ParadiseFlycatcher; S: Asiarahanmara, Redi hora;T: Arasavaal eepidipaan.E:Common Iora; S:Poduiorava; T: Manjal chittu.E:White-tailed Iora;S:Pendasudu iorava;T: Venvaal chittu.E:Sri Lanka WhistlingThrush, Arrenga;S: Sri Lanka arangaya;T: Ilankai seezhkai olipaadum kuruvi.E:Sri Lanka Spot wingedThrush; S:Sri Lankathithpiya thirasikaya, Walavichchiya; T: Ilankaipullichiraku paadumkuruvi.E:Sri Lanka Scaly Thrush;S: Sri Lanka kayuruthirasikaya;T: Ilankai ponnira poongkuruvi.E:Eurasian Blackbird; S:Kalu bimsariya;T: Malaichittaan.LC LCLC LCLC LCNTVU B1ab(iii)LC LCLC LCLC LCVU B1ab(iii)EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)ENVU B1ab(iii) NTEN B2ab(iii) NTEN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iiiB1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C2a(i)129

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: MuscicapidaeEumyias sordidus (Walden,1870)Cyornis tickelliae Blyth, 1843Copsychus saularis(Linnaeus, 1758)Copsychus malabaricus(Scopoli, 1788)Saxicoloides fulicatus(Linnaeus, 1766)Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus,1766)Culicicapa ceylonensisSwainson, 1820Family: SturnidaeSturnus albofrontatus(Layard, 1854)Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus,1766)Gracula ptilogenys Blyth,1846Gracula religiosa Linnaeus,1758Family: SittidaeSitta frontalis Swainson, 1820Family: ParidaePavus major Linnaeus, 1758Family: HirundinidaeHirundo domicola Jerdon,1844E:Sri Lanka Dull BlueFlycatcher; S:Sri Lankaanumasimara; T: Ilankaineela vettivaat kuruvi.E:Tickell's Blue Flycatcher;S: Layaran nil-masimara,Kopi kurulla; T: Tickellneela ee pidippaan.E:Oriental Magpie Robin;S: Polkichcha; T: Karuppuvellai solaippadi.E:White Rumped Shama;S: Vana Polkichcha;T: Solanippaadi.E:Indian Robin;S: Kalukichcha, Kalupolkichcha; T: Karunjchittu.E:Pied Bushchat;S: Gomara sitibichcha;T: Karuppu vellai putharchittu.E: Grey- headed canaryflycatcher;S: Aluhis kahamasimaaraaE:Sri Lanka White FacedStarling; S: Sri Lankavathasudu sarikava;T: Ilankai soorai kuruvi.E:Common Myna;S: Myna; T: Naakanavai.E:Sri Lanka Myna;S: Sri Lanka Salalihiniya;T: Ilankai myna.E:Hill Myna;S: Salalihiniya;T: Malai naakanavai.E:Velvet FrontedNuthatch; S: Villudayatikuriththa; T: Velvetnettri maram irangi.E:Great Tit; S: Mahatikiriththa; T: Periyapattaari kuruvi.E:Hill Swallow; S: Kanduwehilihiniya; T: Pacificthakaivilaan.Hirundo hyperythra Blyth, E:Red rumped swallow; S:1849 PE Nithambarath wehilihiniya;T: Sivanthapittathakaivilaan.VU B1ab(iii) NTLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCEN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iiiLCEN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iiiLCLCVULC LCVU B1ab(iiii) NTLC LCLC LCLCVU B1ab(iiii) LCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C2a(i)130

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: PycnonotidaePycnonotus melanicterus E:Black-crested Bulbul; S:(Gmelin, 1789) PE Kalu isasi kondaya;T: Karungkondai sinnaan.Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus,1766)Pycnonotus penicillatusBlyth, 1851Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson,1841)Iole indica (Jerdon, 1839)Hypsipetes leucocephalus(Gmelin, 1789)Family: CisticolidaeCisticola juncidis (Rafinesque,1810)E:Red-vented Bulbul;S:Kondaya; T: Sinnaan.E:Sri Lanka Yellow-earedBulbul;S: Sri Lanka kahakankondaya; T: Ilankai manjalsevikkondai kuruvi.E:White Browed Bulbul;S:Bamasudu Kondaya; T:Ven puruva sinnaan.E:Yellow Browed Bulbul;S: Bamakaha Kondaya; T:Manjal puruva sinnaan.E:Asian Black Bulbul;S:Kalu piri-kondaya;T: Karung sinnaan.E:Zitting Cisticola;S: Iri Pavansariya;T: Naatu visirivaal kathirkuruvi.Prinia hodgsonii Blyth, 1844 E:Gray-breasted Prinia; S:Layalu prinia;T: Frankkin kathir kuruvi.Prinia sylvatica Jerdon, 1840 E:Jungle Prinia; S: Vanaprinia, Hambu kurulla;T: Kaatu kathir kuruvi.Prinia socialis Sykes, 1832 E:Ashy Prinia; S:Aluprinia; T: Sambal kathirkuruvi.Prinia inornata Sykes, 1832 E:Plain Prinia; S: Saralaprinia; T: Kathir kuruvi.Family: ZosteropidaeZosterops ceylonensisHoldsworth, 1872Zosterops palpebrosus(Temminck, 1824)Family: SylviidaeBradypterus palliseri (Blyth,1851)Acrocephalus stentoreus(Ehrenberg, 1833)Orthotomus sutorius(Pennant, 1769)E:Sri Lanka White Eye;S: Sri Lanka sithasiya, Malkurulla; T: Ilankai ven vilikkuruvi.E:Oriental White Eye;S:Peradigu sithasiya;T: Vellai kanni.E:Sri Lanka Bush Warbler;S: Sri Lanka vanaraviya;T: Ilankai pattrai thinnungkuruvi.E:Clamorous ReedWarbler; S: Gospanraviya; T:Periya nanalkathir kuruvi.E:Common Tailorbird;S: Battichcha; T: Thaiyatkaara kathir kuruvi.LC LCLC LCVU B1ab(iiii)+2ab(iii)NTLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLCNT LCLC LCEN B1ab(iiii)+2ab(iii)NTNT LCLC LC131

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily: TimaliidaeGarrulax cinereifrons Blyth,1851Pellorneum fuscocapillus(Blyth, 1849)Pomatorhinus melanurusBlyth, 1847Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin,1831)Rhopocichla atriceps (Jerdon,1839)Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin,1789)Turdoides rufescens (Blyth,1847)Turdoides affinis (Jerdon,1845)Family: AlaudidaeMirafra affinis Blyth, 1845Eremopterix griseus (Scopoli,1786)Alauda gulgula Franklin, 1831Family: DicaeidaeDicaeum agile (Tickell, 1833)E:Sri Lanka Ashy-headedLaughingthrush; S:SriLanka hisalu upademalichcha;T: Ilankai saambal thalaipunnahaikum paadumkuruvi.E:Sri Lanka BrownCapped Babbler; S:Sri Lanka Boraga piridemalichcha;T: Ilankaikabilakulla velaikkarakuruvi.E:Sri Lanka ScimitarBabbler; S: Sri Lankade-demalichcha; T: Ilankaikoduvaal velaikkarakuruvi.E:Tawny-bellied Babbler;S: Kusakaha landudemalichcha;T: Karunj chirappu vayittrusilamban.E:Dark Fronted Babbler;S: Vathaduru pandurudemalichcha,Parandelkurulla;T: Karunthalaichilamban.E:Yellow Eyed Babbler;S:Nethkaha thanademalichcha;T: Manjalkan silamban.E:Sri Lanka OrangeBilled Babbler; S:SriLanka rathu-demalichcha;T: Ilankai sev valuhuvelaikkara kuruvi.E:Yellow Billed Babbler;S:Demalichcha;T: Manjal alahu silamban.E:Jerdon's Bushlark;S:Panduru gomaritta;T: Jerdan puthar vaanampaadi.E:Ashy Crowned SparrowLark; S: Kirulalu Bimritta;T: Sambal thalai vaanampaadi.E:Oriental Skylark;S: Peradigu ahsritta;T: Vaanam paadi.E:Thick BilledFlowerpecker; S:Mathudupililichcha; T: Paruthaalahu malar kothi.EN B1ab(iiii)+2ab(iii)VULC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCVU B1ab(iiii)+2ab(iii)NTLC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCNT LCB1ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v);C2a(i)132

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDicaeum vincens (Sclater,1872)E:Sri Lanka WhiteThroated Flowerpecker;S:Sri Lanka Pililichcha; T:Ilankai venthondai malarkothi.VU B1ab(iiii)+2ab(iii)NTDicaeum erythrorhynchos(Latham, 1790)Family: NectariniidaeNectarinia zeylonica(Linnaeus, 1766)Nectarinia asiatica (Latham,1790)Nectarinia lotenia (Linnaeus,1766)Family: PasseridaePasser domesticus (Linnaeus,1758)Family: MotacillidaeAnthus rufulus Vieillot, 1818Family: PloceidaePloceus manyar (Horsfield,1821)Ploceus philippinus(Linnaeus, 1766)Family: EstrildidaeLonchura malabarica(Linnaeus, 1758)Lonchura striata (Linnaus,1766)Lonchura kelaarti (Jerdon,1863)Lonchura punctulata(Linnaeus, 1758)Lonchura malacca (Linnaeus,1766)E:Pale BilledFlowerpecker; S:LathuduPililichcha; T: Dickel malarkothi.E:Purple RumpedSunbird; S:Nithamba damsutikka;T: Oothapitta thenchittu.E:Purple Sunbird;S: Dam sutikka;T: Ootha thenchittu.E:Long Billed Sunbird;S: Dikthudu Sutikka;T: Loten thenchittu.E:House Sparrow;S:Gekurulla;T: Chittukkuruvi.E:Paddyfield Pipit; S:Kethwaratichcha;T: Vayal nettaikkaadi.E:Streaked Weaver;S:Pan Wadukurulla;T: Karung keetruthookanaang kuruvi.E:Baya Weaver; S:RukWadukurulla;T: Thookkanaang kuruvi.E:White Throated Munia;S:Sarala Weekurulla;T:Ven thondai sillai.E:White Rumped Munia;S:Nithamba suduWeekurulla;T: Ven muthuhu sillai.E:Black Throated Munia;S:Gelakalu Weekurulla; T:Karunthondai sillai.E:Scaly BreastedMunia; S: Laya kayuruWeekurulla; T:Pulli sillai.E:Tricoloured Munia;S: Thepaha Weekurulla; T:Karunthalai sillai.LC LCLC LCLC LCLC LCLCLC LCNT LCLC LCVU B2ab(iiii) LCLC LCVU LCLC LCLC LC133

The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Mammals in Sri LankaDevaka K. WeerakoonDepartment of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 3IntroductionThe first systematic account of the mammals of Sri Lanka was done by Kelaart (1852).Thereafter, Phillips (1935) has written a more extensive review of the mammals of Sri Lankawhich, even though somewhat outdated in terms of information, remains the standard referencework for the mammals of Sri Lanka even at present. After Phillips, several attempts have beenmade to revise the taxonomic status of the country’s mammals. Some of these reviews havefocused specifically on the Sri Lankan situation (Hill, 1939; Eisenberg and Mckay, 1970; Hill,1980; Mckay 1984) while others treated the country’s mammals in a regional context (Ellermanand Morrison-Scott 1966; Corbet and Hill, 1992). In addition, there are a number of reviewsthat have focused on specific taxonomic groups (Moore, 1960; Ellerman, 1961; Musser, 1981;Bates & Harrison, 1997; Marshall, 1977; Sirinivasulu and Pradhan, 2003; Chakraborty et al.,2004; Sirinivasulu and Jordan, 2004; Sirinivasulu and Sirinivasulu, 2004; Sirinivasulu et al.,2004a and Sirinivasulu et al., 2004b).TaxonomyA total of 144 species and subspecies of mammals were described from Sri Lanka from 1758to1965. Of these, 24 are currently considered as valid species. According to literature, thereare 95 species of indigenous mammals in Sri Lanka, of which 21 species are endemic tothe island. Another 12 species have been introduced to Sri Lanka by humans, of which fourspecies, namely Bubalis bubalis, Equus caballus, Equus asinus and Rattus norvegicus, havewell established feral populations.The endemic status of the Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew, Feroculus feroculus had to be revisedas it has been reported from equivalent bioclimatic zones in Kerala & Tamil Nadu provincesof India (Pradhan et al., 1997). At the same time recent revisions of the South Asian murids(Sirinivasulu and Pradhan, 2003; Dissanayake, 2012) and primates (Walker and Molur, 2004)have indicated that Funambulus layardi, Funambulus obscurus and Loris tardigradus areendemic to Sri Lanka. Further, revision of the genus Moschiola (Groves & Meijaard, 2005)and the species Paradoxurus zeylonensis (Groves et al., 2009) resulted in splitting of the twopreviously known species into five endemic species, Moschiola meminna, Moschiola kathygre,Paradoxurus aureus, Paradoxurus stenocephalus and Paradoxurus montanus. Finally, anotherspecies of shrew, Crocidura hikmiya, has been added to the list of endemic species of SriLanka (Meegaskumbura et al., 2007), bringing the total number of endemic species to 21.Most revisions of Sri Lankan mammals have been based mainly on museum collections ratherthan detailed field studies. The work of Phillips therefore remains the only truly reliable sourceeven today, even though advances in systematics during recent years have made some ofhis nomenclature obsolete and, as noted above, the endemic status of several species ofmammals have changed. Other aspects that need to be resolved are the subspecific statusof some Sri Lankan mammals and the status of two species of small mammals described byDeraniyagala (1958 and 1964), Podihik kura and Gatamiya weragami.134

Several Sri Lankan mammals are represented by sub species whose status have not beenclearly established. Therefore, these sub species were not considered during the presentconservation assessment. However, some of the sub species are quite rare in Sri Lankaeg. Loris tardigradus nycticeboides, Macaca sinica opisthomeles, Semnopithecus vetulusmonticola even though the species itself is found in abundance. Therefore, if these sub speciesare to be conserved as genetically stable units in the future, the correct sub species status hasto be clearly resolved. Both Gatamiya weragami and Podihik kura are not currently consideredin the list of Sri Lankan mammals. Corbett and Hill (1992) consider that the former is probably asynonym of Mus booduga, while the description of the latter was based on a juvenile specimenof Suncus murinus. However, Deraniyagala placed P. kura in the subfamily Soricinae, whichpossess reddish incisor enamel, while the subfamily Crocidurinae, to which Suncus belongs,has white enamel. The status of Podihik, at least, needs to be re-examined.All these taxonomic issues point to the need to carry out a systematic review of the taxonomyof Sri Lankan mammals based on detailed field collections as well as existing museumspecimens.DistributionEisenberg and McKay (1970) proposed a system for classifying the habitats of mammals inSri Lanka based on the climate map of Muller-Dombois and Sirisena (1967); they recognizedseven mammalian zones, namely monsoon scrub jungle in the northwest (A1) and southeast(A2), monsoon forest and grassland (B), inter monsoon forest (C), rain forests and grasslandsbelow 3000 feet (D1), between 3000-5000 feet (D2) and above 5000 feet (D3). Out of these,most of the endemic and threatened mammals of Sri Lanka are restricted to the zones D1,D2 and D3. However, these three zones remain poorly explored, especially zones D2 and D3.As recent studies have lead to the description of at least 5 new endemic species during thelast five years alone from these three zones, a detailed survey of the mammals in these threezones is a timely need.Research gaps related to the taxonomy of mammals of Sri LankaMost of the research on mammals of Sri Lanka has been biased towards the large charismaticanimals with little emphasis on the small mammals. Many of the small mammals have notbeen recorded in recent times and their present status remains unknown. Furthermore, manyareas of Sri Lanka, such as the north, northwest, isolated hills in the dry zone and the montaneregions (especially, the Knuckles Range and Sinharaja), have not been properly surveyed andmay harbour species that are not recorded to date. It is extremely important, therefore, for SriLanka to establish a systematic survey program for the country’s mammals (for both terrestrialand marine), with a special emphasis on small mammals, under the auspices of the nationalmuseum or any other relevant government agency. Such a survey would bring a wealth ofinformation on the mammalian fauna of Sri Lanka as well as provide the basis to resolve manyof the taxonomic issues we face today.135

Conservation issues pertaining to mammals of Sri LankaEven though many, perhaps most, of the mammals show a wide distribution within Sri Lanka, amajority of the endemic and threatened mammals are confined to the wet zone and especially,the montane zone where habitat loss and degradation are taking place at a rapid rate.Furthermore, fragmentation of habitats also has a detrimental effect on mammal populations,especially small mammals who have low mobility. Expansion of human settlements intoforested areas has resulted in an influx of pest species (house rat and brown rat) and domesticpredators (cat and dog) into the remaining natural habitats. These compete with indigenousspecies as well as increase the predator pressure on already stressed natural populations.A number of small predators, such as the fishing cat and the mongoose, live in small urbanforests and marshes which are at risk of being converted to human use, endangering thesesmall urban populations. Increased mortality due to hunting and conflict also remains a majorconcern, especially for the large charismatic species.References:Bates, P. J. J. & Harrison, D. L., (1997). Bats of the Indian sub-continent. London: Harrison Zoological Museum.Chakraborty, S., Sirinivasalu, C., Sirinivasalu, B., Pradhan, M. S. & Nameer, P. O., (2004). Checklist of insectivores(Mammalia: Insectivora) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1361-1371.Corbet, G. B. & Hill, J. E., (1992). Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1958). Ceylon Administration Reports for 1957 (Part IV) Education E3-E23 Part 1.Deraniyagala, P. E. P., (1964). Some aspects of the Fauna of Ceylon. Journal Ceylon Branch of the Royal AsiaticSociety, 9(1), pp.165-220Dissanayake, R. & Tatsuo, O., (2012). The systematics of the dusky striped squirrel Funambulus sublineatus(Waterhouse, 1838) (Rodentia: Sciuridae) and its relationship to Layard’s Squirrel Funambulus layardi Blyth1849. J. Nat. Hist., 46(1-2), pp.91-116Eisenberg, J. F. & Mckay, G. M., (1970). An annotated checklist of the recent mammals of Ceylon with keys tospecies. Ceylon Journal of Science, 8(2), pp.69-99.Ellerman, J. R., (1961). The fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon: Mammalia, Rodentia. Volume 3.2nd Edition. Culcutta: Zoological Survey of India.Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S., (1966). Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals. 2nd Edition.London: British museum of Natural History.Groves, C. P. & Meijaard, E., (2005). Interspecific variation in Moschiola, the Indian chevrotain. Raffles Bulletin ofZoology, 12, pp.413-421.Groves, C. P. & Rajapaksha, C. & Manamendra-Arachchi, K., (2009). The taxonomy of the endemic golden palmcivet of Sri Lanka. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 155, pp.238–251.Hill, J. E., (1980). The mammals of Sri Lanka. Spolia Zeylanica, 35, pp.203-211.Hill, W. C. O., (1939). A revised checklist of the mammals of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science, 21(2), pp.139-184.Kelaart, E. F., (1852). Prodromus Faunae Zeylanicae: Being contributions to the Zoology of Ceylon. Colombo:Printed for the Author.Marshall, J. T. Jr., (1977). A synopsis of Asian species of Mus (Rodentia: Muridae). Bulletin of the American Museumof Natural History, 158, pp.173-220.Mckay, G. M., (1984). Ecology and biogeography of mammals. In: C.H. Fernando. ed. 1984. Biogeography andEcology of Sri Lanka. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, pp.413-429.Meegaskumbura, S., Meegaskumbura, M., Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & Schneider, C. J., (2007).Crocidura hikmiya, a new shrew (Mammalia: Soricomorpha: Soricidae) from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa, 1665, pp.19–30Moore, J. C., (1960). Squirrel geography of the Indian subregion. Systematic Zoology, 9(1), pp.1-17.Muller-Dombois, D. & Sirisena, V. A., (1967). Climate map of Ceylon. Colombo: Ceylon Survey Department, Ceylon.Musser, G. G., (1981). Results of the Archbold expeditions number 105. Notes on sytematics of Indo-malayan muridrodents, and descriptions of new genera and species from Ceylon, Sulawesi, and the Philippines. Bulletin ofthe American Museum of Natural History, 168, pp.225-234.136

Phillips, W. W. A., (1935). Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon- Ceylon Journal of Science. London: Dulau & Company.Pradhan, M. S., Sharma, R. M. & Shanker, K., (1997). First record of Kelaart’s Long-clawed Shrew Feroculusferoculus (Kelaart) from peninsular India. Mammalia, 61(3), pp.448-450.Shanker, K. & Sukumar, R., (1998). Community structure and demography of small-mammal populations in insularmontane forests in southern India. Oecologia, 116, pp.243-251.Sirinivasalu, C. & Pradhan, M. S., (2003). Checklist of murids (Mammalia: Rodentia: Muridae) of South Asia. ZoosPrint Journal, 18(12), pp.1286-1310.Sirinivasalu, C. & Jordan, M. J. R., (2004). Checklist of dipodids, myoxids, and hystricids (Mammalia: Rodentia:Dipodidae, Myoxidae, and Hystricidae) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1346-1350.Sirinivasalu, C. & Sirinivasalu, B., (2004). Checklist of scandents and pholidots (Mammalia: Scandentia andPholidota) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1372-1374.Sirinivasalu, C., Chakraborty, S. & Pradhan, M. S., (2004a). Checklist of sciurids (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae)of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1351-1360.Sirinivasalu, C., Sirinivasalu, B., Chakraborty, S., Pradhan, M. S. & Nameer, P. O., (2004b). Checklist of lagomorphs(Mammalia: Lagomorpha) of South Asia. Zoos Print Journal, 19(2), pp.1375-1380.Walker, S. & Molur, S., (2003). Summary of the status of the South Asian primates - Extracted from the Status ofSouth Asian Primates: Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (C.A.M.P.) Work shop report 2003.Coimbatore, India: Zoo Outreach Organisation and CBSG-South Asia and WILD.Notes on the Marine Mammals of Sri LankaThe maritime zone of Sri Lanka is inhabited by 30 species of marine mammals. Even though it has beenknown that marine mammals inhabited the ocean around Sri Lanka as far back as the 14th centurybased on the writings of the travelers, the scientific study of the marine mammals has only begun in the1980’s. Therefore, what is known about the diversity, ecology and conservation of marine mammals isbased on information gathered by research carried out during the last three decades. The 30 speciesof marine mammals recorded in Sri Lankan waters are classified under two orders, Cetartiodactyla(includes 29 species of whales, dolphins and porpoises in five families) and Sirenia (includes 1 speciesof Dugong).As indicated above, the research studies on Marine Mammals in Sri Lanka has only started duringthe last three decades. Even these are mostly short-term studies due to funding restrictions, logisticalrestrictions in studying large ranging oceanic animals and lack of access to certain parts of the oceandue to security reasons. However, in order to reach a clear understanding of large ranging mammalssuch as whales and dolphins long term studies are necessary. Due to the lack of information, the nationalstatus of marine mammals has not been assessed and only their global status is listed in this paper.The biggest threat to the marine mammals inhabiting the oceans around Sri Lanka is posed by thefisheries industry. Large numbers of Dolphins and Dugongs are killed each year both directly andindirectly (by-catch) by fisherman. In addition, increased shipping traffic, marine pollution by both landbased and marine based sources, habitat destruction, especially shallow near shore habitats such assea grass beds are the other major threats faced by marine mammals. Even though Sri Lanka’s maritimezone is nearly eight times larger than its land area, there is a major discrepancy in the allocation of areasfor conservation as evidenced by the fact that there are only four Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lankaas opposed to more than 100 protected areas declared on land under the management of Departmentof Wildlife Conservation and Forest Department. These four protected areas are primarily aimed atconserving coral reefs and are poorly enforced at present.During the past decade Sri Lanka has gained a reputation as an ideal site for whale and dolphin watching,both among local and foreign tourists. However, at present there are no regulations in place to controlor monitor the whale watching industry and as such it may pose a major threat to the marine mammals,especially the larger whales. Lessons learned from other countries indicate that poorly regulated whalewatching can have adverse impacts on the marine mammal populations. As Sri Lanka plans to expandits tourist industry in the coming years, marine mammals can prove an important economic resource asit can be marketed as a major tourism experience. Therefore, it is critically important that Sri Lanka paysmore attention towards protecting its marine mammals.137

Table 12: List of Mammals in Sri LankaScientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : ManidaeManis crassicaudata Gray, 1827Family : SoricidaeE: Pangolin;S: Kaballewa NT NTCrocidura horsfieldi (Tomes, 1856)E: Horsfield’sshrew;S: Kunuhik-miya CR B2ab(iii) DDCrocidura miya Phillips, 1929E: Sri Lankalong-tailed shrew;S: Sri LankaKunuhik-miya CR B1ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)Crocidura hikmiya Meegaskumbura,Meegaskumbura, Pethiyagoda,Manamendra-arachchi & Schneider,2007 CR B2ab(iii)Feroculus feroculus (Kelaart, 1850)Solisorex pearsoni Thomas, 1924Suncus etruscus (Savi, 1822)Suncus fellowes-gordoni Phillips,1932Suncus montanus (Kelaart, 1850)Suncus murinus (Linnaeus, 1766)Suncus zeylanicus Phillips, 1928Family : EmballonuridaeTaphozous longimanus Hardwicke, 1825Taphozous melanopogon Temminck,1841Saccolaimus saccolaimus Temminck,1838E: Kelaart’s longclawedshrew;S: Pirihik-miya ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1+2ab(ii,iii)E: Sri LankaPearson’s longclawedshrew;S: Sri LankaMahik-miya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Pigmy shrew;S: Podi Hik-miya EN B1ab(iii) LCE: Sri Lankapigmy shrew;S: Sri Lanka PodiHik-miyaE:Sri LankaHighland shrew;S:Sri LankaKandu Hik-miyaENENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VU B2ab(ii,iii)E: Common muskshrew; S: PodhuHik-miya LC LCE: Sri Lankajungle shrew;S: Sri Lanka KeleHik-miya DD EN B2ab(iii)E: Long-armedsheath-tailedbat; S: DikbaKepulum- vavulaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCE: Black-beardedsheath-tailedbat; S: RavulkaluKepulum- vavula VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Pouch-bearingsheath-tailedbat; S: MahaKepulum- vavula CR B2ab(iii) LC138

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : HipposideridaeHipposideros ater Temleton, 1848Hipposideros fulvus Gray, 1838Hipposideros galeritus Cantor, 1846Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart, 1850Hipposideros speoris (Schneider, 1800)Family : MegadermatidaeMegaderma lyra Geoffroy, 1810Megaderma spasma (Linnaeus, 1758)Family : MolossidaeTadarida aegyptiaca (Geoffroy, 1818)Chaerephon plicatus (Buchnnan, 1800)Family : PteropodidaeCynopterus brachyotis (Muller, 1838)Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl, 1797)Pteropus giganteus (Brunnich, 1782)Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest,1820)Family : RhinolophidaeRhinolophus beddomei Anderson, 1905E: Bicoloredleaf-nosedbat; S: DepataPathnehe-vavula LC LCE: Fulvousleafnosed bat;S: MalekahaPathnehe-vavula139ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCE: Dekhanleaf-nosed bat;S: KesdigaPathnehe-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Great leafnosedbat;S: MahaPathnehe-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Schneider’sleaf-nosedbat; S: KesketiPathnehe-vavula LC LCE: Greater FalseVampire bat;S: Boru LeyvavulaVU B1ab(iii) LCE: Lesser FalseVampire bat;S: Kandiga BoruLey-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Continentalwrinkled-lip bat;S: MahadiveRallithol-vavula CR B2ab(iii) LCE: Commonwrinkled-lipbat; S: PodhuRallithol-vavula CR B2ab(iii) LCE: Lesser dognosedfruit bat;S: Heen ThalavavulaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCE: Short-nosedfruit bat; S: ThalavavulaLC LCE: Flying fox;S: Ma-vavula LC LCE: Fulvous fruitbat;S: Rath dumburupala vavula LC LCE: Great horseshoebat;S: MahaAshladan-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LC

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaRhinolophus rouxii Temminck, 1835Family : VespertillionidaeHesperoptenus tickelli (Blyth, 1851)Kerivoula hardwickii (Horsefield, 1824)Kerivoula picta (Pallas, 1767)Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl, 1819)Myotis hasseltii (Temminck, 1840)Murina cyclotis Dobson, 1872Falsistrellus affinis (Dobson, 1871)Pipistrellus ceylonicus (Kelaart, 1852)Pipistrellus coromandra (Gray, 1838)Pipistrellus tenuis (Temminck, 1840)Scotophilus heathii Horsefield, 1831Scotophilus kuhlii Leach, 1821Family : CercopithecidaeMacaca sinica (Linnaeus, 1771)Semnopithecus priam Blyth, 1844Semnopithecus vetulus (Erxleben,1777)Family : LorisidaeLoris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908E: Rufous horseshoebat;S: BorathAshladan-vavula LC LCE: Tickle’s bat;S: Awara-vavula DD LCE: Malpas’s bat;S: RathboraKehel-vavulaCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Painted bat;S: VisithuruKehel-vavula NT LCE: Long-wingedbat; S: DickpiyavavulaEN B2ab(iii)E: Brown bat;S: Bora-vavula NT LCE: Tube-nosedbat; S: NalanehevavulaNT LCE: Chocolate bat;S: Bora kosetavavulaCR B2ab(iii) LCE: Kelaart’spipistrel;S: Rathborakoseta-vavula EN B2ab(iii) LCE: Indian pipistrel;S: Indu kosetavavulaVU B1ab(iii) LCE: Pigmy pipistrel;S: Heen kosetavavulaLC LCE: Great yellowbat; S: Mahakaha-vavula VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Lesser yellowbat; S: Heenkaha-vavula DD LCE: Sri Lankatoque monkey;S: Sri LankaRilawa LC EN A2cdE: Grey langur;S: Eli-wandura LC NTE:Sri LankaPurple-facedlangur; S: SriLanka kaluwanduraEN B2ab(iii) EN A2cd+3cd+4cdE: Grey slenderloris; S: AluUnahapuluwa NT LC140

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaLoris tardigradus (Linnaeus, 1758)Family : CanidaeCanis aureus Linnaeus, 1758Family : FelidaeFelis chaus Gueldenstaedt, 1776Panthera pardus (Linnaeus, 1758)Prionailurus rubiginosus (Geoffroy,1831)Prionailurus viverrinus (Bennett, 1833)Family : HerpestidaeHerpestes brachyurus Gray, 1837Herpestes edwardsii (Geoffroy, 1818)Herpestes smithii Gray, 1837Herpestes vitticollis Bennett, 1835Family : MustelidaeLutra lutra (Linnaeus, 1758)Family : UrsidaeMelursus ursinus (Show & Nodder,1791)Family : ViverridaeParadoxurus hermaphoditus (Pallas,1777)E: Sri Lanka redslender loris;S: Sri Lanka RathUnahapuluwa VU B1ab(iii) EN C2a(i)E: Jackal;S: Nariya / Hiwala LC LCE: Jungle cat;S: Wal Balala NT LCE: Leopard;S: Kotiya/ Diviya EN B2ab(iii) NTE: Rusty-spottedcat; S: KolaDiviya / BalalDiviya EN B2ab(iii) VU C2a(i)E: Fishing cat;S: Handun Diviya EN B2ab(iii) EN A2cd+4cdE: Brownmongoose;S: Bora Mugatiya LCE: Greymongoose;S: Alu Mugatiya LC LCE: Black-tippedor Ruddymongoose;S: Rath Mugatiya/ Hothambuwa LC LCE: Stripe-neckedor badgermongoose;S: MahaMugatiya / GalMugatiya VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Otter; S: DiyaballaVU B1ab(iii) NTE: Sloth bear;S: Walaha EN B2ab(iii) VU A2cd+4cd;C1E: Palm cat;S: Uguduwa LC LCParadoxurus aureus Cuvier, 1822 E: Golden PalmCivet EN B2ab(iii)Paradoxurus stenocephalus Groves,Rajapaksha & Manamendra-Arachchi,2009Paradoxurus montanus Kelaart, 1852Viverricula indica (Desmarest, 1817)E: Golden DryzonePalm CivetCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Sri LankanBrown Palm Civet EN B2ab(iii)E: Ring-tailedcivet; S: Urulewa LC LC141

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : ElephantidaeElephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758Family : BovidaeBubalus arnee (Kerr, 1792)Family : CervidaeAxis axis (Erxleben, 1777)Axis porcinus (Zimmermann, 1777)Rusa unicolor Kerr, 1792Muntiacus muntjak (Zimmermann, 1780)Family : SuidaeSus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758Family : TragulidaeMoschiola meminna Erexleben, 1777Moschiola kathygre Groves &Meijaard, 2004Family : HystricidaeHystrix indica (Kerr, 1792)Family : MuridaeBandicota bengalensis (Gray 1835)Bandicota indica (Bechstein, 1800)Madromys blanfordi (Thomas, 1881)Golunda ellioti Gray, 1837Millardia meltada (Gray, 1837)Mus booduga (Gray, 1837)E: Elephant;S: Etha / Aliya EN B2ab(iii) EN A2cE: Wild buffalo;S: Kulu Haraka /Wal Meema VU B2ab(iii) ENE: Spotted deer;S: Tith Muwa LC LCE: Hog deer;S: Vil Muwa /Gona MuwaCRB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)A2cde+3cde+4cde; C1E: Sambur;S: Gona NT VU A2cd+3cd+4cdE: Barking deer;S: Olu Muwa /Weli Muwa NTE: Wild boar;S: Wal Ura LC LCE: Sri Lankamouse-deer;S: Sri LankaMeminna LC LCE: Sri Lankapigmy mousedeer;S: Sri LankaKuru Meminna VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Porcupine;S: Ittewa LC LCE: Mole rat;S: Heen Uru-miya LC LCE: Malabarbandicoot;S: Uru-miya LC LCE: White-tailedrat;S: WaligasudumiyaEN B2ab(iii) LCE: Bush rat;S: Panduru-miya ENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCE: Soft-furredfield rat;S: KesmuduKeth-miya EN B2ab(iii) LCE: Field mouse;S: Wel HeenmiyaLC LC142

Scientific Name Common Name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMus fernandoni (Phillips, 1932)Mus mayori (Thomas, 1915)Mus musculus Linnaeus, 1758Rattus montanus Phillips, 1932Rattus rattus (Linnaeus, 1758)Rattus tanezumi Temminck, 1844Srilankamys ohiensis (Phillips, 1929)Vandeleuria nolthenii Phillips, 1929Vandeleuria oleracea (Bennett, 1832)Tatera indica (Hardwicke, 1807)Family : PteromyidaePetaurista philippensis (Elliot, 1839)Petinomys fuscocapillus (Jerdon, 1847)Family : SciuridaeFunambulus layardi (Blyth, 1849)Funambulus palmarum (Linnaeus, 1766)Funambulus obscurus (Pelzein &Kohl, 1886)Ratufa macroura (Pennant, 1769)Family : LeporidaeLepus nigricollis Cuvier, 1823E: Sri Lankaspiny mouse;S: Sri Lanka katuHeen-miyaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) EN B2ab(iii)E: Sri Lankaspiny rat; S: SriLanka DepaheKatu Heen-miya EN B2ab(iii) VU B2ab(iii)E: Indian housemouse;S: Ge Heen-miya/Koseta-miya LCE: Nelu rat; S: SriLanka Nelu Miya CR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Common rat;S: Podu Ge Miya LCNTE: Sri Lankabicolored rat;S: Sri LankaDepehe-miyaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) VU B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Sri lanka longtailedtree mouse;S: Sri Lanka GasmiyaCR B2ab(iii) EN B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii)E: Long-tailedtree mouse;S: Gas-miya VU B1ab(iii) LCE: Antelope rat;S: Weli-miya LC LCE: Giant flyingsquirrel;S: Ma-hambawa ENE: Small flyingsquirrel; S: HeenhambawaENB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) LCB1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) NTE: Sri Lankaflame-stripedjungle squirrel;S: Sri LankaMukalan Leena VU B1ab(iii) VUE: Palm squirrel;S: Leena LC LCA3c+4c;B1ab(i,ii,iii)E: Dusky-stripedjungle squirrel;S:Punchi Leena VU B1an(iii) VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)E: Giant squirrel;S: Dandu-leena LC NTE: Black-napedhare;S: Wal Hawa LC LC143

Scientific Name Common Name GCS CriteriaFamily: BalaenopteridaeBalaenoptera acutorostrata Lacepede, 1804E: Mink Whale;S: Minki thalmasa LCBalaenoptera borealis Lesson, 1828 E: Sei Whale; S: Sei thalmasa EN A1adBalaenoptera edeni Anderson, 1879 E: Bride's whale; S: Bridege thalmasa DDBalaenoptera musculus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Blue whale; S: Nil thalmasa EN A1abdBalaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Fin Whale; S: Waral thalmasa EN A1dMegaptera novaeangliae (Borowski, 1781)E: Hump-backed Whale;S: Molli thalmasa LCFamily: PhyseteridaePhyseter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758 E: Sperm Whale; S: Manda thalmasa VU A1dFamily: KogiidaeKogia breviceps (Balaninville, 1838)E: Pygmy Sperm Whale;S: Kurumanda thalmasa DDKogia sima (Owen, 1866)E: Dwarf Sperm Whale;S: Mitimanda thalmasa DDFamily: ZiphiidaeIndopacetus pacificus Longman, 1926E: Longman’s Beaked Whale;S: Longmange hota ul thalmasa DDMesoplodon densirostris Blainville, 1817E: Blainville's beaked Whale;S: Blanvilge hota ul thalmasa DDMesoplodon hotaula Nishiwaki & Kamiya,1958E: Ginko-toothed Beaked Whale;S: Japan hota ul thalmasa DDE: Cuvier's beak Whale;S: Cuvierge hota ul thalmasa LCZpihius cavirostris Cuvier, 1823Family: DelphinidaeDelphinus delphis Linnaeus, 1758 E: Common Dolphin; S: Podu mulla LCFeresa attenuata Gray, 1875E: Pygmy Killer Whale;S: Kuru minimaru thalmasa DDGlobicephala macrorhyncus Gray, 1846E: Short-finned Pilot Whale; S: Keti waralniyamu thalmasaDDGrampus griseus (Cuvier, 1812)E: Rissos Dolphin/ Grey Dolphin;S: Malina mulla LCLagenodelphis hosei Fraser, 1957 E: Fraser's Dolphin; S: Keti hota mulla LCOrcinus orca (Linnaeus, 1758) E: Killer whale; S: Minimaru thalmasa DDPeponocephala electra (Gray, 1846)E: Melon headed Whale;S: Puhu lolu mulla LCPseudorca crassidens (Owen, 1846)E: False Killer Whale;S: Wyaja minimaru thalmasa DDSousa chinensis (Osbeck, 1765)E: Indo-pacific hump-back Dolphin; S:Kabara mullaNTStenella attenuata (Gray, 1846) E: Spotted Dolphin; S: Thith mulla LCStenella coeruleoalba (Meyen, 1833) E: Striped Dolphin; S: Wyiram mulla LCStenella longirostris (Gray, 1828) E: Spinner Dolphin; S: Sannali mulla DDSteno bredanensis (Lesson, 1828)E: Rough-toothed Dolphin;S: Ralu dath mulla LCTursiops truncatus (Monotagu, 1821)E: Bottle nosed Dolphin;S: Digasumbu mulla LCTursiops aduncus (Ehrenberg, 1833)E: Indo-pacific Bottlenosed Dolphin; S: Indudigasumbu mullaDDFamily: PhocoenidaeNeophocaena phocaenoides (Cuvier, 1829) E: Finless Porpoise; S: Awaral mulla VU A2cdeFamily: DugongidaeDugong dugong (Muller, 1776) E: Dugong; S: Muhudu Ura VU A2bcd144

Analysis of Faunal GroupsDevaka WeerakoonDepartment of Zoology, University of Colombo, Colombo 03Altogether 748 inland indigenous vertebrate species were assessed. However, the 30 marinemammals were excluded from the analysis due to insufficient data. For them only the global listingis provided. Out of these 345 (46%) species were evaluated to be Nationally Threatened (Table 1).Among the threatened vertebrate species, 233 (68%) are endemic to Sri Lanka. Nineteen speciesof endemic amphibians have not been recorded in Sri Lanka during the past 100 years, and thesewere considered as Extinct. Further, two species of fish, one species of amphibian and 1 speciesof reptile were listed as possibly extinct as there are no recent records for this species. Of thesurviving inland vertebrates, 122 species are Critically Endangered: i.e., one in every 6 species ofinland indigenous vertebrates of Sri Lanka is currently facing a high risk of extinction (CR) in thewild. Among the total endemic vertebrate species, 92 (29%) are Critically Endangered, 98 (31%)are Endangered and 39 (12%) are Vulnerable. Among the vertebrate fauna, the highest numberof threatened species was recorded among reptiles (107 or 31%), followed by amphibians, birds,mammals and freshwater fish. One in every two species of freshwater fish, amphibians, reptilesand mammals and one in every five species of birds in the island are currently facing the risk ofbecoming extinct in the wild.Among the selected groups of inland invertebrate fauna evaluated, the highest number of threatenedspecies was recorded among the Land snails (179), followed by bees, butterflies, spiders,dragonflies, ants and freshwater crabs (Table1). However, within a single group of invertebratesevaluated, the highest proportion of threatened species was recorded among the freshwater crabs(90% of the total crab species recorded to date), where one in every two species in Sri Lanka iscurrently facing an immediate and extremely high risk of extinction (CR) in the wild.Of the vertebrate species evaluated, five freshwater fish, three amphibians, 15 reptiles, 35 birdsand seven mammals were assessed as Near Threatened (NT). Similarly, among the evaluatedinvertebrate species, eight spiders, five freshwater crabs, 17 dragonflies, 12 bees, 21 butterfliesand 12 land snails were evaluated as Near Threatened.Among the inland vertebrate species evaluated, nine freshwater fish, one amphibian, 27 reptilesand six mammals were included in the Data Deficient category. Among the invertebrate speciesassessed, 394 spiders, 11 dragonflies, 109 ants, 06 butterflies and 36 land snails had to beincluded in the Data Deficient category, because they lacked sufficient distribution data withinSri Lanka. The number of species listed in the data deficient category is extremely high among thespiders and ants as very little information exists about members of these two groups. However, theywere included in the assessment to encourage further study of these two economically importanttaxonomic groups.145

Table 1. Conservation status of the assessed vertebrates and invertebrates of Sri Lanka(Endemics are shown in brackets)Taxonomic Group EX CR (PE) CR EN VU NT DD LCTotalSpeciesTotalThreatenedSpiders 41 (14) 21 (10) 8 (2) 394 (231) 37 501(257) 62(24)Freshwater crabs 34 (34) 12 (11) 5 (5) 51(50) 46(45)Dragonflies 26 (22) 18 (14) 17 (4) 17 (1) 11 (5) 29 (1) 118 (47) 61(40)Ants 25 (5) 18 (3) 16 109 (25) 26 194 (33) 59(8)Bees 48 38 20 12 12 130 106Butterflies 21 (5) 38 (10) 40 (7) 21 6(1) 119 (3) 245 (26) 99 (22)Land Snails(Excluding 21 notevaluated)80 (70) 76 (72) 23 (20) 12 (10) 36 (32) 5 (1) 253 (205) 179 (162)Freshwater fish 2 (2) 19 (16) 19 (17) 5 (4) 5 (3) 9 (5) 32 (3) 91 (50) 45 (39)Amphibians 19 (19) 1 (1) 34 (34) 28 (27) 10 (9) 3 (3) 1 15 (2) 111(95) 73 (71)Reptiles (Includingmarine reptiles)1 (1) 38 (36) 50 (39) 18 (11) 15 (7) 27 (15) 62 (15) 211 (124) 107 (87)Birds 18 18 (7) 31 (11) 35 (3) 138 (6) 240 (27) 67 (18)Mammals(Excludingthe 30 marinemammals)13 (6) 25 (8) 15 (4) 7 (0) 6 (1) 29 (2) 95 (21) 53 (18)An analysis of the geographical distribution of threatened vertebrate fauna in the differentadministrative districts in the island (Table 2) revealed that districts in the lowland wet zone(ie., Ratnapura, Galle, Matara, Kalutara, Kegalle) and the central highlands (Kandy, Nuwara-Eliya,Matale, Badulla) harbour a higher number of threatened taxa. According to information compiledduring this study, the highest number of threatened vertebrate fauna occur in the RatnapuraDistrict. The analyses also show clearly that districts in the Northern Province (Jaffna, Kilinochchi,Mullaitivu, Vavuniya) and the Eastern Province (Ampara, Batticaloa and Trincomalee) lack sufficientdistribution data, compared to other areas of the island.146

Table 2. The geographic distribution of threatened vertebrates in Sri LankaFreshwater Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds MammalsDistrictTotalCR EN VU CR EN VU CR EN VU CR EN VU CR EN VUAmpara 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4 (2) 7 (3) 1 (0) 2 (0) 11 (1) 3 (1) 32 (11)Anuradhapura 1 (1) 3 (2) 4 (3) 3 (2) 2 (2) 5 (3) 8 (3) 1 (0) 6 (0) 12 (1) 12 (1) 57 (18)Badulla 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4 (4) 5 (5) 5 (4) 14 (12) 5 (3) 1 (0) 6 (1) 18 (10) 4 (3) 11 (4) 10 (2) 88 (52)Batticaloa 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) 1 (1) 5 (1)Colombo 3 (2) 14 (12) 3 (2) 7 (6) 6 (6) 2 (1) 3 (0) 2 (0) 11 (3) 3 (1) 4 (1) 58 (34)Galle 4 (3) 18 (17) 3 (2) 3 (3) 20 (19) 8 (8) 4 (4) 11 (10) 13 (8) 10 (5) 16 (10) 1 (0) 8 (2) 10 (3) 129 (94)Gampaha 2 (1) 10 (9) 2 (1) 1 (1) 3 (2) 3 (1) 3 (1) 5 (2) 3 (1) 6 (2) 35 (21)Hambantota 1 (1) 2 (2) 6 (3) 11 (6) 2 (0) 7 (0) 20 (6) 10 (2) 7 (1) 66 (21)Jaffna 1 (0) 1 (0) 3 (0) 1 (0) 3 (0) 9 (0)Kalutara 7 (5) 16 (14) 3 (2) 9 (8) 5 (5) 9 (9) 8 (5) 8 (4) 17 (10) 1 (0) 5 (2) 9 (3) 97 (62)Kandy 5 (5) 2 (1) 3 (3) 13 (13) 12 (12) 8 (8) 9 (7) 25 (23) 13 (10) 1 (0) 15 (6) 19 (11) 1 (1) 12 (4) 6 (2) 144 (108)Kegalle 4 (2) 15 (13) 2 (2) 1 (1) 10 (9) 5 (5) 1 (1) 9 (9) 9 (7) 11 (7) 17 (11) 2 (2) 8 (3) 94 (72)Kilinochchi 0 (0)Kurunegala 2 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 2 (2) 2 (2) 1 (0) 3 (1) 1 (0) 6 (2) 6 (0) 26 (10)Mannar 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) 4 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 6 (0) 1 (0) 18 (1)Matale 4 (4) 2 (2) 5 (5) 5 (5) 8 (7) 7 (6) 8 (8) 8 (6) 2 (0) 10 (2) 23 (7) 2 (0) 9 (2) 5 (1) 96 (55)Matara 4 (3) 10 (10) 3 (2) 2 (2) 13 (12) 6 (6) 2 (2) 12 (11) 10 (7) 6 (4) 15 (11) 5 (2) 8 (3) 96 (75)Monaragala 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4 (4) 3 (1) 6 (5) 11 (8) 4 (0) 6 (0) 14 (4) 10 (3) 5 (1) 69 (31)Mullaitivu 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 1 (0) 2 (0) 11 (1) 2 (1) 22 (3)Nuwara Eliya 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 12 (12) 17 (16) 7 (7) 7 (6) 18 (15) 10 (7) 1 (0) 6 (0) 4 (3) 14 (6) 8 (3) 107 (78)Polonnaruwa 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 4 (3) 1 (1) 3 (2) 6 (5) 1 (0) 6 (1) 18 (10) 5 (1) 6 (1) 59 (32)Puttalam 1 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 3 (0) 6 (2) 2 (0) 5 (0) 3 (0) 27 (7)Ratnapura 6 (5) 15 (13) 2 (2) 19 (19) 27 (26) 8 (8) 13 (12) 23 (21) 12 (9) 2 (0) 11 (3) 1 (1) 15 (5) 12 (3) 166 (127)Trincomalee 1 (1) 1 (0) 2 (1) 2 (0) 10 (5) 16 (10) 5 (1) 1 (0) 36 (18)Vavuniya 1 (1) 1 (0) 1 (0) 3 (1) 5 (2) 11 (3)147

Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Pteridophyte Flora of Sri LankaR.H.G. Ranil and D.K.N.G. PushpakumaraUniversity of PeradeniyaIntroductionThe recorded history of exploration of pteridophytes in Sri Lanka dates back to 1672-1675when Poul Hermann had collected a few fern specimens which were first described by Linneus(1747) in Flora Zeylanica. The majority of Sri Lankan pteridophytes have been collected in the19 th century during the British period and some of them have been published as cataloguesand checklists. However, only Beddome (1863-1883) and Sledge (1950-1954) had conductedsystematic studies and contributed significantly to today’s knowledge on taxonomy and diversityof Sri Lankan pteridophytes (Beddome, 1883; Sledge, 1982). Thereafter, Manton (1953) andManton and Sledge (1954) reported chromosome numbers and some taxonomic issues ofselected Sri Lankan Pteridophytes. Recently, Shaffer-Fehre (2006) has edited the volume 15of the revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon on pteridophyta (Fern and Fern Allies).The local involvement of pteridological studies began with Abeywickrama (1956; 1964;1978), Abeywickrama and Dassanayake (1956); and Abeywickrama and De Fonseka, (1975)with the preparations of checklists of pteridophytes and description of some fern families.Dassanayake (1964), Jayasekara (1996), Jayasekara et al., (1996), Dhanasekera (undated),Fenando (2002), Herat and Rathnayake (2004) and Ranil et al., (2004; 2005; 2006) have alsocontributed to the present knowledge on Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka. However, only recently,Ranil and co workers initiated a detailed study on biology, ecology and variation of tree ferns(Cyatheaceae) in Kanneliya and Sinharaja MAB reserves combining field and laboratorystudies and also taxonomic studies on island-wide Sri Lankan fern flora. As a result, Ranil etal. (2010a; 2010b) have described two new pteridophyte species from Sri Lanka and identifiedconservation priorities for Sri Lankan tree ferns in 2011 (Ranil et al., 2011). Ranil et al.,(in prep.) reviewed and revised the list of endemic pteridophytes in Sri Lanka.Currently, about 348 pteridophyte taxa from 30 families have been recorded from Sri Lanka,of which 50 taxa are reported to be endemic to the country (Shaffer-Fehre, 2006). AmongAsian countries, Sri Lanka is second only to Taiwan in terms of the number of pteridophytespecies per 10,000 km 2 (Ranil et al., 2008a). Geographical isolation, and a wide range ofclimatic, elevational and soil type variation in Sri Lanka may have resulted in rich diversityof pteridophyte flora as well along with exceptionally high level of endemism. It is reportedthat Sri Lankan pteridophytes have strong phyto-geographical relationships with South Indianspecies. Further, both the Sri Lankan and the South Indian pteridophyte flora also have phytogeographicalrelationship with three regions, namely the Sino-Himalayan flora, the Malesianflora from South East Asia, and an African element connected with the Seychelles, Mascarenes,Madagascar and East Africa (Fraser-Jenkins, 1984). Despite historical and recent informationon pteridophyte flora of Sri Lanka, this is the first instance that the pteridophyte flora has beenassessed based on the national Red Listing criteria.148

TaxonomyThe present knowledge of ptridophytes is largely based on Shaffer-Fehre (2006) which ismainly based on morphology and specimens of existing herbarium collections rather than newinformation. It has been prepared during 1993-1995 period but published in 2006. However,with the advancement of plant molecular studies, taxonomic status of many fern species havechanged and many revisions have been made. On the other hand, recently an extensivefield survey of South Indian fern flora has been carried out, though such information has notbeen widely published yet. Recent review of endemic pteridophyte flora in Sri Lanka parallelto information generated through South Indian survey via personal communication revealedthat the changes of number of endemic taxa from 50 (Shaffer-Fehre, 2006) to 44 (Ranil etal., in prep.). All these indicated the need of a systematic review of the taxonomy of SriLankan pteridophytes based on detailed field works and existing herbarium collections andalso considering with advances of taxonomy and systematics due to molecular studies onpteridophytes. For the red listing process, except for three families, namely Aspleniaceae,Cyatheaceae and Thelypteridaceae (where there is no agreement among pteridologists toplace Sri Lankan species within families, hence followed Shaffer-Fehre (2006), all specieshave been arranged based on the linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytesand ferns proposed by Christenhusz et al., (2011). Changes of genera and families accordingto Christenhusz et al. (2011) are given in Table 1.Table 1: Changes of genera and families based on recent classification proposed byChristenhusz et al. (2011).TaxaFlora of Ceylon (2006) byShaffer-Fehre (2006)Redlist (2012) based on Christenhuszet al. (2011)GeneraAntrophyum Vittariaceae PteridaceaeArthropteris Oleandraceae TectariaceaeAthyrium Woodsiaceae AthyriaceaeBolbitis Lomariopsidaceae DryopteridaceaeCeratopteris Parkeriaceae PteridaceaeDeparia Woodsiaceae AthyriaceaeDiplazium Woodsiaceae AthyriaceaeElaphoglossum Lomariopsidaceae DryopteridaceaeHypodematium Woodsiaceae HypodematiaceaeLeucostegia Davalliaceae HypodematiaceaeLindsaea Dennstaedtiaceae LindsaeaceaeLoxogramme Loxogrammaceae PolypodiaceaeLygodium Schizaeaceae LygodiaceaeMonogramma Vittariaceae PteridaceaeNephrolepis Oleandraceae NephrolepidaceaePteridrys Dryopteridaceae TectariaceaeSphenomeris Dennstaedtiaceae LindsaeaceaeTectaria Dryopteridaceae TectariaceaeTeratophyllum Lomariopsidaceae DryopteridaceaeVittaria Vittariaceae PteridaceaeFamilyGrammitidaceae Grammitidaceae Polypodiaceae149

DistributionLimited research has been conducted to identify distribution of pterdophyte flora in Sri Lanka.About 81% of pteridophyte specimens in the National Herbarium have been collected fromthe wet zone area of the country (Jayasekera and Wijesundara, 1993). The wet zone whichaccounts for only one third of the country’s total land area also contains almost all endemicpteridophytes except one species (Ranil et al., in prep.). Further, study on distribution patternof endemic pteridophyte flora of Sri Lanka revealed that those are more-or-less equallydistributed among the wet zone areas of the up, mid and low countries with 34, 31 and 32 taxa,respectively (Ranil et al., 2008a). Majority of endemic pteridophytes (78%) of Sri Lanka hadbeen collected from the Central Province where Nuwara Eliya district alone provided the highestnumber of endemic taxa collected with 34 taxa followed by Sabaragamuwa and Southernprovinces. Even though some species occur in a few districts, their known occurrence hasbeen limited only to a few isolated localities (i.e. Cyathea hookeri, C. sinuata, C. sledgei andC. srilankensis; Ranil et al., 2010a; 2010b). Long duration of rainfall and high relative humidityassociated with elevational gradient may be one of the reasons for the presence of highernumber of endemic taxa in the wet zone and the Central Province. In addition, close proximityto the Botanical Gardens of Peradeniya and Hakgala had also influenced a higher number ofspecies collections from the Central Province and Nuwara Eliya district.A B CEndemic and endangered tree ferns in lowland rainforests.A: Cyathea sledgei Ranil et al.,: A recently described new endemic tree fern species in KanneliyaMAB reserve.B: Cyathea srilankensis Ranil: A recently discovered new endemic tree fern species in Beraliyaproposed forest reserve.C: Cyathea sinuata Hook. & Grew.: The only known simple leaf tree ferns in the world.ABTwo endemic ferns species in southern lowland rainforests.A: Tectaria thwaitesii (Bedd.) Ching: An endemic fern species in roadside banks of Kottawa forestreserve.B: Oreogrammits sledgei (Parris) Parris: An endemic fern species grows on moist rock in Sinharajaworld heritage site.150

ThreatsVast majority of pteridophyte flora and almost all endemic pteridophytes in Sri Lanka areconfined to the wet zone areas of the lowland, sub montane and montane regions. However,most of the remaining forests in the wet zone area are fragmented and small. They arecontinued to be degraded due to illegal encroachment and suffer further fragmentation due tohigher population densities in such areas. The area is highly subjected to habitat loss, spreadof alien-invasive species, soil erosion and environmental pollution. These are consideredas the most immediate threats to the pteridophyte flora of Sri Lanka. In areas such as theKnuckles region, the forest understorey which is the main habitat for pteridophytes has beencleared for cardamom cultivation whereas in Udawattakele forest understorey is invaded byalien-invasive species; also make significant threats to regeneration of pteridophytes. Anotherthreat of increasing importance is the illicit removal and over exploitation of ornamentallyimportant rare ferns from the wild. These problems will be worsening by change of climateand increasing human population pressure.Conservation issuesThe effective conservation of Sri Lankan pteridophyte flora will depend largely on how effectivethe conservation of natural forests in the wet zone areas of the country. For this, minimizing offragmentation and habitat loss through effective land use planning and a sound policy frameworkis a must. Further, according to the present Red Listing, of the 335 pteridophyte species,219 species (66%) are listed as threatened species (20, 41, 87 and 71 species are criticallyendangered and possibly extinct (CR(PE)) critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN) andvulnerable (VU). Another 40 species are listed as near threatened (NT). This highlighted that, inaddition to conservation of natural forests in the wet zone areas, monitoring of populations of atleast threatened species is a necessary to understand effectiveness of the in situ conservation ofpteridophyte flora. At present, ex situ conservation is limited to a few local species at the RoyalBotanic Gardens, Peradeniya and Botanic Gardens of Hakgala and Henerathgoda. Therefore,strengthening of ferneries of the network of the National Botanic Gardens is urgently required asa supplementary conservation measure for Sri Lankan pteridophytes.Research gaps and needsFurther enhancement of current knowledge and understanding of pteridophytes flora needsseveral measures. As highlighted a comprehensive taxonomic revision need to be carried outin the light of recent floral survey in the South Asia and recent advances of taxonomy due touse of molecular investigations. A close collaboration between pteridologists in India (as wellas elsewhere) and Sri Lanka is a pre-requisite. Much of the specimens of pteridophytes havebeen collected from 1847 to 1900 by European pteridologists and deposited in herbaria ofelsewhere than the National Herbarium. Thus, an island-wide floristic survey on pteridophytetaxa is urgently required in Sri Lanka which helps to revise the taxonomy, distribution andother conservation issues of the island pteridophyte flora. Upgrading of the collection of theNational Herbarium is also a must and should be carried out parallel to the floristic survey.Further, recent work by Ranil et al., (2008b) provides encouraging results on domesticationof C. walkerae and need to expand to other species which has commercial potentials. Publicawareness programs on the conservation and sustainable use of pteridophytes should also beinitiated promoting in situ and ex situ conservation.151

Conclusions and RecommendationsLowland rainforests, sub-montane and montane forests are the major natural vegetationtypes supporting the biodiversity of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka. However, these ecosystemsare heavily affected by various biotic and abiotic influences and already highly fragmented.Increasing population pressure and climate change further worsen the situation. These factshighlight the importance of conserving the remaining forest ecosystems of the wet zone ofthe country. It is also essential to conduct further research to fill the gaps of knowledge ofSri Lankan pteridophytes which will provide a basis to resolve many of the taxonomic andconservation issues pteridophytes face today.ReferencesAbeywickrama, B.A. (1956). The Genera of Ceylon Pteridophytes. The Ceylon Journal of Science (BiologicalScience) 13(1): 1-30.Abeywickrama, B.A. (1964). The Pteridophytes of the Knuckles region. The Ceylon Journal of Science (BiologicalScience) 5(1): 18-29.Abeywickrama, B.A. (1978). A checklist of the Pteridophytes of Sri Lanka. National Science Council of Sri Lanka,Colombo, Sri Lanka.Abeywickrama, B.A. and Dassanayeke, M.D. (1956). Crepidomanes bilabiatum (Neem et Bl.) Copel. A fern new toCeylon from Ritigala. The Ceylon Journal of Science (A). 13(1): 1-2.Abeywickrama, B.A. and De Fonseka, R.N. (1975). The Ceylon Ophioglossaceae. The Ceylon Journal of Science(Biological Science) 10(2): 132-142.Beddome, R.H. (1883). Handbook of the ferns of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Todayand Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers. New Delhi.Christenhusz, J.M., Zhang, X-C and Schneider, H. (2011). A linear sequence of extant families and genera oflycophytes and ferns. Phylotaxa 19:7-54.Dhanasekara, D.M.U.B. (Undated). Current taxonomic status of fern in Sri Lanka. Royal Botanical Garden,Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Unpublished and available at the Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka(available at the Royal Botanical Garden, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka).Dassanayake, M.D. (1964). The development of buds of the Polypodium vulgare. The Ceylon Journal of Science(Biological Science) 5(1): 30-37.Fernando, B. (2002). Ferns of Sri Lanka. The fern Society of Sri Lanka. Katuneriya, Sri Lanka.Fraser-Jenkins, C.R. (1984). An introduction to ferns genera of the Indian subcontinent. Bulletin of British Museumnatural History (Botany) 12(2): 37-76.Herat, T.R. and Rathnayake, P. (2003). An illustrated guide to the fern flora of Knuckles conservation area. ForestDepartment, Digana.Jayasekara, P. (1996). The Hymenophyllaceae of Sri Lanka. In: J.M. Camus, M. Gibby and R.T. Johns (eds.).Pteridology in Perspective, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 173-174.Jayasekera, P.W.B. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. (1993). A herbarium survey of Pteridophytes of Sri Lanka. Proceedingsof the Forty Ninth Annual Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, December1993. Part 1-Abstracts. Vidya Mandiraya, Vidya Mawatha, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka. pp. 66.Jayasekara, P., Herat, R.T. and Weerasinghe. (1996). Rediscovery of three rare ferns species from low land rainforest. PHYTA 4(1): 47-51.Linnaeus, C. (1747). Flora Zeylanica. Laurentius Salvius, Holmaiae.Manton, I. (1953). The cytological evolution of the fern flora of Ceylon. Symposia Society of Experimental Biology7: 174-175.Manton, I. and Sledge, W.A. (1954). Observations on the cytological and taxonomy of the Pteridophyte flora ofCeylon. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 238 (654):127-185.\Ranil, R.H.G., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G., Wijesundera, D.S.A., Dhanasekara, D.M.U.B. and Gunawardena, H.G.(2004) Biodiversity of Pteridophyta in Kanneliya Man and Biosphere Reserve. The Sri Lanka Forester 27:1-10.152

Ranil, R.H.G., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G, and Wijesundara, D.S.A. (2008a). Present status of taxonomic researchand conservation of endemic pteridophytes in Sri Lanka. In: Amoroso, V.B. (Ed.). Proceedings of the 4 thSymposium on Asian Pteridology and Garden Show. Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon,Philippines. pp. 84-93.Ranil, R.H.G., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G., Wijesundara, D.S.A. and Dhanasekara, D.M.U.B. (2008b). Domesticationof Cyathea walkerae Hook. Sri Lankan Journal of Agricultural Science 45: 47-58.Ranil, R.H.G., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G., Janssen, T., Fraser-Jenkins, C.R. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. (2010a).Cyathea sledgei Ranil et al., (Cyatheaceae): A new species of tree-fern from Sri Lanka. Fern Gazette 18(7):318-325.Ranil, R.H.G., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G., Janssen, T., Wijesundara, D.S.A. and Dhanasekara, D.M.U.B. (2010b).Cyathea srilankensis Ranil: a new tree fern species from Sri Lanka. American Fern Journal 100(1): 39-44.Ranil, R.H.G., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G., Fraser-Jenkins, C.R., and Wijesundara, D.S.A. (2010c). Presumedextinctions in the pteridophyte flora of Sri Lanka. Presented at the 5 th symposium on Asian Pteridology heldfrom 15 th –21 st November 2010 in the Shenzhen Fairylake Botanical Garden, Scenzhen, China. Organized bythe Chinese Fern Society and Fairylake Botanical Garden, China. pp. 41-42.Ranil, R.H.G., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G., Janssen, T., Fraser-Jenkins, C.R. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. (2011).Conservation priorities for tree ferns (Cyatheaceae) in Sri Lanka. Taiwania 56(3): 201-209.Ranil, R.H.G., Fraser-Jenkins, C.R., Pushpakumara, D.K.N.G., Parris, B.S. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. (in prep.).A revised checklist of endemic Pteridophyte flora of Sri Lanka: Taxonomy, geographical distribution andconservation status. American Fern Journal.Shaffer-Fehre, M. (ed.). (2006). A revised handbook of the flora of Ceylon. Volumes XV: Pteridophyta (ferns and fernallies). Amrind Publishing Company Private Limited, New Delhi, India.Sledge, W.A. (1982). An annotated checklist of the Pteridophyta of Ceylon. Botanical Journal of the LinnaeanSociety 84: 1-30.153

Table 13: Summary of the Status of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka(Endemics are shown in bracket)Family EX EW CR(PE)CR EN VU NT DD LCTotalThreatenedTotalSpeciesAspleniaceae 4 (1) 3 6 (1) 7 4 5 16 (1) 29 (2)Athyriaceae 3 9 7 4 1 2 19 (3) 26 (5)Blechnaceaea 2 1 1 2 4 6Cyatheaceae 1 5 1 7 (4) 7 (5)Davalliaceae 1 1 1 1 1 3 5Dennstaedtiaceae 3 2 1 1 3 4 10 (1)Dryopteridaceae 1 6 12 7 3 2 25 (6) 31 (8)Equisetaceae 1 1 1Gleicheniaceae 1 1 0 2Hymenophyllaceae 4 9 5 1 18 (3) 19 (3)Hypodematiaceae 1 1 1 2Isoetaceae 1 1 1Lindsaeaceae 4 3 2 1 2 9 (2) 12 (2)Lycopodiaceae 1 7 3 1 1 1 11 14Lygodiaceae 1 1 1 1 3Marattiaceae 1 1 1 2Marsileaceae 1 1 1 2Nephrolepidaceae 1 1 1 1 1 4Oleandraceae 1 1 1Ophioglossaceae 1 8 9 9Osmundaceae 1 1 (1) 1 (1)Polypodiaceae 2 9 6 7 6 2 14 22 (5) 46 (9)Psilotaceae 1 1 1Pteridaceae 6 1 4 8 8 2 17 13 (4) 46 (4)Schizaeaceae 1 0 1Selaginellaceae 2 5 2 2 (1) 9 (1)Tectariaceae 1 1 3 3 1 3 7 (1) 12 (2)Thelypteridaceae 3 2 9 10 4 1 5 21 (2) 34 (6)Totals 21 (5) 42 (10) 88 (11) 70 (12) 40 (9) 12 (1) 63 (1) 200 (33) 336 (49)154

Table 14: List of Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka(Endemic species are marked in Bold letters )Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSFamily : LycopodiaceaeHuperzia ceylanica (Spring) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia hamiltonii (Spreng.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm. S: Maha-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia phyllantha (Hook. & Arn.) Holub S: Maha-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia pinifolia Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia pulcherrima (Hook. & Grev.) Pichi.-Serm. S: Kuda-hedaya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia serrata (Thunb. ex Murray) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia squarrosa (G. Forst.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia subulifolia (Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.)Trevis.S: Kuda-hedaya EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Huperzia vernicosa (Hook. & Grev.) Trevis. S: Kuda-hedaya DDLycopodiella caroliniana (L.) Pichi.-Serm. NTLycopodiella cernua (L.) Pichi.-Serm.S: Badal-hanassa,Badal-wanassaLCLycopodium japonicum Thunb. ex Murray EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lycopodium wightianum Wall. ex Grev. & Hook. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : IsoetaceaeIsoetes coromandelina L.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCFamily : SelaginellaceaeSelaginella calostachya (Hook. & Grev.) Alston NTSelaginella ciliaris (Retz.) Spring LCSelaginella cochleata (Hook. & Grev.) Spring LCSelaginella crassipes Spring NTSelaginella integerrima (Hook. & Grev.) Spring NTSelaginella involvens (Sw.) Spring NTSelaginella latifolia (Hook. & Grev.) Spring VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Selaginella praetermissa Alston NTSelaginella wightii Hieron. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : EquisetaceaeEquisetum debile Roxb. ex Vaucher VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : OphioglossaceaeBotrychium daucifolium Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. S: Thani-wel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophioglossum costatum R.Br. S: Ek-pethi-pium EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophioglossum gramineum Willd. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophioglossum nudicaule L.fil. S: Diya-gabbalu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophioglossum pendulum L. S: Pati-dhathu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophioglossum petiolatum Hook. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophioglossum reticulatum L. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC155

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSFamily : PsilotaceaePsilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : MarattiaceaeAngiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm. S: Wal-meda NTMarattia fraxinea Smith EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : OsmundaceaeOsmunda collina Sledge EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : HymenophyllaceaeAbrodictyum obscurum (Blume) Ebihara &K.Iwats. (Syn: Selenodesmium obscurum (Blume)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Copel.)Crepidomanes bipunctatum (Poir.) Copel. (Syn:Crepidomanes bilabiatum (Nees & Blume) Copel.)CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Crepidomanes campanulatum (Roxb.)JayasekaraEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Crepidomanes intramarginale (Hook.fil & Grev.)Copel.EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Crepidomanes kurzi (Bedd.)Tagawa & Iwatsuki CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Crepidomanes kurzii (Bedd.) Tagawa & K. Iwats. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Crepidomanes proliferum (Blume) Bostock (Syn:Gonocormus prolifer (Blum.) Prantl) EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Crepidomanes saxifragoides (C.Presl.) P.S.Green(Syn:Gonocormus saxifragoides (Presl.) Bosch) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Didymoglossum bimarginatum (Bosch) Ebihara &K.Iwats. (Syn: Microgonium bimarginatum Bosch)EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Didymoglossum exiguum (Bedd.) Copel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Didymoglossum motleyi (Bosch) Ebihara &K.Iwats. (Syn: Microgonium motleyi Bosch)CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Didymoglossum wallii (Thwaites) Copel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hymenophyllum denticulatum Sw. (Syn:Meringium denticulatum (Sw.) Copel.)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hymenophyllum exsertum Wall. ex Hook. (Syn:Mecodium gardneri (Bosch) Jayasekara)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hymenophyllum javanicum A.Sperng. (Syn:Mecodium javanicum (Spreng.) Copel.)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hymenophyllum macroglossum Bosch (Syn:Meringium macroglossum (Bosch) Copel.)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hymenophyllum nitidulum (Bosch) Ebihara &K.Iwats. (Syn:Microtrichomanes nitidulum (Bosch)Copel.)EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hymenophyllum pallidum (Blume) Ebihara &K.Iwats. (Syn: Pleuromanes pallidum (Blume)C.Presl.) EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hymenophyllum polyanthos (Sw.) Sw.(Syn: Mecodium polyanthos (Sw.) Copel.)NTFamily : GleicheniaceaeDicranopteris lineairs (Burm.f.) Underw. var.linearisS: Kakilla LCDicranopteris lineairs (Burm.f.) Underw. var.S: KakillamontanaDD156

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSFamily : LygodiaceaeLygodium circinnatum (Burm. f.) Sw. S: Maha-pamba VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. S: Pamba-wel NTLygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. S: Pamba-wel LCFamily : SchizaeaceaeSchizaea digitata (L.) Sw. NTFamily : MarsileaceaeMarsilea coromandelina Willd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Marsilea minuta L.S: HatharapethiyaLCFamily : CyatheaceaeCyathea crinita (Hook.) Copel.S: Gini-hota, GiniwataraEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyathea gigantea (Wall. ex Hook.) HolttumS: Gini-hota, GiniwataraEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyathea hookeri ThwaitesS: Gini-hota, GiniwataraCR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyathea sinuata Hook. & Grev.S: Gini-hota, GiniwataraEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyathea sledgei Ranil, Pushpakumara & Fras.-Jenk.Cyathea srilankensis RanilCyathea walkerae Hook.S: Gini-hota, GiniwataraEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)S: Gini-hota, GiniwataraEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)S: Gini-hota, GiniwataraVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : LindsaeaceaeLindsaea caudata Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lindsaea cultrata (Willd.) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lindsaea ensifolia subsp. ensiofolia Sw. LCLindsaea glandulifera Alderw. DDLindsaea hetrophylla Dryand. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Lindsaea odorata Roxb.var. odorata EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lindsaea orbiculata (Lam.) Mett. ex Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lindsaea repens (Bory)Thwaites var. pectinata(Blume) Mett. ex KuhnCR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lindsaea schizophylla (Baker) H.Christ CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lindsaea venusta Kaulf. ex Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lindsaea walkerae Hook. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sphenomeris chinensis var. chinensis (L.) Maxon LCFamily : DennstaedtiaceaeDennstaedtia scabra (Wall. ex Hook.) T.Moore VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J.Sm. LCHypolepis glandulifera Brownsey & Chinnock LCMicrolepia dubia (Roxb.) C.V.Morton CR(PE)Microlepia majuscula (Lowe) T.Moore CR(PE)Microlepia platyphylla (D.Don) J.Sm. CR(PE)157

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSMicrolepia rhomboidea (Hook.) C.Presl ex Prantl CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Microlepia speluncae (L.) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Microlepia strigosa (Thunb. ex Murray) C.Presl CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Pteridium revolutum (Blume) NakaiS: Waralla, Ankakilla,Monara LCKakillaFamily : PteridaceaeAcrostichum aureum L. LC LCAcrostichum speciosum Willd. DDActiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Adiantum capillus- veneris L. LCAdiantum caudatum L. S: Thuda-vediya LCAdiantum flabellulatum L. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Adiantum hispidulum Sw. LCAdiantum indicum J. Ghatak NTAdiantum philippense L. LCAdiantum zollingeri Mett. ex Kuhn LCAnogramma leptophylla (L.) Link CR(PE)Antrophyum plantagineum (Cav.) Kaulf. NTAntrophyum reticulatum (G.Forst.) Kaulf. LCCeratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. NT LCCheilanthes anceps Blanf. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cheilanthes bicolor (Roxb.) Griff. ex Fras.-Jenk. DDCheilanthes bullosa Kunze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cheilanthes krameri Franch. & Sav. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cheilanthes opposita Kaulf. LCCheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm.f.) Sw. LCCheilanthes thwaitesii Mett. ex Kuhn LCConiogramme serra Fée VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Doryopteris concolor (Langsd. & Fisch.) Kuhn NTHemionitis arifolia (Burm.) T.Moore(Syn:Parahemionitis arifolia (Burm.) Panigrahi )LCIdiopteris hookeriana (Agardh) T.G.Walker NTMonogramma paradoxa (Fée) Bedd.CR(PE)Pellaea boivinii Hook. CR(PE)Pellaea falcata (R.Br.) Fée CR(PE)Pteris argyraea T.Moore EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Pteris biaurita L. LCPteris confusa T.G.Walker LCPteris cretica L. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Pteris ensiformis Burm.f. LCPteris gongalensis T.G.Walker CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pteris longipes D.Don CR(PE)158

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSPteris mertensioides Willd. CR(PE)Pteris multiaurita J.Agardh LCPteris praetermissa T.G.Walker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pteris quadriaurita Retz. LCPteris reptans T.G.Walker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pteris tripartita Sw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pteris vittata L. LCTaenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Vittaria elongata Sw. NTVittaria microlepis Hieron. NTVittaria scolopendrina (Bory) Thwaites NTFamily : AspleniaceaeAsplenium aethiopicum (Burm. f.) Bech. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium affine Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium bipinnatum (Sledge) Philcox VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium cheilosorum Kunze ex Mett. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium decorum Kunze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium decrescens Kunze LCAsplenium disjunctum Sledge CR(PE)Asplenium ensiforme Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium erectum (Bory ex Willd.) in L. LCAsplenium excisum C. Presl. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium formosum Willd. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium gardneri Baker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium grevillii Hook. & Grev. CR(PE)Asplenium inaequilaterale Willd. NTAsplenium indicum Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium laciniatum D.Don EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium longipes Fée EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium nidus L. S: Gal-Palu NTAsplenium nitidum Sw. CR(PE)Asplenium normale D.Don NTAsplenium obscurum Blume CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium pellucidum Lam. CR(PE)Asplenium polyodon G.Frost. LCAsplenium serricula Fée LCAsplenium tenerum G.Forst. LCAsplenium tenuifolium D.Don CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium unilaterale Lam. NTAsplenium yoshinagae Makino CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Asplenium zenkerianum Kunze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)159

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSFamily : ThelypteridaceaeAmauropelta hakgalensis Holttum DDAmpelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Amphineuron opulentum (Kaulf.) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Amphineuron terminans (Hook.) Holttum LCChristella dentata (Forssk.) Brownsey & Jermy LCChristella hispidula (Decne.) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Christella meeboldii (Rosenst.) Holttum CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Christella papilio ( C.Hope ) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Christella parasitica (L.) H.Lév. LCChristella subpubescens (Blume) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Christella zeylanica (Fée) Holttum CR(PE)Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd.) H.Ito NTMacrothelypteris torresiana (Gaudich.) Ching NTMetathelypteris flaccida (Blume) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Parathelypteris beddomei (Baker) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pneumatopteris truncata (Poir.) Holtt. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pronephrium articulatum (Houlston & T.Moore)HolttumEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pronephrium gardneri Holttum CR(PE)Pronephrium thwaitesii (Hook.) Holttum CR(PE)Pronephrium triphyllum (Sw.) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pseudocyclosorus tylodes (Kunze) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pseudophegopteris pyrrhorhachis (Kunze) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sphaerostephanos arbuscula (Willd.) Holttum LCSphaerostephanos subtruncatus (Bory) Holttum CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sphaerostephanos unitus (L.) Holttum LCStegnogramma pozoi (Lag.) K.Iwats var. petiolata(Ching) SledgeEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Thelypteris confluens (Thunb.) T.Morton EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Trigonospora angustifrons Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Trigonospora calcarata (Blume) Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Trigonospora caudipinna (Ching) Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Trigonospora ciliata (Wall. ex Benth.) Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Trigonospora glandulosa Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Trigonospora obtusiloba Sledge NTTrigonospora zeylanica (Ching) Sledge NTFamily : BlechnaceaeBlechnum colensoi (Hook f.) N.A.Wakef. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Blechnum divis (Kunze) Christenh.(Syn: Doodia dives Kunze)EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Blechnum orientale L. S: Baru-koku LCBlechnum spinulosum Poir.(Syn: Doodia caudata ( Cav.) R. Br.)CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)160

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSBlechnum zeelandicum Christenh.(Syn: Doodia squarrosa Col.)Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.) Beddo. LCCR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : AthyriaceaeAthyrium anisopterum Christ EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Athyrium cumingianum (C. Presl) Ching EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Athyrium hohenackerianum (Kunze) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Athyrium praetermissum Sledge VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Athyrium puncticaule (Blume) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Athyrium setiferum C. Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Athyrium solenopteris (Kunze) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Athyrium wardii (Hook) Mak. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Deparia boryana (Willd.) M. Kato VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Deparia lancea (Thunb. ex Murray) Fraser-Jenk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Deparia petersenii ( Kunze ) M.Kato subsp.peterseniiNTDeparia polyrhizos (Baker) Seriz. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Deparia zeylanica (Hook) M. Kato. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Diplazium beddomei C. Chr. NTDiplazium brachylobum (Sledge) Manickam &IrudayarajDDDiplazium cognatum (Hieron.) Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Diplazium decurrens Bedd. NTDiplazium dilatatum Blume LCDiplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. NTDiplazium javanicum (Blume) Makino EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Diplazium muricatum (Mett.) Alderw. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Diplazium paradoxum Fée EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Diplazium polypodioides Blume LCDiplazium procumbens Holttum VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Diplazium sylvaticum (Bory) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Diplazium travancoricum Bedd. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : HypodematiaceaeHypodematium crenatum (Forssk.) Kuhn in vonDecken subsp. crenatumEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Leucostegia immersa C.Presl DDFamily : DryopteridaceaeArachniodes amabilis (Blume) Tindale EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Arachniodes aristata (Forst.f.) Tindale LCArachniodes tripinnata (Goldm.) Sledge NTBolbitis angustipinna (Hayata) H.Ito CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Bolbitis appendiculata subsp. appendiculata(Willd.) K.Iwats.EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Bolbitis subcrenata ( Hook. & Grev. ) Ching inC.Chr.EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ctenitis thwaitesii Holttum EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Diacalpe aspidioides Blume EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)161

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSDryopsis obtusiloba (Bak.) Holttum & Edwards VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dryopteris approximata Sledge CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dryopteris deparioides (T. Moore) Kuntze. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dryopteris hirtipes (Blume) Kuntze. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dryopteris macrochlamys (Fée) Fras.-Jenk. LCDryopteris pulvinulifera (Bedd.) Kuntze. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dryopteris sledgei Fraser-Jenk. CR(PE)Dryopteris sparsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don)Kuntze.Dryopteris wallichiana subsp. madrasensis(Fraser-Jenk.) Fraser-Jenk.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Elaphoglossum angulatum (Bl.) T.Moore EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Elaphoglossum ceylanicum Krajina ex Sledge EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Elaphoglossum commutatum (Mett. ex Kuhn)Alderw.EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Elaphoglossum spathulatum (Bory) T.Moore CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lastreopsis rufescens (Bl.) Ching EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lastreopsis tenera (R.Br.) Tindale VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Polystichum amabile (Blume) J.Sm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polystichum anomalum (Hook. & Arn.) J. Smith VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Polystichum biaristatum (Blume) T.Moore VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Polystichum harpophyllum (Zenker ex Kunze)SledgePolystichum mucronifolium (Blume) C.Presl. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polystichum piceo-paleaceum Tag. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polystichum walkerae (Hook.) Sledge NTTeratophyllum aculeatum Mett.; Kuhn var.aculeatumNTCR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : NephrolepidaceaeNephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott DDNephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C.Presl NTNephrolepis falcata (Cav.) C.Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Nephrolepis hirsutula (G. Forst.) C.Presl LCFamily : TectariaceaeArthropteris palisotii (Desv.) Alston EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pteridrys syrmatica (Willd.) C.Chr. & Ching DDPteridrys zeylanica Ching in C.Chr. & Ching CR(PE)Tectaria coadunata (J.Sm.) C.Chr. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tectaria decurrens (C.Presl) Copel. LCTectaria devexa (Kunze ex Mett.) Copel. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tectaria paradoxa (Fée) Sledge LCTectaria polymorpha (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Tectaria subtriphylla (Hook. & Arn.) Copel. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tectaria thwaitesii (Bedd.) Ching VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Tectaria trimenii (Bedd.) C.Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)162

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSTectaria zeilanica (Houtt.) Sledge LCFamily : OleandraceaeOleandra musifolia (Blume) C. Presl VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : DavalliaceaeDavallia denticulata Mett. ex Kuhn var.denticulataVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Davallia hymenophylloides Kuhn EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Davallia pulchra D.Don CR(PE)Davallia repens Kuhn LCDavallia solida Sw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : PolypodiaceaeCalymmodon glabrescens Copel. NTChrysogrammitis glandulosa (J.Sm.) Parris CR(PE)Ctenopterella (?) thwaitesii (Bedd.) Parris(Syn: Ctenopteris thwaitesii (Beddome) Sledge)Ctenopterella blechnoides (Grev.) Parris(Syn: Ctenopteris blechnoides(Grev.)W.H.Wagner & Grether)Ctenopterella cornigera (Baker) Parris(Syn: Xiphopteris cornigera (Baker) Copel.)Dasygrammitis mollicoma (Nees & Blume) Parris(Syn: Ctenopteris mollicoma (Nees & Blume)Kunze)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Smith S: Benduru LCDrynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T.Moore S: Benduru EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lepisorus amaurolepidus (Sledge) Bir & Trikha LCLepisorus mucronatus (Fée) Li Wang(Syn: Belvisia mucronata (Fée) Copel varmucronata)Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching LCLepisorus spicatus (L.f.) Li Wang(Syn:Belvisia spicata (L.f) Mirbel ex Copel.)NTLeptochilus decurrens Blume LCLeptochilus macrophyllus var. pedunculatus(Hook. & Grev.) NootVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Loxogramme cuspidata (Zenker) Price EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Loxogramme parallela Copel. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Microsorum insigne (Blume) Copel. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Microsorum membranaceum (D.Don) Ching NTMicrosorum membranifolium (R. Br.) Ching LCMicrosorum pteropum (Blume) Copel. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel. NTMicrosorum scolopendrium (Burm. f.) Copel. LCOreogrammitis attenuata (Kunze) Parris(Syn:Grammitis attenuata Kunze)EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)DD163

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCSOreogrammitis medialis (Baker) Parris(Syn:Grammitis medialis (Baker) Ching )Oreogrammitis reinwardtii (Blume) Parris(Syn:Grammitis reinwardtii Blume)Oreogrammitis sledgei (Parris) Parris(Syn:Grammitis sledgei Parris)Oreogrammitis wallii(Beddome) Parris(Syn: Grammitis wallii(Bedd.) Copel.)Oreogrammitis zeylanica(Fée ) Parris(Syn: Grammitis zeylanicaFée)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pleopeltis lanceolata Kaulf. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Prosaptia alata (Blume) Christ LCProsaptia ceylanicaParris CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Prosaptia contigua (G.Forst.) C.Presl LCProsaptia obliquata (Blume) Mett. LCPyrrosia ceylanica (Giesenh.) Sledge CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pyrrosia gardneri (Mett.) Sledge LCPyrrosia heterophylla (L.) PriceS: Panam-pethi,Kasi-pethiLCPyrrosia lanceolata (L.) Farw. LCPyrrosia pannosa (Mett .ex Kuhn) Ching NTPyrrosia porosa (C.Presl) Hovenkamp var. porosa LCRadiogrammitis beddomeana(Alderw.) Parris(syn: Grammitis beddomeana(Alderw.) Ching)NTCR(PE)Scleroglossum pusillum(Blume) Alderw. DDScleroglossum sulcatum(Kuhn) Alderw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Selliguea montana (Sledge) Hovenkamp LCTomophyllum epaleatum (Parris) Parris(Syn: Ctenopteris epaleata Parris)EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tomophyllum perplexum (Parris) Parris(Syn: Ctenopteris perplexa Parris)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Tomophyllum repandulum (Mett.) Parris(Syn: Ctenopteris repandula (Mett.) C.Chr. &Tardieu)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)164

Present Status of Dry-zone Flora in Sri LankaAnoma Perera,Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya.A. Introduction to the ecosystemThe dry land of Sri Lanka which is classically described as the dry and intermediate zones ofthe country, extends over about 66% of the total is land area, but nearly 85% of the naturalvegetation-cover of the country exists within this region (Legg and Jewell, 1995). Three majornatural terrestrial vegetation types are found in the dry land of Sri Lanka; viz, dry forests, savannaand grasslands. Depending on the variability in their location, climate, edaphic characteristicsand biotic impacts, it appears that several sub-categories of the above vegetation types canbe identified.Dry forest ecosystemsSri Lankan dry forests are a part of the tropical rainforest biome. These exhibit characteristicfeatures of tropical semi-deciduous or tropical seasonal forests of the world vegetation typesdescribed by Longman and Jenik (1987), in Archibold, (1995). Tropical semi-deciduous forestsgrow in low moisture conditions (e.g. annual rain fall < 1200 mm) and are mainly found inBundala National Park (Figure 1), southern part of Yala National Park and north-eastern partof Wilpaththu National Park. Presence of deciduous or leaf exchanging species in the forestcanopy is a salient feature of these forests.In contrast, tropical seasonal forests (Figure 2) occur in areas where comparatively higherrainfall (mean annual rainfall of 1200-1500 mm) is received and the major portion of the dryforests of the country falls into this forest category. These forests grow taller than tropical semideciduousforests and show a clear stratification. Moreover, some evergreen species may bepresent in the canopy. However, the deviations in recorded physical features such as soil typeand elevation (Alwis and Eriyagama, 1969) as well as the slope of the terrain appear to resultin spatial heterogeneity in the soil moisture contents. This has resulted in the formation ofdifferent forest communities which deviated from the typical Manilkara hexandra-Chloroxylonswietenia-Drypetes sepiaria community of lowland tropical seasonal forests.It has been reported that most of the dry forests in the lowlands had grown after the destructionof hydraulic civilization in the area around 13 th century (Brohier, 1941; de Rosayro, 1961) andtherefore, are secondary in origin. Also, these forests are heavily disturbed by human activitiessuch as timber logging and frequent shifting cultivation (de Jong et al., 2001; de Rosayro, 1961;Perera et al., 1995; Perera, 2001a) resulting in secondary forests or successional forests atdifferent ages (de Rosayro, 1961; Perera, 1998, 2001a). Natural regeneration of Sri Lankandry forest species is reported to be very poor (de Rosayro, 1959; Holmes, 1957; Perera et al.,1995; Perera, 2001a; Rutnam, 1959) which is attributed to the poor quality and quantity of theseed rain (Perera, 1998, 2004), soil seed bank (Perera, 1998a, 2000, 2004, 2005) and theseedling bank (Perera, 2001b, 2004). Repeated disturbances in secondary forests and lack ofregeneration of high forest species may result in scrub jungle plagioclimaxes through deflectedsuccession but these are not a true climax vegetation type of the dry land of Sri Lanka. Such165

scrub jungles grow up to 3-4 m and mainly consist of deciduous or semi-deciduous speciesforming a single stratum (Figure 3).Savanna ecosystemsSavanna ecosystems of Sri Lanka are situated in the dry and intermediate zones of Sri Lankaat elevations between 300-1000 m (Gunatilleke et al., 2008). Savanna is a vegetation type inthe tropics in which grasses form a conspicuous ground cover (Archibold, 1991). According toCole (1986), tropical savannas are classified into several structural formations by consideringfeatures such as the major life form categories dominating them, the height and density oftrees, spacing between trees and the height and cover of grasses. It appears that, the savannasfound in Sri Lanka could be described as Savanna woodlands (Figures 4 & 5) as the spacingof the trees is about or a little higher than the diameters of the tree crowns with a considerableextent of tall mesophytic grass cover.Tall trees (> 8 m high) of deciduous and semi-deciduous species together with tall mesophyticgrasses (> 80 cm high) are common in Sri Lankan savanna woodlands. These occur aspatches of varying sizes of about 2-1000 ha, spreading intermittently with dry forests (G.G.C.Premalal and G.A.D. Perera, unpublished data) but depending on their floristic and some abioticfeatures, these can be assigned into two major types as upland savanna and lowland savannawoodlands. Upland savanna woodlands (Figure 5) occur at the slope of the central massifat Balangoda while the lowland savanna woodlands (Figure 6) are found at Nilgala, Nellikeleand Bibile in Monaragala district. Careya arborea, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia belliricaand T. chebula are prominant members of these ecosystems but towards higher elevations,Anogeissus latifolius occur more frequently than in the lowlands (G.G.C. Premalal and G.A.D.Perera, unpublished data). However, the two savanna ecosystem types, i.e. in lowland andupland savanna woodlands show differences in the vegetation structure, density of individualsand species abundance rather than the floristic composition of the woody perennials.Grassland ecosystemsGrassland ecosystems in the dry land of Sri Lanka include both edaphic climaxes anddisclimaxes of anthropogenic origin. Of these, the edaphic climaxes are mainly governed bythe depth of the soil and the soil moisture content which is an artifact of frequent or occasionalflooding, their close proximity to water bodies, rivers, abandoned irrigation tanks, and waterholes and/or due to soil characteristics such as the presence of alluvial soil.Four major grassland ecosystem types can be identified in the dry land of Sri Lanka namely,dry (Damana) grasslands, occasionally flooded dry grasslands, seasonally flooded dampgrasslands and grassland disclimaxes maintained by fire and/or grazing. Natural grasslands(edaphic climaxes) are more diverse compared to grassland disclimaxes. Moreover, thegrasslands occur at wetter conditions contain many different grass and sedge species.Damana grasslands are reported as natural edaphic climaxes formed due to edaphic featuresbut prolonged periods of drought in these areas may also contribute in the formation of thesegrasslands (Sezchowycz, 1954). The presence of saline soil with high osmotic pressure in166

Figure 1. Tropical semi-deciduous forest inBundala National Park with a single species(Manilkara hexandra) dominant canopyFigure 2. Tropical seasonal forest at the westernpart of the Wilpattu National Park(a) dry season(b) wet seasonFigure 3. Scrubland plagioclimaxes at Bundala National ParkFigure 4. An upland savanna woodlandat Belihuloya (Photograph by courtesy ofMr. G.G.C. Premalal)Figure 5. A lowland savanna woodland at Nilgala(Photograph by courtesy of Mr. G.G.C.Premalal)167

the soil solution and the insolubility of soil minerals such as iron, phosphorus and magnesiumare given as reasons for the formation of edaphic climaxes. These could be artifacts ofimpenetrable ‘C’ horizon in the soil profile and subsequent water logging during wet conditionsand bad aeration (Sezchowycz, 1954). These are mainly dominated with Imperata cylindricaand Cymbopogon nardus but the presence of scattered or clumped trees (e.g. M. hexandra,Limonia acidissima) is a salient feature of this ecosystem.Villus found in Wilpaththu National Park, and at the Mahaweli flood plains are a specific natural,grass dominated, wetland ecosystem found in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Swampy areas invillus are surrounded by seasonally flooded damp grasslands while occasionally flooded drygrasslands are located next to these up to the forest edge.On the other hand, grassland disclimaxes are recorded to have originated after the destructionof forests in the past and subsequent repeated cultivation and accompanying frequent burningand heavy grazing (de Rosayro, 1961; Pemadasa, 1990). Imperata cylindrica is a commonspecies in such grasslands but in some areas, such as Udawalawe National Park, these havebeen replaced by Panicum maximum. Annual herbs such as Croton hirtus, Eleutherantheraruderalis grow with perennials such as Tephrosia purpurea, Abutilon indicum and somePoaceae species and as a result, a clear seasonal variation in the vegetation can be observed.However, Heteropogon contortus may dominate if the grasslands are intensively and annuallyburnt over a long period of time (Perera and Wijesooriya, 2007).B. Prominent plants (families)In Dry forest ecosystemsEuphorbiaceae species are the most prominent in dry forest vegetations and their proportionalabundance is high in areas where more harsh environments exist (Table below). Drypetessepiaria is a universally distributed Euphorbiaceae member which dominates the forestunderstorey. M. hexandra (Sapotaceae) is also a unique species in the dry zone whichdominate in dry areas but the species is either rare or absent in cooler and moist conditions.In comparatively wetter areas, a mixture of Annonaceae, Ebenaceae, Melastomataceae andSapindaceae species tend to grow more frequently with some Euphorbiaceae, Rutaceae orSapotaceae species.The composition of species and plant families in secondary forests do not vary much withthe forest type, their location and the abiotic conditions. At early seral stages, individuals ofEuphorbiaceae (e.g. Flueggea leucopyrus, Figure 6c), Rubiaceae (e.g. Catunaregam spinosa,Tarenna asiatica) and Rhamnaceae (e.g. Ziziphus oenoplia) are prominant but Rubiaceae(e.g. Benkara malabarica, Haldina cordifolia) Tiliaceae (e.g. Diplodiscus verrucosus, Grewiaspp.), Verbenaceae (e.g. Premna spp.) and Sterculiaceae (e.g. Pterospermum suberifolium)species are prominent in late seral forests. Scrub jungle plagioclimaxes contains many speciesthat are common in early seral secondary forests but Fabaceae (e.g. Cassia auriculata, Figure6a; Dichrostachys cinerea, Figure 6b), Euphorbiaceae (e.g. Flueggea leucopyrus, Figure 6c)and Rhamnaceae species dominate in them.168

Prominent plant families in dry forests of Sri LankaMajor forest typeProminent plant familiesTropical semi-deciduous forestsTropical seasonal forests*Secondary forest under progressivesuccessionFallow forests

(b) Dichrostachys cinerea (Fabaceae)(a) Cassia auriculata (Fabaceae),(c) Flueggea leucopyrus (Euphorbiaceae)Figure 6. Common scrubland speciesForests in drier areas of the country possess comparatively a high taxic diversity in terms ofplant genera which are mostly represented by a single species. For instance, 48 plant specieswere recorded from Bundala National Park which belongs to 47 plant genera. In contrast, theforests that grow in moist areas are rich in species but the diversity of plant genera decreasesdue to the presence of congeneric species. For instance, Dimocarpus gardneri and D. longanand Strychnos minor and S. trichocalyx grow in Kilinochchi forest which is comparatively wetterthan the forests at Bundala.Figure 7 Derris parviflora, an endemic liana species with magnificent inflorescences170

According to the plant records available in the Flora of Ceylon (Dassanayake and Fosberg(1980-2004), 43 woody plants endemic to the country grow in the dry land of Sri Lanka. Theseinclude 26 tree, 2 liana and 15 shrub species. Of these, 33 are also found from the wet zoneof the country but 10 species have been reported only in the dry land . However, 7 of the 10species are restricted to wet localities in the lowlands or in hill forests of the intermediate zonebut the other 3 species, i.e. Canthium puberulum, Diplodiscus verrucosus and Memecylonpetiolatum are recorded only from the dry zone. Some endemic species such as Derrisparviflora (Figure 7 ) produce magnificent inflorescences and thus have a potential ornamentalvalue. Point endemics are not common in the dry land of the country as in the wet zone. Threepoint endemic species, each known only from a single site

(a) Fire in a P. maximum dominated grassland atMawuara, Udawalawe(b) Prosopis juliflora invaded land in Bundala forest.Figure 8Figure 10. Die-back of M. hexandra inBundala National Park (Photograph by courtesy ofMr. Udaya Gunarathne)Figure 9. The dreadful invader: Bambusa bambosin Minneriaya Forestvary from region to region. Thus, Prosopis juliflora is found in coastal dry forests at Hambanthotaand Mannar districts (Figure 8b) while Bambusa bambos is a common invader in Minneriya andGirithale forests in Polonnaruwa district (Figure 9). In contrast, Lantana camara is universallydistributed across the whole dry land of the country.Heavy grazing and trampling by feral cattle and buffaloes are serious threats in occasionallyflooded dry land grasslands and seasonally flooded damp grasslands. Frequent grazing andtrampling expose the soil and facilitate the seeds of invasive species to grow. These ungulatesact as the seed dispersal agents of invasive species as well. Thus, L. camara invades ingrasslands at Udawalawe National Park while P. juliflora has invaded the areas closer tolagoons in Hambanthota District.Forest die-back is commonly seen in tropical semi-deciduous forests where the canopydominant M. hexandra trees are dying back (Figure 10). As the canopy of these forests consistsof only M. hexandra, its die-back would affect the forest structure and the micro-climate and172

is very likely to devastate this ecosystem in the near future. Change of the global climate mayexaggerate this situation but this has not been adequately examined so far.All the above mentioned threats directly or indirectly lead to the extinction of threatened speciesfrom the dry land of the country. More than forty locally threatened plant species are foundfrom the dry land of Sri Lanka. Threats in the dry land habitats pose a greater impact onendemic and rare plant species. For instance, nearly 30% of the endemic plants that grow inthe Sri Lankan dry land are under a the threat of extinction.E. Conservation prioritiesConservation of dry zone terrestrial ecosystems is of prime importance for conserving thespecies in these habitats. Using satellite imagery analyses, Legg and Jewel (1995) statedthat closed forests of the dry land of Sri Lanka covers 524,900 ha . The majority of these areprotected by the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Forest Department of Sri Lanka.However, the wilderness is still being converted to other land uses from time to time whileunplanned and uncontrolled human activities are playing a significant role in their degradation.Therefore, policies should be formulated and implemented to halt the conversion of wildernessareas to other land use types and to prevent selective logging, shifting cultivation and cattleranching in protected areas. Moreover, the strengthening of relevant institutions is vital for theprotection of these ecosystems.F. Research gaps and research needsSome ecosystems of the country, especially the savanna and grassland ecosystems, arenot adequately investigated. The exact locations and the extent of these ecosystems are notaccurately documented while the ecological data required in preparing management guidelinesof these ecosystems hardly exist. The species composition, the eco-physiological requirementsof constituent species, biotic and abiotic factors that affect species composition, distribution andvegetation successions and disturbance responses in these ecosystems should be examined.Compared to these, the dry forest ecosystems have been studied to a certain extent, but morestudies should be conducted to fill certain gaps in the knowledge. Thus, future research shouldfocus on the eco-physiological requirements of dry forest plant species, pollination biologyand diseases as well as pathogens. Moreover, it is vital to investigate the impacts of climatechange and the potential for carbon sequestration in all these major dry land ecosystems. Also,the restoration of degraded dry land ecosystems and sustainable harvesting mechanisms fornon-timber forest products should also be investigated in depth.G. Conclusions and recommendationsDry forests, savanna and grasslands are the three major natural terrestrial vegetation typesfound in the dry land of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity in these ecosystems are adversely affected byvarious biotic and abiotic influences such as habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation,biotic invasions, forest die-back, over-extraction of forest products and climate change. Thesefacts highlight the importance of conserving the remaining natural dry land ecosystems of thecountry. Protection of dry zone ecosystems should be strictly followed without converting theremaining natural dry zone ecosystems to other land use types. Human impacts especially,the shifting cultivation, selective logging and grazing by feral cattle should be stopped by173

implementing proper regulations. Meanwhile, the local people should be directed to establishhome gardens and to incorporate timber, medicinal, fodder and fuel wood species in their homegardens. The institutes responsible for preventing illegal human activities in natural ecosystemsand conserving these should be further strengthened by providing basic infrastructure andhuman resources. However, it is also essential to conduct further research to fill the gaps ofknowledge of Sri Lankan dry land ecosystems while rehabilitating the degraded ecosystems.H. ReferencesAlwis, K. A. de and Eriyagama, G.J. 1969. Some observations on soil-vegetation relationships in the lowland dryzone of Ceylon. Ceylon Forester, Vol. ix: Nos. 1&2. pp 53-71.Archibold, O.W. 1995. Ecology of world vegetation. Chapman and Hall, USA. pp 510.Brohier, R.L. 1941. The history of irrigation and agricultural colonization in Ceylon: The Tamankaduwa District andthe Elahera-Minneriya canal. Tharanjee Prints, Maharagama, Sri Lanka. pp 62.Cole, M.M. 1986. The savannas: Biogeography and Geobotany. Academic Press Inc. USA. Pp 438.Dassanayake, M.D. and Fosberg, F.R. 1980-2004. A revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Vol. I-XV, AmerindPublishers, New Delhi, India.de Jong, W., Chokkalingam, U. and Perera G.A.D. 2001. The evolution of swidden fallow secondary forests in Asia.Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 13(4): 800-815.de Rosayro R.A. 1950. Ecological conceptions and vegetational types with special reference to Ceylon. TropicalAgriculturist. 106: 108-121.de Rosayro R.A. 1959. Editorial notes: The place of forestry in the dry zone. Ceylon Forester, 4: 1-3.de Rosayro R.A. 1961. The nature and the origin of secondary vegetational communities in Ceylon. CeylonForester, 5: 23-49.Fernando, R.H.S.S. 2010. Biodiversity of ecological communities and the biogeography of their species in threeisolated hills in Sri Lanka. Ph.D. thesis. Postgraduate Institute of Science, Peradeniya.Greller, A.M and Balasubramanium, S. 1980. A preliminary floristic-climatic classification of the forests of Sri Lanka.Sri Lanka Forester, 14 (3/4): 163-169.Gunatilleke, Nimal., Pethiyagoda, Rohan and Gunatilleke, Savitri. 2008. Biodiversity of Sri Lanka. J.Natn.Sci.Foundation Sri Lanka. 36 Special Issue: 25-62.Holmes 1956. The broad pattern of climate and vegetation distribution in Ceylon. Ceylon Foester, 3 (3-4): 265-288.Holmes CH (1957) The natural regeneration of the wet and dry evergreen forests of Ceylon. Ceylon Forester, 3:111-127.Jayasingham, T. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. 2007. Sustainability of medicinal plant extraction and its impacts ofsavannah grassland ecology in Nilgala. Protected Area Management and Wildlife Conservation Project,Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. pp 37.Jayasuriya, AHM. 1984. Flora of Ritigala Strict nature Reserve. The Sri Lanka Forester, 16 : 60-156Legg, C. and Jewell, N. 1995. A 1:50,000-scale forest map of Sri Lanka: the basis for a National Forest Geographicsystem. The Sri Lanka Forester, special issue. pp 3-24.Pemadasa, M.A. 1990. Tropical grasslands of Sri Lanka and India. Journal of Biogeography, 17: 395-400.Perera, D., Brown N.D. and Burslem D.F. 1995. Restoring the degraded dry zone woodlands of Sri Lanka. ITTOTropical Forest Update, 5: 8-10.Perera, G.A.D. 1998. Regeneration and succession following shifting cultivation of dry tropical deciduous forests ofSri Lanka. D.Phil thesis, University of Oxford, UK.Perera, G.A.D. 2001 a. Secondary forest situation in Sri Lanka: a review. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 13(4):768-785.Perera, G.A.D. 2001 b. Vegetation and the Regeneration of moist deciduous forests at Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. Phyta,Journal of the Peradeniya University Botanical Society, Sri Lanka, 5(1): 9-16.Perera, G.A.D. 2004. Factors affecting the vegetation succession of moist-deciduous forests at Sigiriya Sanctuary,Sri Lanka. Abstracts of the 9 th Annual Forestry and Environment Symposium, University of Sri Jayawardenapura, Sri Lanka. p 21.Perera, G.A.D. 2005. Diversity and Dynamics of the soil seed bank of a tropical deciduous forest at SigiriyaSanctuary, Sri Lanka. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 46 (1):65-78.Perera, G.A.D. and Wijesooriya, S.M. 2007. Protected Area Management and Wildlife Conservation Project,Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. pp 1-46.Rutnam P.W. 1959. Growth of plants under the shelter of natural forests in the dry zone. Ceylon Forester, 4: 224-226.Sezchowycz, R. W. 1954. Some observations on climate, soil & forest climax. Ceylon Forester, (N.S.) 1(2), 58-66.174

Present status of Lowland Wet Zone Flora of Sri LankaH. S. KathriarachchiDepartment of Plant Sciences, University of ColomboIntroductionSri Lanka has an outstanding biodiversity because of its tropical climate, soil, topographicalvariations, geographical location and its striking biogeographic history. Together with theWestern Ghats in India, Sri Lanka is considered as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots inthe world because of the high degree of endemism in fauna and flora and serious amount ofhabitat loss (Ashton et al., 1997; Gunatilleke et al., 2004). The diverse array of ecosystems inSri Lanka harbors a wealth of plant species and they provide a habitat for many other speciesas yet undiscovered.Sri Lanka also has a diversity of climatic and floristic regions showing spatial variations in rainfall,altitude and soil. Lowland wet zone represents the area below 1,000 m in elevation, spreadingin the southwestern quarter of Sri Lanka (Figure 1), mainly in the Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara,Galle, Matara, Kegalle districts and part of Ratnapura (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b; Ministryof Forestry and Environment, 1999).Flora of the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka is largely distributed in the tropical lowland rainforests- forests below 1,000 m altitude (Figure 1). These forests have an aseasonal wet climate andgenerally receive 2500 – 5000 mm of mean annual rain fall without prominent dry spells. Meanannual temperature is about 27 o C at sea level. The lowland wet zone forests are classified byde Rosayro (1950) as wet evergreen forest climax by Koelmeyer (1957) and Holmes (1956) aswet tropical evergreen forests . These forests are confined to 2.14% (141,506 ha) of the totalland area of Sri Lanka (Ministry of Forestry and Environment, 1999).SRIFigure. 1 Map showing the forests in the south-west of Sri Lanka. Blue = Fragmented lowlandrain forests remaining in Sri Lanka, Green = Montane rain forests, Brown = Intermediate zone forests,Yellow = Dry zone forests (Source: Somasekaram et al., 1997).175

Floristic richness in Sri Lanka is significantly high in the lowland regions compared to the otherparts of the country. Even within the wet zone, the distribution of indigenous floristic elementsshows remarkable localization and one quarter of the angiosperm flora of Sri Lanka is endemicand also concentrated in the perhumid southwest of the island (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke,1990).Floristic elements in the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka are relic and primeval in origin. Theirorigin dates back to the Deccan plate and shares Gondwana-Deccan ancestry and are, byfar, the most species-rich biome in the whole of south Asia (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987a).Remnants of these Deccan flora are now restricted to the fragments of lowland wet zone in SriLanka and the south west region of India, and important in revealing biogeographic history ofSouth Asia.Prominent plant taxaDipterocarpus community and the Mesua-Shorea (Doona) community are the two prominentfloristic comminutes in Sri Lankan lowland wet zone forests that comprise of dominant lowlandwet zone flora. In addition to that, lowland wet zone flora also exists in Campnosperma andother species community and Vitex-Dillenia-Chaetocarpus-Anisophylla community, especiallyin the early successional secondary forests (de Rosayro, 1942; Gunatilleke and Ashton,1987b). Dominant plant species of these floristic communities are listed in the table below.Dominant plant species of the different floristic communities in lowland wet zone forestsin Sri Lanka (de Rosayro, 1942; Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b).Floristic communityDipterocarpus communityMesua-Shorea (Doona)communityCampnosperma andother species communityVitex-Dillenia-Chaetocarpus-Anisophylla communityDominant plant speciesDipterocarpus zeylanicus, Dipterocarpus hispidus, Vitex pinnata,Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Dillenia retusa, Dillenia triquetra,Myristica dactyloides, Semecarpus gardneriMesua ferrea, Mesua thwaitesii, Shorea trapezifolia, Shorea zeylanica,Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Palaquium petiolare, Mangiferazeylanica, Myristica dactyloides, Garcinia echinocarpa, Agrostistachyscoriacea, Lasianthus strigosus, Aporusa lindleyana, HumboldtialaurifoliaCampnosperma zeylanica, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus, Palaquiumpetiolare, Myristica dactyloides, Dillenia triquetra, Gaertnera vaginans,Schumacheria castanaefolia, Thottea siliquosa, Syzygium neesianum,Vitex pinnata, Dillenia triquetra, Chaetocarpus castanocarpus,Anisophyllea cinnamomoides, Dillenia retusa, Myristica dactyloides,Semecarpus gardneri, Gyrinops walla, Cullenia spp., Mangiferazeylanica, Ochna wightiana, Xylopia championii, Garciniaechinocarpa, Diospyros insignis, Gaertnera vaginans, Thotteasiliquosa Schumacheria castanaefolia, Humboldtia laurifolia, Syzygiumcorymbosum, Symplocos spicataDipterocarpaceae, Clusiaceae, Myrtaceae, Bombacaceae, Dilleniaceae, Euphorbiaceae andSapotaceae are the dominant plant families in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka.176

DistributionHigh degree of endemism is a distinctive feature of wet zone flora in Sri Lanka. Distributionof endemic species in different climatic zones of Sri Lanka reveal that the wet lowlandsharbour 156 endemic tree species, 82 shrub species and 88 endemic herbs having the highestnumber of endemics among all the climatic zones in Sri Lanka (Peeris, 1975; Gunatilleke andGunatilleke, 1990).Many of the endemic flora in the lowland wet zone shows distinctive and extraordinary localizedpatterns of species distribution confined to a single forest or a single cluster of forests blockswithin a highly dissected and variable topographic landscape from lowland coastal plains to highaltitude regions (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987a; Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991). Most ofthese endemic taxa have very low population densities. 17% of the wet zone lowland endemicflora is confined to the south-western front ranges of the southern block hills (Gunatilleke andAshton, 1987a). Stemonoporus moonii, a species of an endemic genus, and Mesua stylosa areonly recorded in Walauwatta-Waturana fresh water swamp forest in Bulathsinghala. Most of theendemic Dipterocarps, and Clusiaceae species also show very restricted distribution patterns.Flora of lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka shows a great specialization and are subjected tostrong habitat-based selection, resulting in many of the species with special ecological andenvironmental niches and allowed closely related species to co-exist by occupying differentecological niches. Sympatric distributions of congeneric species are remarkable featuresof most tropical rainforests, also common among the lowland wet zone flora in Sri Lanka(Gunatilleke et al., 2006). Species of Shorea section Doona, common canopy dominants inlowland wet zone forests in Sri Lanka are good examples for sympatric distribution.Distribution of lowland wet zone flora shows striking variations in relation to environmentalfactors; disturbance, soil and altitude (Gunatilleke and Ashton, 1987b). De Rosyro (1942)also identified that soils play an important role for species distribution in lowland wet zone inSri Lanka. Dipterocarpus consociation is best distributed in coastal plains, valleys, and lowerslopes of lowland hills and rarely occurs above 750 m. Mesua-Shorea (Doona) community ischaracteristic on skeletal soils on steep slopes between 450 – 900 m.Threats and conservation prioritiesSri Lanka also has one of the densest human populations in Asia, with the result that much ofits original forests have been cleared for settlement, cultivation and production of timber. Theforest cover has decreased from 84% in 1881 to 23.9% in 1992 (Anon., 1995). Out of this,only about 141,506 ha (2.14%) of lowland rain forests are now remaining in the island arefragmented, degraded and isolated throughout the lowland wet zone in Sri Lanka.Habitat destruction, fragmentation of natural habitats, introduction of exotic or invasive species,and over-exploitation of forest resources are some of the direct threats to the lowland wet zoneecosystem.The wet zone forests of Sri Lanka are still the most productive timber yielding forests. Asa result, most of them have been already reduced to isolated fragments (Gunatilleke and177

Gunatilleke, 1991). High population density of the lowland wet zone and the developmentactivities associated with the rapid increase of population and extensive dependence onsubsistence agriculture have caused considerable pressure on this biologically rich ecosystemof the country. Human encroachment by communities living in the peripheral areas is anothermajor threat for this ecosystem. Habitat disturbance together with the fragmentation of theforests caused several negative impacts to the ecosystem, for instance restricted dispersal,isolation of populations, genetic erosion etc.Considering the floristic wealth of lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka, in situ conservation of nationallyand globally threatened endemic plant species with special emphasis on their population sizesshould have high priority. A study conducted in nine different sites of lowland wet zone revealedthat 93% of endemic plant species are either endangered, vulnerable, or rare according to theIUCN Red List criteria (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991). To provide in situ conservation formany of these threatened endemics, the preservation of representative samples of rain forestsin different regions is strongly recommended (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1991).In the past, natural forests were largely used for the extraction of timber. Little attention was thenpaid to other useful resources, largely non-timber, that were traditionally being extracted by theperipheral communities around forests. However, these non-timber resources contributed tothe livelihood of the local people, who depended on the forests for their food, medicine and otherdomestic requirements for generations (Anon., 1995; Gunatilleke et al., 1994). Conservation ofnon-timber forest products through an effective buffer zone management system around thelowland wet zone forests would certainly reduce the pressure on the ecosystem.Sri Lanka has a strong tradition in conservation practiced by communities in harmony with, andpartial dependence on, the natural forests. Thus, it provides an excellent setting to examinehow these tropical rain forests can be managed for multiple uses, following a system thatis socially acceptable, ecologically sustainable and economically viable (Gunatilleke et al.,1994). The multiple use management of natural forests, aims to increase the sustainable flowof both timber and non-timber forest products, while maintaining their value for non-productservices such as biodiversity conservation, soil and water conservation, amenity and socioculturalvalues from natural forests for the benefit of the rural people (Gunatilleke et al., 1995).Experience and the scientific and technical expertise in multiple use forest managementsystems are currently lacking in Sri Lanka. Buffer zones can be recognized as one of the mostsuitable and important areas to implement multiple use forest management, while providing avariety of goods and services.Research gaps and research needsConsiderable amount of research has been carried out, especially on lowland wet zone flora,over the last 3-4 decades. These studies have substantially increased our understandingon of the distribution of species, ecology, forest dynamics and silvicultural and managementpractices of this ecosystem. However, following research gaps could be identified;- Systematics and inventory of lower plants in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka- Phylogenetics and evolutionary studies on plant taxa to elucidate the phylogeneticrelationships, biogegraphic history etc.178

- Taxonomic research on closely related and problematic plant taxa using molecularmarkers- Population studies on threaten plant species- Phenology and reproductive biology of plants- Research on natural compounds obtained from lowland wet zone flora- Ethnobotanical researchConclusionsLowland wet zone flora of Sri Lanka are extraordinary in terms of species richness, distribution,high degree of endemism and their biogeographic history. Dipterocarpaceae, Clusiaceae,Myrtaceae, Bombacaceae, Dilleniaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Sapotaceae are some ofthe dominant plant families in lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka. They dominate the lowlandrainforests that are fragmented, degraded and isolated throughout the lowland wet zone in SriLanka. Habitat destruction, fragmentation of natural habitats, introduction of exotic or invasivespecies, and over exploitation of forest resources are some of the direct threats to the lowlandwet zone ecosystem.Conservation of nationally and globally threatened endemic plant species with special emphasison their population sizes is an urgent need. Multiple-use forest management systems canbe successfully applied to manage these ecosystem in a sustainable manner. Research onlowland wet zone flora has substantially increased our understanding on the value and theimportance this ecosystem. However, research has to be more strengthened and extended tofully appreciate and implement meaningful conservation strategies for this precious ecosystem.ReferencesAnon. (1995). Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan. Forestry planning unit, Ministry of agriculture, land andforestry, Colombo.Ashton, P.M., Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Zoyza, N., Dassanayake, M.D., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., & Wijesundara, S. (1997).A field guide to the common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. WHT Publications (Pvt) Ltd., Sri Lanka.De Rosayro, R.A. (1942). The soils and ecology of the wet evergreen forests of Ceylon. The Tropical agriculturist,98:4–35.De Rosayro, R.A. (1950). Ecological conceptions and vegetational types with special reference to Ceylon. TheTropical agriculturist, 56:108–121.Gunatilleke, C.V.S & Ashton P.S. (1987a). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon I. Historical plant geography.Journal of Biogeography, 14: 249–285.Gunatilleke, C.V.S & Ashton P.S. (1987b). New light on the plant geography of Ceylon II. The ecological biogeographyof the lowland endemic tree flora. Journal of Biogeography, 14: 295–327.Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1990). Distribution of floristic richness and its conservation in Sri Lanka.Conservation Biology, 4: 21-31.Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1991). Threatened woody endemics of the wet lowlands of Sri Lankaand their conservation. Conservation Biology, 55: 17-36.Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. & Abeygunawardena, P. (1994). An interdisciplinary research initiativetowards sustainable management of forest resources in lowlands rain forest of Sri Lanka. Journal of SustainableForestry, 4: 95-114.Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I. A.U.N. & Ashton, P.M.S. (1995). Rain forest reseach and conservation: theSinharaja experience in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Forester, XXII (1&2): 49-60.Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Ethugala, A.U.K., & Esufali, E. (2004). Ecology of Sinharaja rain Forestand the Forest Dynamics Plot in Sri Lanka’s natural World Heritage Site. WHT publications (Pvt) Ltd., SriLanka.179

Gunatilleke, C.V.S., Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N., Esufali, S., Harms, K.E., Ashton, P.M.S., Burslem, D. F.R.P. & Ashton,P.S. (2006). Species–habitat associations in a Sri Lankan dipterocarp forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 22:371–384.Hollems, C.H. (1956). The broad pattern of climate and vegetational distribution in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester,2: 209-225.Koelmeyer, K.O. (1957). Climatic classification and distribution of vegetation in Ceylon. The Ceylon forester, 3:144 - 163.Ministry of Forestry and Environment (1999). Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lanka – A framework of Action.Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Sri Lanka.Peeris, C.V.S (1975). The ecology of endemic tree species of Sri Lanka in relation to their conservation. Ph.D.Thesis, University of Aberdeen, UK.Somasekaram, T., Perera, M. P., de Silva, M. B. G., & Godellawatta, H. (Eds.). (1997). Arjuna’s Atlas of Sri Lanka.Arjuna Consulting Co. Ltd., Sri Lanka, 32-35.180

Present Status of Montane Forests in Sri LankaSiril WijesundaraDepartment of National Botanic Gardens Peradeniya.siril.wijesundara@gmail.comIn Sri Lanka the montane forests, also known as upper montane forests, occur at elevationsbeyond 1500 m above mean sea level. They share an average temperature of about 16degrees Celsius and rainfall of above 2000 mm without any marked dry periods, and humidityabove 80%.It is characterized by a short canopy of about 13 m, with a dense shrub layer of about 3-4m. Gnarled and twisted trees with rounded (umbrella-shaped) crowns with tiny, leathery leavesto accommodate the strong winds that prevail. High density of epiphytes, epiphylls, mosses,bryophytes and lichens are commonly found. Soils are red-yellow podzols. Keena (Calophyllumwalkeri), Damba (Syzygium revolutum) and S. rotundifolium make the abundant tree specieswith Wal sapu (Magnolia nilagrica), Mihiriya (Gordonia ceylanica). Gregariously flowering Nelu(Strobilanthes spp.) form a prominent shrub layer, while Usnea (Old man’s beard) is a distinctlichen; epiphytic orchids such as Eria bicolor, Robiquetia brevifolia, and filmy ferns are common;Sudu Binara (Exacum walkeri) is a distinct herbaceous flower. Pigmy forests or elfin forests arefound on top of Hakgala, Totapola and Knuckles, made of stunted trees of Ilex, Eurya, Syzygiumand shrubs such as Rhodomyrtus, Osbeckia, and Hedyotes (Wijesundara, 1991)Montane forests once formed a more or less continuous cover or cap extending over almostthe entire third peneplain of Sri Lanka, encompassing the Pedro, Totapola and Adam’s peakranges, and the isolated Knuckles range (de Rosayro, 1946). At present only 3000 ha ofmontane forests are left in the island. In addition to their role in water retention and releasein catchment areas in this country, montane forests are also the home of about 500 endemicplant species which constitute about 50% of all the endemics in Sri Lanka (Peeris, 1975).Trees in the montane forests are covered with mosses and lichens enabling them to interceptmist effectively. According to some hydrological studies done, 25% of the precipitation receivedby the montane forests in Horton Plains is due to mist interception (Gunawardena et al, 1998).Despite their biological and hydrological importance, vast areas of these montane forests havebeen cleared during the latter part of the 19th century for introduction of plantation crops suchas tea. Only about 3,100 ha of montane forests are remaining at present (MENR, 2009).Flora and origin of the montane zoneMore than half the species of our montane zone are endemic to it and not found in Nilgiri orother hills of the Indian peninsula. However, about 20 species and 44 genera are commonto the South Indian and Sri Lankan hills (Blasco, 1971). There is not a single genus endemicto the hills of either country or both combined, and the flora of Indo-Sri Lankan high lands isconsidered as a southward extension of the Himalayan flora.Dr. J. C. Willis, a former Director of Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya (1896-1912), analyzedthe hill top floras of Sri Lanka and supposed that the high degree of endemism in the montanezone was due to isolation (Willis, 1908). He tabulated the proportion of hill top species with181

different dispersal methods and found 6.5% wind dispersed species, 25.0% animal dispersedspecies and 68.5% species with doubtful dispersal mechanisms.A former Assistant Conservator of Forests, Mr. C.H. Holmes suggested that the montane forestprobably originated and developed as a lowland wet evergreen forest which subsequentlybecame much modified; the montane region, he believed, has been lifted upward by a tectonicupheaval (Holmes, 1948). This was in accordance with an earlier view that the highlandswere formed comparatively recently by vertical block uplift of the crust along a very large fault(Wadia,1941). Holmes (1956) suggested that the montane forest was a post-climax of the alowland wet evergreen forest, and considers a) the floristic affinities of the region, b) difficultiesof natural regeneration, c) better performance of sub-tropical or temperate species in themontane zone and d) theories on geological prehistory, in support of his theory. It is clear thatthis theory recognised the third peneplain which houses the montane forest as the youngesterosional terrace, as suggested by Wadia purely on geomorphological grounds. Subsequentstudies, based on the structural and morphological aspects of the third peneplain, stronglysuggested that differential upwarping and differential erosion could account for the major levelsof denudation rather than block uplift (Vitanage, 1970).Threats to Montane VegetationAt present, natural forests in the montane zone are threatened by the rapid expansion ofvegetable gardens in their vicinity encroaching upon them and the excessive extraction offirewood from them (Wijesundara, 1991). Strict control of such destructive activities is imperativeif the remaining areas of this forest type in the country are to be preserved for the future.Human DisturbancesMontane forests are surrounded by several villages and as a result many people enter into themfor various purposes. Gathering firewood from the forest for heating the houses and cooking isvery frequent. In addition to this, many trees are cut by the local inhabitants for various otherdomestic purposes such as fencing and staking their cultivations. Illicit gem mining is anotheractivity destroying the montane habitats. If these activities take place in a sustainable mannerthe effects to the natural vegetation will be minimal. Unfortunately, the scale of these activitieshas now gone beyond the sustainable level. Although all montane forests are protected areas,these activities are going on without much hindrance.The Forest Department and the Department of Wild Life Conservation, which administer thesereserves, do not seem to have sufficient staff and other resources to prevent these destructiveactivities. They are also struggling to protect the forests from illicit encroachers who are tryingto clear the land belonging to the reserves for vegetable cultivation. Despite many protests bythe public and the authorities, recently, large areas belonging to Hakgala SNR were cleared atRendapola, Ambewela, Sita Eliya and Hakgala sides.182

Death of trees in the montane forestsThe dying of trees in Totapolakande forest of the montane zone imparting an unhealthyappearance to the forests has been observed by a former Conservator of Forests,Mr. W.R.H. Perera (Perera, 1978). The dying of trees in montane forests has also beenreported by de Rosayro (1946). Perera (1978) reported that over 50% of the dominant Kina(Calophyllum) and Damba (Syzygium) trees on the slopes and summit of Totapolakandewere dead or dying, but trees of Rhododendron arboreum ssp. zeylanicum, common evenin montane grasslands, a large number of Nelu (Strobilanthes.) species and other shrubs inthe lower strata of the forest were found to grow well while the forest tree species failed toregenerate. Several studies have been conducted on the dieback of montane forests in SriLanka (Werner, 1988; Adikaram et al, 1999; Ranasinghe et al., 2009)Widespread forest decline due to die-back is now a severe problem in many parts of the world.Some of these countries include Europe, North America, New Zealand, former Soviet Unionand Pacific Islands. In Germany, it is reported that about 52% of the forest surveyed areaffected by this phenomenon.In some cases the tree-death is due to natural causes. Die-back stands in such areas mayrepresent a senescing stage in the forest life cycle. Drastic changes in the climate such assevere drought or flood can also cause natural die-back in forests (Werner, 1988). However, inmost industrial countries the death of forest trees is mainly due to human induced environmentalchanges such as the pollution of atmosphere.A study conducted by us (Wijesundara and Samarasinghe 1993) to examine floristiccomposition of forest gaps in Horton Plains revealed that Nelu (Stobilanthes) species arefound in almost all gaps created by dieback. Gaps created by fire are different from those asthey are occupied by a fern, Pteridium revolutum. It was also observed that alien invasivespecies such as Ageratina riparia, Austroeupatorium inulifolium and Cestrum aurantiacum areinvading the dieback gaps. Dieback of canopy trees was also observed in the Hakgala SNR,which is a similar montane forest in the same region. Over 50% of the species were affectedby dieback. Observations made during the past two decades in the areas affected by forestdieback reveal that the following changes have been taken place in the dieback stands.a) Regeneration of the montane forestb) Formation of a pigmy forestc) Colonization of gaps by Nelu (Strobilanthes spp.)d) Colonization of gaps by alien invasive speciesRegeneration of montane forest can be seen in certain places where the number of deadtrees is less. New shoots are formed on the defoliated trunks and at the bases of the trees.A formation of a pigmy forest in the gaps can be observed in areas where the wind actionis severely felt. In the area where the gaps are colonized by Nelu, a lesser number of treeseedlings were observed. The dense growth of Nelu may suppress establishment of treeseedlings. These nelu stands, which die en mass after several years, are being invaded bygrasses in some areas (Wijesundara, 1991).183

Although the causal factors are not fully understood, widespread die-back could seriouslydamage the vegetation in these areas (Adikaram et al., 1999). Whether the die-back standsrepresent a senescing stage of the forest life cycle or whether it is due to human inducedenvironmental changes is not known. If it is a cyclic vegetational change where the gaps formedby die-back stands represent only a regenerative phase, it is not harmful to the vegetation.However, if the cycle is interrupted by an outside factor diverting it into a different directionthe existing vegetation will be affected. In other words, if an aggressive species invades thegaps the natural regeneration will not take place. Tussocks of Gawara Mana (Chrysopogonnodulibarbis) were observed in die back stands in the Horton Plains area, (Totapolakande andKirigalpotte) and in Pidurutalagala. On the peak of Hakgala Strict Natural Reserve also, thereis a small patch of grassland in the middle of a die-back stand.Since the montane forests and wet patana grasslands are present side by side, there is alwaysa chance for propagules from each type to cross their boundaries. The stand level die-back inthe upper altitudes of the montane forests in Sri Lanka can lead to a decrease in the biodiversity.Floristic composition and the structure of the affected areas will also be changed as a result. Moreresearch is needed to determine whether the edaphic factors in die-back stands are conduciveto the establishment of grassland species. In some areas in the montane zone, the origin ofgrassland could have been due to the stand level forest die-back (Wijesundara, 1991).In the montane region the boundary between forest and the grassland is sharp; this is true forother countries as well (Richards, 1963; Blasco, 1971). The sharpness of the edge of montaneforests is sometimes attributed to anthropogenic fire. Some speculate that in Sri Lanka thepresent line of demarcation of forest and grassland is not the original line but a result of humandisturbances at a later stage.Invasive speciesThe other serious threat to the montane vegetation is caused by the exotic species that haveescaped mainly from the Hakgala Botanic Gardens (Wijesundara, 1999). When a gap isformed in the forest there is always a possibility of an exotic species with higher reproductivevigour getting established there. This is taking place along the periphery of the Hakgala SNRand already there are populations of such species that have invaded into the reserve. In thesouthern areas there are large patches of Cestrum aurantiacum which sometimes spread intothe forest interior. The flowers of this species are pollinated by the endemic bird, Sri Lankawhite eye (Zosterops ceylonensis) and the seeds are dispersed by another endemic bird,Yellow-eared bulbul (Pycnonotus penicillatus). It will be interesting to study the effect of thechanges of food preferences of these birds on the regeneration of natural forest plant species(Wijesundara, 1991).Almost all the foot paths in open areas and even the streams of some motane forests are linedwith such exotic weeds as Ageratina riparia and Aristea ecklonii. Aristea ecklonii is also foundin more open areas such as hill tops and grassland. More recently several other invasivespecies were observed in the montane region. These include Calliandra calothyrsus, Miconiacalvescens, Psidium litorale, Pennisetum clandestinum, and Austroeupatorium inulifolium. Theeffects of these alien species on the local vegetation should be an important study.184

Conservation of our mountain forests for future has now become a priority more than in anyother time. Since it is a rapidly dwindling natural resource, timely steps should be taken toprevent the destruction of what is remaining. If not, this important eco-system would disappearfrom earth even before the intricacies of it are fully understood.Conservation of our montane forests for future has now become a priority more than in anyother time. Since it is a rapidly dwindling natural resource, timely steps should be taken toprevent the destruction of what is remaining; if not, this important eco-system would disappearfrom the earth even before the intricacies of it are fully understood.ReferencesAdikaram, N. K. B., K. B. Ranawana, and A. Weerasooriya. 1999. Forest Dieback in Horton Plains National Park,Protected Area Management & Wildlife Conservation Project, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka.Blasco, F. 1971. Montagnes Du Sud de L’Inde. Inst. Franc. De Pondicherry. Trav. Sect. Scient. Techn. 10, (1) 436 pDe Rosayro, R. A. 1946. The montane grassland (patanas) of Ceylon. Tropical Agriculturist, Vol. CII,No. 1, 4-16 pp.Gunawardena, E. R. N., I. R. Calder, P. T .W. Rosier and N. Chandrasiri. 1998. Hydrological importance of HortonPlains. In:Proceedings of the final workshop of the University of Peradeniya-Oxford Forestry Institute LinkProject (Ed: H.P.M.Gunasena), July 1998. pp: 45-63.Holmes, C. H. 1948. Some forestry problems in Ceylon and the search for their solution. Proceedings of the 4thAnnual Session of the Ceylon Association for the Advancement of Science 41-68 pp.Holmes, C. H. 1956. The broad pattern of climate and vegetational distribution in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester, 2,4 (N.S.), 207-225 pp.MENR 2009. Sri Lanka Environment Outlook. Ministry of environment and UNEP. 140 p.Peeris, C. V. S. 1975. The ecology of endemic tree species in Sri Lanka in relation to their conservation. Ph.D.thesis, University of Aberdeen, U.K.Perera, W. R. H. 1978 Totapolakande: an environmental disaster. Sri Lanka Forester, 13 (3-4), (N.S.), 53-55 pp.Ranasinghe, P.N., G. W. A. R. Fernando, M. D. N. R. Wimalasena, S. P. Ekanayake and Y. P. S. Siriwardana.(2009). Dieback in Tropical Montane Forests of Sri Lanka: Anthopogenic or natural phenomenon? Journal ofGeological Society of Sri Lanka Vol. 13 (2009), 23-45 pp.Richards, P. W. 1963 Ecological notes on the West African vegetation. Journal of Ecology, 51 (3), 529-554 pp.Vitanage, P.W. 1970. A study of the geomorphology and morphotectonics of Ceylon. Proc. SecondSeminar on geochemical prospecting methods and techniques ECTFT/UNESCO GSM (2),89-25-11. 391-405 pp.Wadia, D.N. 1941 The making of Ceylon. Spolia Zeylanica. National Museum of Ceylon Publ. Colombo. 23, 1-7 pp.Werner, W.L., 1988. Canopy dieback in the upper Montane rin forests of Sri Lanka. Geojournal17(2): 245-248Wijesundara, D. S. A. 1991 Phytosociology of a Montane Forest in Sri Lanka. M.Phil Thesis, University of Peradeniya165 pWijesundara D. S. A. and D. Samarasinghe. 1993. Disturbed grasslands in Horton Plains National Park. ProcSLAAS. 49.Wijesundara, D. S. A. 1999 Alien Invasive Species in Sri Lanka and their history of introduction. In Marambe, B (ed).Proceedings of the First national Workshop on Alien Invasive Species. Ministry of Forestry and Environment,Sri Lanka 25-27 pp.Wijesundara, D. S. A. 2003. Dieback in the Montane forests of Sri Lanka. In Hitinayake, G. (Ed.). Proceedings ofthe workshop on forest dieback at central highland ecosystems. Sri Lanka Association of Advancement ofScience. 4-11 pp.Willis, J. C. 1908 The floras of Hill Tops in Ceylon. . Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. 4. (4) 131-138 pp.185

Present Status of Fresh Water Aquatic Flora in Sri LankaDeepthi YakandawalaDepartment of Botany, University of PerdeniyaIntroductionSri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean. However, only four percent of thecountry’s land area is covered by water (FAO, 2011). Those land areas that are permanentlyor seasonally inundated together with its floral and faunal communities are considered asan aquatic ecosystem. The fresh aquatic ecosystems of the country include rivers, streams,marshes, swamp forests and villus. Apart from these natural habitats, man-made tanks,reservoirs, and rice fields also contribute to the diversity. Based on the definition of the RAMSARconvention (1987), all these ecosystems are broadly defined as wetlands.Sri Lanka has an extensive network of rivers and streams, most of which arise from the southcentralmassif that rises to 2500 m above sea level. In all, there are 103 distinct natural riversmany of which are perennial, while those in the dry zone are seasonal. The Mahaweli riverbasin which drains 16% of the island (Madduma Bandara, 2000), carries water from the wetzone to the dry zone, supporting many marshes, riverine vegetation, and flood plains. A freshwater marsh is a shallow depression receiving water from a river either directly or by surfacerun-off of river floods and ground water seepage. The Muthurajawela marsh is the longestpeat bog in Sri Lanka and, together with the Negombo estuary, forms an integrated coastalwetland ecosystem extending over 6,232 ha (CEA/Euroconsult, 1994a). Several fresh watermarshes are found within the Wilpattu National Park in the lowland dry zone. Horton Plainsrepresent montane grassland marshes at an altitude of 2000 m. The late succession stage ofa fresh water marsh is referred as a fresh water swamp forest. Fresh water swamps compriseof trees that are adapted to grow in shallow stagnant water and are inundated seasonally withriver water. Fresh water swamps are considered the rarest wetland type in Sri Lanka andthe Walauwatta-Wathurana swamp forest, located in the Kalu Ganga river basin, is a typicalexample that extends 12 ha in the southwestern part of the island (CEA/Euroconsult, 1994b).Even though there are no large natural lakes in the island, a number of flood plain lakes thatare commonly referred to as villu, occur in the dry zone. These extend over a total area of12,500 ha, the largest being the inter-connected Handapan and Pendiya villu system of theMahaweli villu system (CEA/Euroconsult, 1995).Owing to its unique hydraulic civilization, Sri Lanka is endowed with a rich array of manmadelakes and canals accounting over 10,000 countrywide, covering more than 127,070ha (Jayasinghe, 2000), especially in the dry zone. They range from small and medium sizedtanks such as Thithawella tank (Kurunegala) to larger tanks/reservoirs such as the ParakramaSamudraya. Associated with these are paddy fields characterized by the presence of seasonalstanding waters contributing to agronomically managed marshes that extend over 12%(708,000 ha) of total land area. Paddy is cultivated in all the agro-ecological zones except atvery high elevations. Victoria, Randenigala, Rantambe and Kotmale are recent reservoirs thatwere added into the list. Man-made wetlands are broadly categorized into three groups, whichare further divided in to nine different wetland types: Aqua-cultural (fish and shrimp ponds),Agricultural (farm/small tanks, irrigated land, and seasonal flooded fields) and Industrial/urban186

(saltpans, reservoirs, gravel/brick pits, sewage/treatment ponds and canals) (Kotagama andBambaradeniya, 2006).Wetland ecosystems are amongst the most productive ecosystems in the world that supportmany kinds of life. Wetlands always have influenced humans from the time of early civilization,which first arose along the edges of rivers in the fertile soils of the flood plains. They provide anarray of human benefits including food and drinking water, raw material, and medicinal herbs.Further, many waterfalls and major rivers have been utilized for generating hydro-electricity.Wetlands are considered as the transitional zone between land and water and provide severalecological functions such as ground water buffering and reducing pollution. They also providerecreation sites full of wildlife; Bundala National Park, Anawilundawa Sanctuary and WilpattuNational Park being few of them. Aquatic flora play a key role in these wetland ecosystemsproviding habitats to fauna. Amongst the total inland vertebrate species in Sri Lanka, about30% are ecologically dependent on wetlands (Kotagama and Bambaradeniya, 2006). Further,over 50% of the migratory birds that visit Sri Lanka annually are directly dependent on wetlandsfor food and shelter. Moreover, the future survival of approximately 32% of the nationallythreatened vertebrate species in Sri Lanka is dependent on wetland ecosystems of the island(Kotagama and Bambaradeniya, 2006).Prominent plants and DistributionThe definition of the term "aquatic" can be subject to various interpretations. Aquatic plantsor wetland plants themselves however, do not always fit rigid definitions. Aquatic plants arealso referred to as hydrophytes or aquatic macrophytes. The wetland plants do not belong toa particular plant family, have rather derived from several terrestrial families, and are adaptedto live in aquatic environments by developing similar modifications. These include largeair spaces within their leaves, stems and roots, presence of both underwater and floatingleaves, thin and often finely dissected leaves, thick waxy leaves, and specialized pollinationmechanisms. In addition, many aquatic plants also show a great variation in growth patterns.For instance Water-hyacinth, floating at the water surface has typical bulbous leaf petiole, butwhen rooted the leaf-petiole elongates losing its bulbous form. The species composition andthe appearance of an aquatic ecosystem vary both with time and among the wetland sites.The marshes are characterized by tall grasses, sedges and herbaceous plants while lakevegetation is characterized by emergent plants towards the periphery and floating aquaticsdominating the water surface.Four categories (growth forms) of aquatic plants may be recognized on the basis of theirattachment to the soil and their position in relation to the water surface:(1) Free-floating plants: Plants that are floating at the surface or beneath the surface. Theyare typically not rooted to the soil at the bottom, but in shallow water or where they arestranded on the shore by a drop in the water level, they may become rooted. The leavesmay stand above the surface (e.g. Pistia and Eichhornia), at the surface (e.g. Wolffia), orthe whole plant may float beneath the surface (e.g. Ceratophyllum). These plants occur inshallow or deep water.(2) Plants rooted at the bottom, with leaves floating at the surface: These plants could beeither with short or long rhizomes at the bottom, and large leaf-blades at the ends of long187

petioles (e.g. Nymphaea), or with long stems rising through the water, bearing leaves withrelatively short petioles (e.g. Nymphoides).(3) Submerged plants: Plants that are generally rooted at the bottom, and the vegetative partsentirely submerged. At the time of flowering, the flowers and some leaves may emergefrom the water. These plants could be thallus-like, attached to rocks (members of thefamily Podostemaceae), with long stems rising through the water bearing leaves, androoting at the nodes (e.g. Hydrilla), or with short stems bearing leaves in a basal rosette,and often producing stolons (e.g. Blyxa). These plants are restricted to depths wheresufficient light reaches them through the water for photosynthesis.(4) Emergent plants: Often with rhizomes, rooted in mud, with shoots emerging above thewater (grasses and sedges). These plants occur in relatively shallow water or towards theperiphery of a water-body.Sri Lanka harbors over 370 aquatic or wetland plant species of which 12% are endemic tothe country. The aquatic flora include 135 Eudicots, 205 Monocots, 4 members belonging tosuper-orders Nymphaeanae and Ceratophyllanae, and 28 ferns and fern allies. The island’saquatic flora is taxonomically placed under 64 families of which 28 are Eudicot families, 24 areMonocot families while 14 are ferns and fern allied families. The families with entirely aquaticmembers include Alismataceae, Aponogetonaceae, Cabombaceae, Ceratophyllaceae,Hydrocharitaceae, Menyanthaceae, Najadaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Nelumbonaceae,Podostemaceae, and Potamogetonaceae. The largest aquatic plant family, the Cyperaceae(Sedges), has 69 species followed by the Scrophulariaceae and Poaceae (Grasses).Hydrocharitaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Commelinaceae and Asteraceae also havea considerable number of aquatic members. All these aquatic species are native to the country,except for few species such as Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub., Limnocharis flava (L.)Buchenau and Salvinia molesta D. Mitch., that are recent introductions and have spread rapidlyand become naturalized in many parts of the country. Forty one (41%) percent of the island’saquatic flora are now threatened and listed under different categories during the present RedListing. This needs to be considered seriously during the preparation and implementing of thewetland conservation and management plan. Three percent (3%) of aquatics are consideredunder the Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)) while 5.6% are considered under the CriticallyEndangered (CR). Most plants under both these categories are distributed in the lowland wetzone in and along small and large streams, and rivers, swamps, marshes and paddy fields,especially in the Kalutara, Colombo, Ratnapura and Kegalle districts. The rocky rapids of theMahaweli river in the Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area in Kandy are another site that harbors manyof these plants. The Endangered category (EN) accounts for 12% of aquatic flora while theVulnerable and the Near Threatened categories (NT) account for 10% and 10.6% respectively.The family Araceae harbors the highest number of endemics which include 10 species ofthe genus Cryptocoryne and 7 Lagenandra species. Cryptocoryne is a very vulnerablegenus where all of its members have been recognized as threatened in the past and presentevaluations for Red Listing. The Cryptocoryne mainly occurs in the south-western lowlandever-green rain forests, central midlands, central western lowlands in the semi-deciduousmonsoon forests having a seasonal change in precipitation and few are scattered in thedry zone riverine forests. These species mostly thrive in slow running water or seasonallyinundated soils. They occur both submerged or emerged depending on the growth stage,vegetative or reproductive. Five Cryptocoryne are placed under the Critically Endangered188

category (CR); three under Endangered category (EN), while the other two under Vulnerable(VU) category. Many of these species are restricted to the Kalutara and Ratnapura districts inthe low wetlands and the banks of the Mahaweli river in Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, Kandy.One of the six endemics in the genus Lagenandra is recognized under Critically Endangeredcategory (CR) while the others are under the Endangered category (EN). All these speciesare restricted to the wet zone and occur mainly along the river banks. Lagenandra erosade Wit is listed under the Critically Endangered category (CR) with concern as its locality isunknown. However, it evidently occurs in the wetzone of the country (http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/Lagenandra/Gallery/distribution.html). Lagenandra thwaitesii Engler with a silver margin onits blade is restricted to Kalutara, Galle and Ratnapura districts, and has a high demand as anornamental aquatic. Woffia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimmer is a minute free-floating native plantof the family Araceae with a thallus of about 1 mm in width and is considered to be the smallestvascular plant on the earth. The plant produces a minute flower with a single stamen and pistil.It often multiplies vegetatively, where the rounded part buds off into a new individual. The plantoccurs in the North Central province and is considered Endangered (EN). The genus Lemnaharbors two species of which L. gibba L., recorded from Colombo, is now considered underProbably Extinct category (CR(PE)).The 69 species recorded in the family Cyperaceae are distributed among 17 genera whereCyperus records the highest number of 17 species, followed by the genus Fimbristylis (12species). The family includes five endemics, of which Eleocharis lankana T. Koyama confinedto lowland marshes, especially Colombo district, Fimbristylis zeylanica T. Koyama confined tothe marshes of the Wilpattu National Park and Mapania immersa (Thw.) Benth ex Clarke thatconfined to the Kalutara district are listed as Critically Endangered. In addition, three othernatives, Eleocharis confervoides (Poir.) T. Koyama, Rhynchospora chinensis Nees & Meyenex Nees and R. triflora Vahl are now considered under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)).The family Scrophulariaceae bears 33 species belonging to 11 genera of which three areendemic. Adenosma subrepens (Thw.) Benth. ex Hook. f., a very highly threatened endemicrestricted to Ratnapura district, and Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck) Merr., a native confined towet places, including paddy fields, in the Kalutara and Badulla districts are now listed underthe Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)).The Grass family or the Poaceae records 30 species belonging to 20 genera with twoEndangered (EN) endemic species, Arundinaria densifolia Munro and Eulalia thwaitesii (Hack.)Kuntze; both are confined to Nuwara Eliya district.The family Eriocaulaceae with a capitulum-like inflorescence and wind pollinated flowerssuperficially resembles the grasses, sedges, and rushes. Five endemic members are among thesixteen aquatics in the genus Eriocaulon where one species, Eriocaulon fergusonii (Moldenke)S.M. Phillips, was recorded from marshlands of Colombo and Galle districts and is consideredunder Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)). Eriocaulon trimeni Hook.f. is a very rare speciesrecorded from the Matale district and is listed under Critically Endangered category (CR).The family Aponogetonaceae is represented by four members of the genus Aponogeton, withtwo endemic members. Aponogeton jacobsenii Bruggen is restricted to the highlands, especiallyNuwara Eliya and the Horton plains and considered as Critically Endangered while A. rigidifolius189

Bruggen is restricted to the lowland wet zone and Endangered (EN). However, although notendemic, A. natans (L.) Engler & Krause and A. crispus Thunb. are both considered as rareand threatened due to over exploitation in the wild and are in the Vulnerable category (VU).Podostemaceae is a family with plants of very unusual vegetative form. Seven members arerecorded in the country with two endemics. They are more or less thalloid, growing on rocksin fast-flowing rivers or cataracts and could be considered a highly threatened group of plants.The rapids of the Mahaweli river at Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, Kandy provid the habitat forsix of these species including the endemics. Both endemics, Farmeria metzgerioides (Trimen)Willis ex Hook.f. and Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner) J.B.Hall are considered as Vulnerable(VU),while Polypleurum stylosum (Wight) J.B. Hallis is listed as Critically Endangered (CR).However, Zeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz) Engl., recorded as confined to the river rapids of themontane region, is now considered under Probably Extinct category (CR(PE)).Two aquatic carnivorous plant families are recorded in the island. The family Droseraceaeincludes insectivorous herbs with leaves set with sticky glandular hairs holding down anddigesting insects. Drosera burmanni Vahl and D. indica L. show a wider distribution but arestill recognized under the Vulnerable category (VU) due to threats on its habitats, while D.peltata Smith, restricted to the highlands, especially Nuwara Eliya and Badulla districts, islisted under Endangered category (EN). The genus Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) harborsfifteen carnivorous herbs with specialized organs (traps/bladders) to capture and digest smallorganisms. Utricularia moniliformis P. Taylor is the only endemic member listed under theVulnerable category (VU) and is restricted to Kandy and Nuwara Eliya districts while the otherspecies show a wider distribution in lowland dry and wet zones. However, due to the habitatdisruption, many of the native species have also been affected; seven of them are now listedunder various categories during the present Red Listing.ThreatsThe aquatic ecosystems have been affected throughout the history by various anthropogenicthreats, habitat deterioration/degradation, over exploitation of species and alien invasions. TheDirectory of Asian Wetlands (Scott, 1989) documents several threats where siltation has beena frequently reported threat for the listed wetland sites of the island. Considering differentecosystems, the aquatic ecosystem is unique as it is vulnerable to direct human activities aswell as many indirect human activities that are distant-based rather than on-site.Habitat deterioration/degradation: Habitat deterioration/degradation is caused by on-siteactivities as well as distant-based human activities. The aquatic ecosystems are vulnerablemostly due to the latter. Kotagama and Bambaradeniya (2006) identified reclamation, clearingof vegetation, water pollution (through organic pollution, other chemical effluents and sewagedisposal), regulation of water flow, unplanned irrigation structures and mining as the majorcauses for wet land deterioration/degradation. Reclamation for infrastructure development,construction of aquaculture ponds, more recently due to security reasons and further dumpingof domestic and municipal waste have affected wetlands, especially those in urban areas suchas Bellanwilla-Attidiya marsh (CEA/ Euroconsult, 1993). This site is one of the recorded sitesfor Critically Endangered endemic sedge Eleocharis lankana T. Koyama, confined to lowlandmarshes. Illegal reclamation for human settlement, dumping of garbage, chemical pollution190

and eutrophication (due to agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, and residues from illegalbreweries) are major threats identified for the Muthurajawela marshes (IUCN Sri Lanka andCEA, 2006). This marsh is a habitat for threatened aquatics, Aponogeton natans (L.) Engler& Krause, Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) G. Bruckn. and Nympoides aurantiacea (Dalz.) Krutze.Construction of dams across major rivers, especially the Mahaweli, has affected the downstreamvegetation. Due to further diversion and impoundments in the upstream areas of the Mahaweliriver, the water flow has been reduced causing the drying up of about one third of the villus inthe Mahaweil villu system and affecting the aquatics. Further, this has facilitated the spreadof alien plants such as Eichhornia crassipes, Xanthium indicum Koenig and Salvinia molestaaffecting the natural villu vegetation (IUCN Sri Lanka and CEA, 2006). These villus also harborwild relatives of rice such as Oryza rufipogon Griffith and O. eichingeri Peter.Apart from these threats, construction of mini-hydropower plants at a rapid rate during thepast few years has added to deterioration of many habitats of aquatic plants. One of the mostaffected groups being the family Podostemaceae, a group of flowering plants that only growson stones in rapidly flowing streams and rivers with changing water levels. Due to this habitatpreference, it occurs only in few specific localities and is difficult to be conserved under in situconditions. The richest site for these members at Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area of the Mahaweliriver is presently being disturbed by the construction of a mini-hydropower plant. Farmeriametzgerioides (Trimen) Willis ex Hook.f. and Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner) J.B.Hall areendemic members of the seven species of Podostemaceae recorded in Sri Lanka while sixof them, including the two endemics, are found at this location. The blasting of large rocksin the river has directly affected the aquatic vegetation while the resulting reduction of waterflow will affect the downstream vegetation. In addition four Cryptocoryne species have beenrecorded as occurring in the rapids at this location. Cryptocoryne parva de Wit grows closestto the water where the course is rapid. Cryptocoryne walkeri Schott grows in a little further up,but is also rather exposed, while C. beckettii Trimen and C. undulata Wendt. are found evenfurther up on the banks. The hybrid, C. x willisii Reitz is found in several locations, both lowand high, in the shade and the sun (Jacobsen, 1986). The construction of the Upper Kotmalehydropower project and restriction of downstream water flow have affected many downstreamplants including Zeylanidium subulatum (Gardner) C. Cusset and Z. olivaceum (Gardner) Engl.of the Podostemaceae.Further, illegal constructions and dumping of soils along water courses, including the mainrivers, cause a serious threat to riverine vegetation, including species such as Lagenandra andHygrophila. The Mahaweli river along Peradeniya to Katugastota, on both sides of the bank,could be identified as one of the severely affected areas due to development activities alongthe river bank. This stretch once again includes the Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, one of therichest aquatic floral habitats providing home to three Critically Endangered (two endemics andone native), three Endangered (one endemic and two native), three Vulnerable (endemic) andone native Endangered species. Encroachments for settlement, building of hotels borderingthe river, and utilising of the river banks for waste disposal and dumping could be witnessedand are still continuing at an alarming rate.Over-exploitation of species: Many aquatic plants, especially the species with an ornamentalvalue, are being extracted from the wild. Over-exploitation of species has led to a decline in191

populations of species such as Cryptocoryne, Aponogeton and Lagenandra. Even thoughrules and regulations exist, many exporters have their own undisclosed suppliers and areas forcollection which include the Kelani Valley basin and small streams in areas such as Mawanelle,Avissawella, Bulathkohupitiya, Ruwanwella and Yatiyantota in the Lowland and central wet zoneof Sri Lanka (Seneviratne, 2002) and dry zone rivers including Malwathu oya and Kuda oya.Alien invasions: Many ornamental aquatic Invasive Alien Species (IAS) have beenencountered in the country’s water bodies in the past, where ‘Japan Jabara’ or Water hyacinth(E. crassipes) is one of the best examples which has become a menace to aquatic ecosystems.Salvinia molesta, a free floating water fern, has also established its name in theinvasive alien species list being only second to E. crassipes. Pistia stratiotes, even though ithas not set records, is another alien invasive species that has got established in local waterbodies drawing considerable attention. These plants still continue to cause a threat to thenative aquatics in many wetlands including Bellanwila-Attidiya marshes, Anaiwilundawa, andKalametiya & Lunama Kalpuwa wetlands, and many reservoirs. Several dry zone lakes havebeen infested with E. crassipes during the restoration of tanks for agriculture in the recentyears. Further, the floods in 2011 in the dry zone have facilitated the spread of E. crassipes intonew destinations, infesting new water bodies.Apart from these invasives, several other plants could be identified as naturalized aquatics inlocal water bodies, notably Vallisnaria spirallis L., Egeria densa Planch. and Cabomba carolinianaA.Gray. Yakandawala and Yakandawala (2007) reported three other additions Ludwigia sedioides(Humb. & Bonpl.) H.Hara, Mayaca fluviatilis Aubl. and Echinodorus spp., found in the local waterbodies in the Western Province of Sri Lanka. All three plants are popular aquatics in aquariumsand landscaping. The most recent addition to the list is of great interest as it opened up anew chapter in invasive alien plant research in Sri Lanka while highlighting the importance ofPlant Systematics and proper identification of organisms. The flawed identification of a violetflowered water-lily as Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. and subsequently narrating as the nationalflower of Sri Lanka (‘Nil manel’), have overlooked its threat to the local biota and invasiveness.This exotic violet flowered water lily has been silently invading the local water bodies where itwent unnoticed due to the erroneous identification and its popularity as an ornamental plant.Studies have further revealed hybrid populations between the native N. nouchali and the alienviolet flowered Nymphaea with intermediate characters (Yakandawala and Yakandawala, 2011).Global researches have attributed the origin of invasiveness to hybridization, especially between anative and invasive alien species and where the native is at a risk of extinction (Yakandawala andYakandawala, 2011 and references therein). The detection of hybrid populations of Nymphaeahas opened up avenues to initiate studies locally on this novel area of hybridization betweennatives and invasive alien species.Even though Sri Lanka harbors a larger number of naturally occurring aquatics, there is a highdemand for certain exotic aquatic plants in the export market. This has resulted in the privatesector importation of exotic plants into the country for propagation and exportation. Accordingto recent studies 386 plant species are traded as ornamental aquatic plants in the country(Yakandawala, et al., unpublished). The plants belongs to 46 plant families that included39 angiosperm families with 64 genera, 6 fern/fern allies with 6 genera and 1 liverwort. Ofthe recorded ornamental aquatic plants, 76% were non-natives or exotics. The list includedtwo plants that are currently listed on the IAS list in Sri Lanka of which one is on the global192

IAS list (Eichhornia crassipes). The list also includes two exotic Salvinia sp. Further threeplant species, Ludwigia sedioides, Mayaca fluviatilis, and Echinodorus spp., are identified aspotential invasive plants in the country (Yakandawala and Yakandawala, 2007). Even a smallfragment of 2 cm in length of M. fluviatilis is capable of developing into a new plant. Therefore,the mechanical control of these plants should be carried out with utmost care (Yakandawalaand Dissanayake, 2010). It is also noted with caution that 35 Echinodorus species, includingvarieties, are currently circulated in the local market. The plants exhibit an effective modeof reproduction by developing plantlets from florets of the submerged inflorescence in largenumbers. According to the Global Compendium of Weeds (Randall 2012) 32% of the plantstraded in Sri Lanka as ornamental aquatic plants are recognized for their invasive behaviorelsewhere in the world.Conservation prioritiesAmidst the conservation initiatives, majority of the wetlands and other aquatic ecosystems in SriLanka are under threat due to adverse anthropogenic activities. Within the context of speedydevelopment and population growth, conservation of wetlands together with its biodiversity isa challenge.At present, several government and non-government organizations are involved in wetlandconservation and management related activities in the country. The Directory of Asian Wetlands(Scott, 1989) lists 41 wetlands as critically important due to their high biodiversity and extentto which they are threatened by anthropogenic causes. The National Wetland SteeringCommittee (NWSC), through national workshops and surveys, recognised another 45 wetlandsites to the list. Sri Lanka signed the RAMSAR Convention on Conservation of Internationallyimportant wetlands in 1971, but this was ratified only in 1990. At present three wetlands,Bundala National Park, Anaiwilundawa ancient cascading tank system and the Madugangaestuary and mangrove ecosystem have hitherto been declared as RAMSAR wetland sites.The National Wetland Conservation Project of the Central Environmental Authority resulted inthe preparation of wetland site reports, management plans and guiding texts for a number ofwetlands. Presently, the Wetland Management Unit of the Central Environmental Authority isin the process of updating and maintaining the wetland data base which would be the basis forupgrading the National Wetland Directory.As conservation priorities the following could be highlighted; (1) Based on the existing wetlandsite reports and conservation management plans, identification of vulnerable wetlands withrich biodiversity have to be made with the view of upgrading their conservation status, (2)Preparation of wetland site reports and conservation management plans for other wetlandsthat were not covered by previous surveys would facilitate the demarcation of boundaries andconstruction of site maps. Demarcation of boundaries or reservation areas, especially for theriverine vegetation, should be considered as high priority. The riverine vegetation is declining inan alarming rate owing to habitat destruction as a consequence of development activities anddumping, (3) Surveying wetland sites in the North and Northeast of the island should be initiatedimmediately in order to address critical management issues since development activitieshave already been initiated, (4) In the event of a large scale disturbance to a wetland habitat(i.e. filling of wetlands for development, alteration in the downstream flow during constructionof dams, etc.), the aquatic vegetation must be managed in a systematic manner. This will193

The rapids of the Mahaweli river at Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, Kandy - a site for many threatenedaquatics, before being disturbed by the constructionsof the a mini-hydropower plant. Note the members ofthe family Podostemaceae on the rock surface closeto water.The rapids of the Mahaweli river at Gannoruwa-Hallolluwa area, Kandy – after being disturbed by theconstruction of the mini-hydropower plant.Ludwigia sedioides and Echinodorus spp., invadingnatural water bodies in the lowlandsNative Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. – at present isthreatened by an exotic water lilyenable the conservation of vulnerable species in the habitat, (5) As a solution for the loss ofvulnerable endemic ornamental aquatic plants due to over-exploitation, mass propagation ofplants in demand must be encouraged, and (6) Monitoring of aquatic plant propagation units,and introduction of a code of conduct for aquatic plant nurseries will reduce the risk of plantpropagules entering local water bodies.Research gaps and research needs:A considerable amount of research has been conducted on the wetlands of Sri Lanka over theyears, covering many aspects. However, a few areas that need focus are,- Detailed taxonomic studies on wetland plants with their correct identification need to becompleted. This will also answer several other questions and gaps:o Probable location of aquatic plants listed under CR(PE) and CR categorieso Descriptions of poorly known aquatic plants specieso Completion of aquatic plant species list for each wetland site in the islando Early detection of any potential threats from alien specieso Taxonomic revision of aquatic taxa with ambiguities194

- With the introduction of exotic aquatic species into the wetlands, studies of possiblehybridization between natives and invasive alien species must be initiated.- Identifying native plants with potential ornamental value and, developing masspropagation techniques to reduce the risk of over exploitation from the wild.- Introducing molecular tools for rapid identification of aquatic plants that are exported,especially as bulbs or plantlets at the exit points.- Further research into wetland processes, dynamics and management.Conclusions and recommendationsThe wetland site reports and conservation management plans under the Wetland Conservationproject - Sri Lanka (IUCN Sri Lanka and CEA, 2006 and other wetland site reports), theNational Symposium on Wetland Conservation and Management (IUCN Sri Lanka, 2004) andVan Zon (2004) have identified several conservation priorities and made recommendations forthe conservation and management of wetlands in Sri Lanka. Identification of the difficulties inimplementing these recommendations should be a priority, apart from the following:- Conduct a policy, legal and institutional analysis related to wetland conservation andmanagement plans and identify short comings (capacity, infrastructure etc.). This wouldstrengthen inter-institutional mechanisms, legislative frameworks and law enforcement.Inter-sectorial linkages should be established among essential authorities who are thecustodians of the wetland ecosystems in order to achieve sustainable developmentassociated with wet lands.- Promote community and stakeholder participation, and private sector involvement inconservation of wetlands.- Regulate and manage the species exploitation for trade.- Compile a comprehensive inventory on wetland plant species through a systematicfield survey.- Establish a sustainable financing mechanisms through local and foreign sources forthe management and setting up of monitoring programmes.- Initiate pathways for effective implementation of research findings by the relevantstakeholders to address conservation and management issues of the wetlandecosystems.- Focus awareness programmes on all components viz., avifauna, aquatic flora andrecreational potential that constitute to the importance of a wetland, in order to changethe public’s attitude towards aquatic plants. Currently, wetlands are treasured by thegeneral public owing to its recreational value and avifauna.References –CEA/Euroconsult (1993). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Bellanwilla-Attidiya Marsh,Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P. 114.CEA/Euroconsult (1994). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Muthurajawela Marsh andNegombo Lagoon, Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands,P. 129.CEA/Euroconsult (1994b). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Walauwatta-Wathuranaswamp forest, Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P.54.195

CEA/ Euroconsult (1995). Wetland Site Report and Conservation Management Plan: Handapan and Bendiya Villus,Wetland Conservation Project, Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Netherlands, P. 80.FAO 2011, Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles Sri Lanka Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations. http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/FI-CP_LK/en (Accessed on 28th December 2011).http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/Cryptocoryne/index.html. The Crypts pages (Accessed on 23rd November 2011).http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/Lagenandra/Gallery/distribution.html. The Crypts pages. (Accessed on 23rd November2011).IUCN Sri Lanka (2004). Wetland Conservation in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the National Symposium on WetlandConservation and Management, Sri Lanka. Pp.2-18.IUCN Sri Lanka and the Central Environmental Authority of Sri Lanka (2006). National-Wetland Directory of SriLanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka. P. 342Jacobsen, N. (1986). Deterioration of the habitats of the Cryptocoryne species. http://crypts.home.xs4all.nl/Cryptocoryne/Botanical/lecture.html (Accessed on 28th December 2011)Jayasinghe, J.M.P.K. (2000). Inland Aquatic Resources. In. Arudpragasam, K. (Ed.) Natural Resources of Sri Lanka.National Science Foundation, Colombo. Pp.195-211.Kotagama, S.W. and Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (2006). An overview of the wetlands of Sri Lanka and their conservationsignificance. In: IUCN Sri Lanka and the Central Environmental Authority (2006). National-Wetland Directory ofSri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Pp.7-16.Madduma Bandara, C.M. (2000). Water Resources of Sri Lanka. In. Arudpragasam, K. (Ed.) Natural Resources ofSri Lanka. National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, Colombo. Pp.75-109.Randall, J. M. and J. Marinelli. 1996. Invasive Plants: Weeds of the Global Garden. Brooklyn Botanic Garden,Brooklyn, NY.Scott, D.A. (1989) A Directory of Asian Wetlands, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Cambridge, UK.Seneviratne, Nadeera (2002). Island Midweek Review: Selling the wild for a dime http://www.island.lk/2002/03/06/midwee07.html (Accessed on 22nd December 2011)Van Zon, J. C. J. (2004). Wetland conservation and Management in Sri Lanka: A status paper. In: IUCN Sri Lanka.Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetland Conservation and Management: Sri Lanka. Pp.2-18.Yakandawala , Deepthi and Yakandawala, Kapila (2007). Ornamental Aquatics: Potential Weeds in AquaticEcosystems. In: Marambe, B., Sangakkara, U.R., De Costa, and Abeysekara, A.S.K. (Eds). 21st Asian PacificWeed Science Society (APWSS) Conference, 2-6th October 2007, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Pp. 522-525.Yakandawala, K. and Dissanayake, D.M.G.S. (2010). Mayaca fluviatilis Aubl. : an ornamental aquatic with invasivepotential in Sri Lanka. Hydrobiologia. 656 (1): 199-204.Yakandawala, Deepthi and Yakandawala, Kapila (2011). Hybridization between natives and invasive aliens: anoverlooked threat to the biodiversity of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio. Sci.) 40 (1): 13-23.196

Present Status of Mangroves in Sri LankaL.P.Jayatissa, University of Ruhuna, MataraMangroves are woody shrubs and trees that are salt and flood tolerant and hence dominateintertidal areas of lagoons, estuaries and sheltered bays along tropical and subtropicalcoastlines (Ball, 2002; Tomlinson, 1986; Tuffers et al., 2001). In the past, mangrove ecosystemswere considered as a marshy wastelands; then in the 1970s, as a valuable eco-system; andpresently, as precious but threatened eco-systems (Cormier Salem 1994).Being an island in the Indian ocean with more than hundred rivers starting from central highlandsand radiating towards the sea, Sri Lanka possess a large number of lagoons and estuariesalong its coastline of 1760km. As the coastline runs through different climatic zones anddifferent geomorphological settings, the diversity of mangrove habitats is remarkably higherand hence the species diversity in mangroves is also comparatively higher. The total numberof true mangrove species reported from Sri Lanka is almost one third of the global diversity oftrue mangroves in the world (Jayatissa et al., 2002). However, as the total annual range of tidalvariations is less than 1m, the mangrove coverage of the country is small. The present extentof mangroves in Sri Lanka has variously been estimated at over 4,000 ha (Arulchelvam 1968)to over 10,000 ha (Jayawardene 1968). Largest mangrove areas of the country are reportedfrom, north, north western and east coasts.Depending on the geomorphological setting of the habitat and the composition of commonspecies, De Silva, (1985) has recognized five kinds of mangroves in Sri Lanka: as riverinemangroves, fringing mangroves, basin mangroves, scrub mangroves, and over-washmangroves. However, the first two are the most common in Sri Lanka. Mangrove species arecommonly classified into two broad categories as follows;1. True mangroves (species restricted to mangrove habitats)2. Mangrove associates (not confined to the intertidal areas and occur in terrestrial vegetationalso)The list of true mangroves recorded from Sri Lanka is given in the Table with the abundance scale.(However the demarcation of mangroves and mangrove associates may be on tenterhooksbecause according to the literature these two categories vary and there are very suspiciouspoints and confusion. For this report, the categorization of species into true mangroves andmangrove associates are adopted from Tomlinson, 1986, except the genus Acrostichum). It isdifficult to give a clear limit for the list of mangrove associates as the composition of mangroveassociates could vary depending on the edaphic and climatic factors of the habitat. However,Acanthus ilicifolius, Acrostichum aureum, Clerodendron inerme, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Premnaintegrifolia, and Thespesia populnea are given as the most common mangrove associatesin Sri Lanka (Jayatissa et al., 2002). In mangrove forests, they may occur as a transitionalvegetation between true mangroves and the terrestrial vegetation. There is no any endemicspecies among true mangrove species or mangrove associates in Sri Lanka.197

The list of true mangrove species recorded from Sri LankaSpecies Family CategoryAegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco Myrsinaceae LCAvicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. Avicenniaceae LCAvicennia officinalis L. Avicenniaceae NTBruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume Rhizophoraceae ENBruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk. Rhizophoraceae VUBruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. Rhizophoraceae VUCeriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson Rhizophoraceae NT*Ceriops decandra(Grifith) Ding Hou Rhizophoraceae CRExcoecaria agallocha L. Euphorbiaceae LCHeritiera littoralis Dryand. Sterculiaceae NTLumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt Combretaceae CRLumnitzera racemosa Willd. Combretaceae NTNypa fruticans (Thunb.) Wurmb Arecaceae VUPemphis acidula Forst. Lythraceae NTRhizophora apiculata BL. Rhizophoraceae NTRhizophora mucronata Lamk. Rhizophoraceae LCSapium indicum Willd. (Syn Excoecaria indica) Euphorbiaceae VUSonneratia alba J. Smith Sonneratiaceae ENSonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engler Sonneratiaceae LCXylocarpus granatum König Meliaceae ENScyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.f. Rubiaceae VU*Not reported in Jayatissa et al., 2002. This is a new addition by Jayatissa (pers.comm)Mangrove forests rank among the most threatened of coastal habitats, particularly fordeveloping countries in tropical regions (Saenger et al., 1983). The major human impacts havebeen identified as filling for land-based development, and deforestation for wood products, toaccommodate aquaculture or to established harbor facilities (Hather et al.,1989). It is reportedthat mangrove areas have been reduced by 20% to 75% in many developing tropical countriesin the northern Indian Ocean, South East Asia and the Caribbean during the last century.Hence, a figure of 1% decline per year has been given as a conservative estimate for theAsia Pacific region (Ong 1995). Due to continued disturbance, altered soil conditions andlimited dispersal, natural recovery may be slow (Kaly 1998). Mangrove preservation has beenrecognized as a high priority in local management plans for developing countries (Eong 1991).Although studies on mangroves particularly in Sri Lanka is comparatively low, a substantialamount of research on the mangrove forests in the world has been done over the last few198

decades, aiming at increasing the understanding of the ecology of this important ecosystemand providing information for sustainable management. Although much has been learned fromthem, significant gaps still exist in our understanding of the ecology of these systems, andparticularly, of the likely effects of climate change.If the impacts of climate-change will not be considered now, the efforts on mangrove protectionand conservation may just be wasted in the long-run. Hence it is recommended to continue thestudies on mangroves aiming for protection, conservation and sustainable use, with particularemphasis on likely impacts of climate change.ReferencesArulchelvam, K. (1968). In: Mangroves. Ceylon forester, VIII (3 & 4): 1-34p.Ball, M. C. (1988). Salinity tolerance in the mangroves Aegiceras corniculatum and Avicennia marina I. Water usein relation to growth, carbon partitioning and salt balance. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology . 461-496.Cormier – Salem, M. C. (1994). Dynamique et usages de la mangrove dans les pays des Riviéresdu Sud (duSénégal á la Sierra Leone). Paris, Orstomcoll, Colloques et Séminaries 352-353pp.Cormier – Salem, M. C. (1994). Dynamique et usages de la mangrove dans les pays des Riviéresdu Sud (duSénégal á la Sierra Leone). Paris, Orstomcoll, Colloques et Séminaries 352-353pp.De Silva, K. H. G. M. and Balasubramaniam, S. (1984). Some ecological aspects of the mangroves on the westcoast of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science. (Bio-science). 17-18: 22 – 36.Eong, O. J. and Khoon, G. W. (1991). Mangroves. In: The state of nature conservation in Malaysia. (Ed, R. Kiew).Malayan Nature Society. IDRC-CRDI 22-28pp.Hather, B. G., Johannes, R. E. and Robertson, A. I. (1989). Review of research relevant to the conservation ofshallow tropical marine ecosystems. Oceanography. Marine Biology Annual Review. 27: 337-414.Jayatissa, L. P., Dahdouh – Guebas, F., Koedam, N. (2002). A review of the floral composition and distribution ofmangroves in Sri Lanka. Journal of Linnaean Society. 138: 29 – 43.Kaly, U. L. and Jones, G. P. (1998). Mangrove restoration; a potential tool for coastal management in tropicaldeveloping countries. Ambio. 27(8):656-661.Ong, J. E. (1995). The ecology of mangrove conservation and management. Hydrobiologia. 295: 343-351.Saenger, P., Hegerl, E. J. and Davie, J. D. S. (1983). Global status of mangrove ecosystem. The Environmentalists:Supplement 3, 49pp.Tomilson, P. B. (Ed). (1986). The Botany of mangroves. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, U. K.199

Present Status of Family Orchidaceae in Sri LankaR.H.S. Suranjan FernandoPost Graduate Institute of Sciences, Peradeniya and Center for Applied Biodiversity Researchand EducationIntroductionFamily Orchidaceae is a one of the largest flowering plant families in the world, containing about25,000 -30,000 species. The family has a worldwide distribution except in the Polar Regions.The highest species diversity is recorded in the tropical areas, particularly in rainforests andassociated ecosystems.In Sri Lanka, Orchidaceae is among the largest families in the country with 189 known species,belonging to 78 genera, including 55 endemic species (Fernando and Ormerod, 2008; SotoArenas and Cribb, 2010). All these species are herbs or small shrubs, having epiphytic orterrestrial life forms. Few species are found as Mycoheterotrophic and some as climbers.Orchids grow in many habitat types, with the highest representation in diverse ecosystemsfound in the wet zone.History of Sri Lankan orchid researchAlthough Paul Hermann’s (1646-1695) collection contained two orchid species, orchiddiscoveries in Sri Lanka were made largely during the British colonial period, after theestablishment of the Botanical Gardens in the country. The early Superintendents of RoyalBotanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Alexander Moon (1817-1825) and James Macrae (?-1830)made many orchid collections, among other plant species, and sent them to England.Subsequent Superintendents and Directors of Botanic Gardens, George Gardner (1812-1849), G. H. K.Thwaites (1812-1882) and Henry Trimen (1843- 1896) collected and describedthe majority of Sri Lankan orchids. Many specimens sent to Kew are included in J. D. Hooker's(1817-1911) monumental work on the Flora of British India series in which he has describedand stated their distribution in relation to the Indian sub continent.The most recent comprehensive taxonomic work was done by D.M.A. Jayaweera in the late1970s (published in1981).TaxonomyThe most recent systematic treatment of Sri Lankan orchids was conducted by Jayaweera(1981) three decades ago. Fernando and Ormerod, in 2008, presented an updated checklistusing available literature and referringto some herbarium specimens. According to the abovechecklist, the following deviations from Jayaweera's treatment were significant: i) many namechanges with reference to some global and regional generic treatments, ii) marked reductionof a number of Sri Lankan endemic species due to many regional findings, especially fromthe Indian sub-continent and iii) increased number of total species by addition to many newspecies to the country's list.200

Currently, at a global level, new knowledge in molecular taxonomy has created a vast leap ininformation, leading to dramatic changes in orchid taxonomy and classification. Developmentof the regional botanical surveys in neighboring countries also has led to new knowledge onspecies entities and their distribution patterns. However, at present, the majority of Sri Lankanspecies have not been subjected to such new revisions. Fernando and Ormerod (2008) statedmany such taxonomic discrepancies which need further studies using cross comparativemodern taxonomic revisions along with other congeners.Along with their generic treatments, some of the Sri Lankan taxa have been recently revised,using records and specimens deposited in other herbaria. In most of the recent global revisions,Sri Lankan materials have been omitted due to difficulty of access to specimens. Very fewspecies of Sri Lankan orchids are subjected to modern taxonomic treatments.DistributionThe distribution of family Orchidaceae has mostly correlated with the distribution pattern of themain bioclimatic zones which is governed by the amount and intensity of rainfall and altitude.Dry zone: The recorded lowest number of orchid species (ca15).Vanda tessellata, Vanillawalkeriae and Habenaria plantaginea, have been recorded as the most dominant species.There are no zonal restricted species to this zone.Intermediate zone: This zone lies between the dry and wet zones. The recorded orchid diversityis much higher than the dry zone (ca 28) Oberonia thwaitesii, and Luisia birchea, can beconsidered as restricted to this zone. The eastern part of intermediate zone is associated withthe Savannah grassland vegetation. The species like Rhynchostylis retusa, Aerides ringensand Habenaria roxburghii have been mainly recorded in the eastern part of the intermediatezone among grasslands.Low wet zone: With the aseasonally wet conditions, there is a rich variety of both epiphytesand ground orchids found in this zone (ca 80).Eria articulata, Bromheadia srilankensis, Phaius luridus, Cleisostoma tenuifolium andTaeniophyllum gilimalense are restricted species to low wet zone. The diversity of saprophyticorchids is also high in this zone.Lower mountain zone: This zone represents an altitudinal belt of 900 -1500m between thelow wet zone and montane zone. This area contains the highest orchid diversity with numerousendemics (ca 110) in Sri Lanka. The zonal restricted number of species is also high in this zoneBulbophyllum petiolare, Habenaria pterocarpa and Phreatia jayaweerae are some restrictedmembers to this zone.Montane zone: (ca 55) Area above 1500m has been recognized as this zone. In this zone,orchids are very common but have a lower diversity than the lower montane zone. The coolclimate adapted species are found in this region.Isolated Hills in dry and intermediate zones: These relatively small hills contain a richvariety of orchid diversity (ca 60), a combination of dry zone / intermediate zone species andwet zone species. The lower area of the hill is common with typical dry and intermediate zonespecies, while the hill-top contains mostly wet zone species including many endemics Ritigala,201

Monaragala, Kokagala and Doluwakanda are examples of such isolated hills. Phalaenopsismysorensis is recorded in such hill sites.ThreatsOrchids have complex and critical relationships with some other species in their habitat, suchas mycorrhizal association in their roots and flower adaptations for the attraction of a specificpollinator. Thus, mainly habitat related threats affect orchid survival.Habitat destruction: Spread of lowland tea cultivation to natural forest habitats significantlyaffect many lowland orchid species in the South Western wet zone.In the montane and submontane areas, forests and grasslands are cleared for vegetablecultivation, this being the main agriculture-based threat. Forest felling for firewood is anothermain issue for orchid survival. In the savannah forest of the Eastern Intermediate zone,encroachment for chena cultivation, illegal settlements and garbage dumping are the mainhabitat related threats to native orchid survival.Direct exploitation: Many showy orchids are collected for their flowers Phaius wallichii (Starorchid), Dendrobium maccarthiae (Vesak orchid), Rhynchostylis retusa (Fox tail), and Vandatessellata are commonly collected by growers and flower enthusiasts. Habenaria crinifera(Naarilatha), Ipsea speciosa (Nagamaru ala), Anoectochilus spp. (Wanaraja), Zeuxine spp.(Iruraja), are subjected to removal from the wild for medicinal purposes and due variousmythological beliefs connected to each species.Impact of invasive species: The spread of invasive species has created a considerable impactfor many orchid-rich habitats. Impact of Clusia rosea has been demonstrated as a highlyeffective invader threatening lower montane orchid habitats. Presently, around Ginigathhena,Hantana and Dolosbage and part of Peak Wilderness can be considered as a high impactareas. Similarly, in Rakwana hills, Psidium cattleianum spreading as monostands showssimilar habitat alternation. Invasion of Panicum maximum is one of the main threats facing thegrassland and savannah orchids.Pollution: Most species of the family are highly sensitive to environmental changes. Theexcessive use of agro chemicals is believed to have a considerable impact on the survival ofthe orchid populations. Mainly fungicides destroy the mycorrhizal fungi, and use of insecticideincreases harmful impact on orchid pollinators.The present National Red List summarizes how orchids are affected by all of the abovecombination of threats mentioned. Four species likely to be extinct (CR (PE)) have not beenrecorded for a considerable time but their possible habitats still remain to some extent. 16species are critically endangered for future extinction (CR), 54 species are categorized asendangered (EN) in the wild, and 60 spp. fall in the vulnerable category (VU). Most importantly,12 species could not be assessed due to uncertainty of present taxonomic positions or lack ofknowledge about their other ecological parameters (DD).202

Conservation prioritiesIn order to conserve wild orchids, there is a combination of actions needed to be taken.The most important conservation action regarding wild orchids is to identify a Protected Area(PA) network covering the habitats of all orchid species found in the country. At present, underthe PA system, most orchid rich PAs fall under proposed reserves (PR) or other state forests(OSF), which have the least legal protection. By combining geographical occurrence datacollected during the present red listing process, the Ministry of Environment together with theDepartments of Wildlife and Forest Conservation can recognize new thematic PA systemswhich highlight the orchid diversity among other biota. The establishment of a set of parkmanagement criteria by prioritizing orchid conservation is also needed for such thematic PAs.The establishmentof systematically planned ex-situ conservation centers is also of primeimportance. 90% of the indigenous orchid diversity can be protectedin this manner. Presently,there are no ex-situ conservation centers for indigenous orchids apart from a few private adhoc collections. The botanic garden network distributed throughout the country is the mostviable institution for this task. Within such centers, other ecological and taxonomic researchescan also be implemented.Presently, there is adequate legal protection for native orchids, the whole family beingprotected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (Amend. Act No 2 of 2009). Underthe Forest Ordinance, Extraordinary Gazette Notification No. 05.12.2005 issued by The ForestDepartment, orchids are forest produce which require permission for any removal. Sri Lankais a ratified country under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES); all species of our orchids are under Appendix II which requirepermits in the case of exporting.However, due to lack of awareness and knowledge on legal status and identification of nativeorchids, a significant weakening of the protection of the target group is observable. Therefore,the rise of awareness regarding orchids at all levels is important, primarily through lawenforcement officers.Research gaps and research needsApart from species identification and distribution records, all other types of researches relatedto orchids conducted in the country are inadequate. Among many other research areas needed,the following are some of the important aspects which require attention:• Comparable with current global orchid taxonomic knowledge, molecular basesystematic update of our endemic species is a prime need.• Studies on orchid habitats and their ecological requirements have not been conducted.Therefore, planned researches on understanding habitat and ecology conditions,phenology patterns and interactions of pollinators and associations with mycorrhizalspecies are needed.• Studies on effects of climate change and environmental sensitivity on native orchidsare also needed.203

Conclusions and recommendations:The nomenclature and enrich the collection in the National Herbarium should be updated.• The National Herbarium needs to be established as a CITES registered scientificinstitution facilitating loaning and exchanging of specimens to other herbaria in theworld.• The endemic species categorized as threatened under the present National RedListing Assessment, are important for inclusion in the Global Red List.ReferencesJayaweera, D. M. A. 1981. Apostasiaceae and Orchidaceae.In: Dassanayake M.D. & Fosberg, F.R. A Revisedhandbook to the flora of Ceylon. 2:1-320.Fernando S. S. and P. Ormerod (2008) An Annotated checklist of the Orchids of Sri Lanka.Rheedea 18 (1) 1-28.204

Table 15: Summary of the Status of Angiosperms of Sri Lanka(Endemics are shown in bracket)Family EX EWCR(PE)CR EN VU NT DD LCTotalThreatenedTotalSpeciesAcanthaceae 1 (1) 15 (10) 11 (5) 17 (12) 12 (5) 7 (4) 2 40 (4) 40 (22) 105 (41)Achariaceae 3 (3) 0 3 (3)Adoxaceae 2 2 2Aizoaceae 2 2 0 4Alismataceae 1 1 1 2Amaranthaceae 2 (1) 2 2 (1) 2 10 9 6 (1) 27 (2)Amaryllidaceae 1 1 2 3 4 7Anacardiaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 6 (5) 1 (1) 8 (6) 9 (7) 19 (15)Ancistrocladaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)Anisophyllaceae 1 0 1Annonaceae 1 (1) 3 (1) 5 (3) 11 (7) 7 (3) 13 (4) 17 (11) 40 (19)Apiaceae 2 (1) 1 1 (1) 2 1 2 4 (1) 9 (2)Apocynaceae 6 (2) 6 (3) 15 (2) 13 (4) 4 (1) 2 22 (2) 33 (9) 68 (14)Aponogetonaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 4 (2) 4 (2)Aquifoliaceae 2 (1) 1 1 2 (1) 4 (1)Araceae 1 11 (7) 12 (9) 5 (4) 3 2 10 (1) 28 (20) 44 (21)Araliaceae 1 1 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 2 3 (2) 8 (3)Arecaceae 5 (5) 8 (5) 1 2 13 (10) 16 (10)Aristolochiaceae 1 2 0 3Asclepiadaceae 5 5 12 4 1 1 11 21 39Asparagaceae 4 2 (1) 2 3 3 8 (1) 14 (1)Asteraceae 1 (1) 4 (3) 1 (1) 12 (5) 21 (10) 13 (5) 3 31 (4) 34 (16) 86 (29)Balanophoraceae 1 1 1Balsaminaceae 2 (2) 3 (2) 5 (4) 8 (4) 3 (2) 3 (1) 16 (10) 24 (15)Basellaceae 1 1 1Begoniaceae 1 2 (1) 1 1 4 (1) 5 (1)Berberidaceae 3 (1) 3 3 (1)Bignoniaceae 1 3 0 4Boraginaceae 3 (1) 1 2 4 1 1 9 7 21 (1)Burmanniaceae 2 (1) 1 1 1 4 (1) 5 (1)Burseraceae 1 1 1 (1) 2 2 (1) 5 (1)Buxaceae 2 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1)Cactaceae 1 1 1Calophyllaceae 2 (2) 3 (2) 5 (5) 2 (1) 4 (2) 10 (9) 16 (12)Campanulaceae 2 1 1 5 1 9Cannabaceae 1 4 1 5Capparaceae 1 4 1 3 6 6 15Caprifoliaceae 2 (1) 2 4 (1) 4 (1)Caryophyllaceae 2 2 1 1 2 4 3 12205

Family EX EWCR(PE)CR EN VU NT DD LCTotalThreatenedTotalSpeciesCelastraceae 1 (1) 9 (3) 3 (2) 3 (2) 7 (3) 12 (5) 23 (11)Centroplacaceae 1 2 (2) 0 3 (2)Ceratophyllaceae 1 0 1Chloranthaceae 1 0 1Cleomaceae 1 5 1 6Clusiaceae 3 (3) 2 (1) 2 1 (1) 5 (4) 8 (5)Colchicaceae 2 0 2Combretaceae 1 1 3 5 1 10Commelinaceae 2 2 (1) 11 (1) 8 5 (1) 11 21 (2) 39 (3)Connaraceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 2 1 (1) 5 (2)Convolvulaceae 2 1 (1) 5 (1) 8 2 3 20 (2) 14 (2) 41 (4)Cornaceae 2 (2) 2 (1) 1 1 4 (3) 6 (3)Costaceae 1 0 1Crassulaceae 1 1 1 2Crypteroniaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)Cucurbitaceae 3 (1) 3 8 1 9 11 24 (1)Cymodoceaceae 3 0 3Cyperaceae 16 (1) 7 (5) 27 (5) 28 14 3 73 62 (10) 168 (11)Daphniphyllaceae 1 1 1Dichapetalaceae 1 (1) 1 0 2 (1)Dilleniaceae 3 (3) 4 (4) 3 (2) 5 (1) 10 (9) 15 (10)Dioscoreacea 2 (2) 2 1 1 3 4 (2) 9 (2)Dipterocarpaceae 1 (1) 14 (14) 24 (24) 18 (18) 1 (1) 56 (56) 58 (58)Droseraceae 1 2 3 3Ebenaceae 1 (1) 15 (12) 7 (4) 3 1 5 (1) 23 (17) 32 (18)Elaeagnaceae 1 0 1Elaeocarpaceae 5 (5) 2 (2) 1 (1) 1 7 (7) 9 (8)Elatinaceae 1 1 0 2Ericaceae 1 2 (1) 3 (1) 3 (1)Eriocaulaceae 2 (2) 4 (3) 2 (2) 6 (3) 1 6 12 (8) 21 (10)Erythroxylaceae 1 2 2 (1) 1 5 (1)Euphobiaceae 5 (2) 1 4 (2) 10 (4) 4 (1) 5 40 (7) 15 (6) 69 (16)Fabaceae 1 (1) 14 (1) 18 (2) 23 (3) 31 (1) 27 (3) 22 85 (2) 72 (6) 221 (13)Flacourtiaceae 2 (2) 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (3) 4 (4)Flagellariaceae 1 0 1Gentianaceae 1 (1) 1 7 (4) 4 (1) 3 (1) 2 12 (5) 18 (7)Geraniaceae 1 1 1Gesneriaceae 1 (1) 3 (3) 8 (5) 1 12 (9) 13 (9)Gisekiaseae 1 0 1Goodeniaceae 1 1 0 2Haloragaceae 1 (1) 1 1 1 2 4 (1)Hernandiaceae 1 1 1 2Hydrocharitaceae 1 2 3 1 6 3 13206

Family EX EWCR(PE)CR EN VU NT DD LCTotalThreatenedTotalSpeciesHydroleaceae 1 0 1Hypericaceae 1 1 1 2Hypoxidaceae 1 1 1 2Icacinaceae 2 1 2 3Juncaceae 2 1 2 3Lamiaceae 6 (2) 2 (2) 4 8 (3) 10 (3) 6 34 (5) 14 (5) 70 (15)Lauraceae 2 1 9 (7) 17 (15) 5 (4) 6 (3) 27 (22) 40 (29)Lecythidaceae 1 4 0 5Lentibulariaceae 1 2 4 (1) 2 1 5 7 (1) 15 (1)Linaceae 1 1 1 2Lindernaceae 1 2 (2) 2 (1) 4 7 5 (3) 16 (3)Loganiacea 1 (1) 4 (2) 3 (1) 1 4 (2) 9 (4)Loranthaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (3) 7 (4) 4 (2) 5 11 (8) 21 (11)Lythraceae 1 2 1 5 1 6 4 16Magnoliaceae 1 1 1Malpighiaceae 1 1 1 2Malvaceae 3 3 (1) 8 (3) 7 (2) 8 42 (3) 19 (6) 71 (9)Marantaceae 2 (1) 1 1 3 (1)Melastomataceae 2 (2) 11 (10) 38 (31) 10 (7) 5 (4) 5 (3) 59 (48) 71 (57)Meliaceae 2 (1) 2 3 (1) 2 4 7 (2) 13 (2)Menispermaceae 3 5 1 4 8 13Menyanthaceae 2 2 2 4Molluginaceae 1 5 1 6Monimiaceae 1(1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 3 (2) 3 (3)Moraceae 2 6 (1) 4 21 (3) 8 (1) 33 (4)Musaceae 2 2 2Myristicaceae 2 (1) 2 2 (1) 4 (1)Myrtaceae 4 (4) 11 (10) 4 (4) 12 (10) 5 (4) 1 (1) 19 (13) 26 (24) 56 (46)Nelumbonaceae 1 0 1Nepenthaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)Nyctaginaceae 1 3 0 4Nymphaeaceae 1 1 1 2Ochnaceae 4 (1) 0 4 (1)Olacaceae 2 (1) 1 1 2 2 (1) 6 (1)Oleaceae 1 1 2 (1) 6 3 (1) 10 (1)Onagraceae 1 4 0 5Opiliaceae 2 0 2Orchidaceae 4 (1) 16 (6) 54 (24) 60 (12) 26 (4) 12 (3) 12 130 (42) 184 (50)Orobanchaceae 2 (1) 2 7 (2) 2 3 2 11 (2) 18 (3)Oxalidaceae 1 1 1 2 2 5Pandanaceae 1 2 (2) 2 (1) 2 3 (2) 7 (3)Papaveraceae 1 0 1Passifloraceae 1 1 1 2207

Family EX EWCR(PE)CR EN VU NT DD LCTotalThreatenedTotalSpeciesPedaliaceae 1 2 1 3Pentaphylaceae 5 (2) 1 (1) 1 6 (3) 7 (3)Phrymaceae 1 1 1Phyllanthaceae 3 (2) 2 5 (5) 9 (4) 6 (3) 2 (1) 42 (12) 16 (9) 69 (27)Picrodendraceae 1 0 1Piperaceae 1 (1) 3 (1) 4 2 (1) 2 (1) 7 (1) 12 (4)Pittosporaceae 1 1 1 2Plantaginaceae 3 (1) 3 2 (1) 3 12 3 23 (2)Plumbaginaceae 1 0 1Poaceae 10 (5) 10 (4) 27 (5) 44 (4) 20 (1) 31 (2) 120 (1) 81 (13) 262 (22)Podestemaceae 1 1 2 3 (2) 6 (2) 7 (2)Polygalaceae 4 (3) 2 2 2 5 (1) 6 (3) 15 (4)Polygonaceae 5 7 0 12Pontederiaceae 1 1 0 2Portulacaceae 1 4 1 5Potamogetonaceae 3 0 3Primulaceae 2 (1) 5 (1) 4 (2) 4 (1) 9 (4) 11 (4) 24 (9)Proteaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1)Putranjivaceae 2 (1) 1 (1) 3 (1) 2 (1) 6 (3)Ranunculaceae 2 1 3 (1) 1 4 (1) 7 (1)Rhamnaceae 1 (1) 1 2 (1) 4 6 (1) 4 (2) 14 (3)Rhizophoraceae 1 2 (1) 2 3 2 5 (1) 10 (1)Rosaceae 1 (1) 1 4 5 1 5 (1) 5 17 (2)Rubiaceae 15 (12) 8 (5) 27 (21) 39 (25) 24 (17) 8 (3) 58 (19) 74 (51) 179 (102)Ruppiaceae 1 0 1Rutaceae 5 3 2 (1) 19 (1) 7 29 (2)Sabiaceae 2 2 2Salicaceae 1 (1) 1 (1) 1 1 6 (2) 3 (2) 10 (4)Salvadoraceae 1 1 0 2Sapindaceae 2 3 (1) 1 (1) 2 3 (2) 6 (2) 11 (4)Sapotaceae (1) 1 (7) 4 (8) 1 12 5 (16) 18 (16)Schizandraceae 1 9 11 3 1 21 25Scrophulariaceae 1 1 1Sentalaceae 2 (1) 1 2 (1) 3 (1)Simaroubaceae 1 1 1 2 3Smilacaceae 1 2 1 3Solanaceae 2 5 4 2 11Sphenocleaceae 1 0 1Staphyleaceae 1 0 1Stemonaceae 1 0 1Stemonuraceae 1 2 (1) 1 3 (1)Stylidiaceae 1 0 1Surianaceae 1 0 1208

Family EX EWCR(PE)CR EN VU NT DD LCTotalThreatenedTotalSpeciesSymplocaceae 3 (1) 7 (6) 2 (2) 1 12 (9) 13 (9)Tamaricaceae 1 1 0 2Tetramelaceae 1 0 1Theaceae 4 (4) 1 4 (4) 5 (4)Thymelaeaceae 1 1 2 1 4Triuridaceae 1 1 1 2 3Typhaceae 1 0 1Ulmaceae 1 0 1Urticaceae 6 (1) 2 4 7 2 1 5 (1) 13 27 (2)Vahliaceae 1 1 1Verbanaceae 1 1 0 2Violaceae 2 (1) 1 1 (1) 2 2 3 (1) 8 (2)Vitaceae 2 4 (1) 11 (2) 2 17 (3)Xanthorrhoeaceae 1 0 1Xyridaceae 1 1 1 1 2 4Zingiberaceae 5 (4) 6 (4) 6 (4) 2 (1) 1 1 12 (8) 21 (13)Zygophyllaceae 1 0 1Total 5 (4) 2 (2)177(72)218(102)552(272)615(220)350(83)143(10)1,091(130)1,385(594)3,154(894)209

Table 16: List of Gymnosperms in Sri LankaFamily/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : CycadaceaeCycas zeylanica (J.Schust.)A.Lindstr. & K.D.HillMaha MaduCR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii) VU A2bcCycas nathorstii J.Schust. Madu VU A2cd+ B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU A2cd; C1Table 17: List of Angiosperms in Sri Lanka(Endemic species are marked in Bold letters and global categories older than 3.1 are marked as i )Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : AcanthaceaeAcanthus ilicifolius L. S: Ikili, Katu-Ikili LC LCAndrographis alata (Vahl) Nees LCAndrographis echioides (L.) Nees S: Hakan LCAndrographis macrobotrys Nees CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall.ex NeesS: Heen-Bin-Kohomba;T: NilavempuCR(PE)Asystasia chelonoides Nees LCAsystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anders.S: Puruk;T: PeypatchottiLCAsystasia variabilis (Nees) Trimen LCAvicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.Avicennia officinalis L.T: Kannamaram, Kanna,Vendanda, Venkandal,KanamaramE: White Mangrove;T: Kanna, UpathaLC LCNT LCBarleria arnottiana Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Barleria involucrata Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Barleria lanceata (Forssk.) C.Chr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Barleria mysorensis RothS: Katu-Nelu;T: Ikkiri, Kikkiri, Kiri-MullaBarleria nitida Nees CRLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Barleria nutans Nees CR(PE)Barleria prionitis L.Barleria strigosa Willd.S: Katu-Karanda, Katu-KaranduBarleria tomentosa Roth ENLCCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)210

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaBarleria vestita T.Anders. ENBlepharis integrifolia (L.f.) E. Meyer exKraussBlepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Roth LCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Brillantaisia thwaitesii (T. Anders.)CramerCR(PE)Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees LCDicliptera neesii (Trimen) Cramer NTDicliptera zeylanica Nees VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dipteracanthus patulus (Jacq.) Nees LCDipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees S:Nil-Puruk LCDyschoriste depressa Nees T: Paduvan, Padvan LCDyschoriste madurensis (Brum.f.) Kuntze T: Paraddai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ecbolium ligustrinum (Vahl) Vollesen LCElytraria acaulis (L.f.) Lindau LCEranthemum capense L. LCGymnostachyum ceylanicum Arn. &NeesGymnostachyum hirsutum T.Anders. ENGymnostachyum paniculatum T.Anders.Gymnostachyum sanguinolentum(Vahl) T. Anders.Gymnostachyum thwaitesii T. Anders. CR(PE)ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hemiadelphis polysperma (Roxb.) Nees ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hemigraphis latebrosa (Roth) Nees DDHygrophila balsamica (L.f.) Raf. LCHygrophila helodes Heine DDHygrophila ringens (L.) R. Br. ex Steud. S:Nil-Puruk LCHygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. &S. N. AlmeidaJusticia adhathoda L.S: Katu-Ikiriya; T:Nirmulli LC LCE: Malabar Nut; S: Agal-Adara, Wenepala;T: Adhatodai, PavettaiLC211

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaJusticia betonica L. S: Sudu Puruk LCJusticia capitata (T.Anders. ex Hook.f.)CramerCR(PE)Justicia ceylanica (Nees) T. Anders. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Justicia diffusa Willd. LCJusticia glabra Koenig ex Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Justicia hookeriana (Nees) T.Anders. NTJusticia procumbens L. S: Mayani LCJusticia prostrata (Clarke) Gamble ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Justicia royeniana (Nees) Clarke NTJusticia tranquebariensis L. f. LCLepidagathis ceylanica Nees CR(PE)Lepidagathis fasciculata (Retz.) Nees LCLepidagathis hyalina Nees CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lepidagathis walkeriana Nees ENMonothecium aristatum (Wall. ex Nees)T.Anders.B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCPseuderanthemum angustifolium Ridley CRPseuderanthemum latifolium (Vahl)HansenPtyssiglottis sanguinolenta (Vahl)B.HansenRhinacanthus flavovirens Amarasinghe& WijesundaraRhinacanthus nasutus (L.) KurzRhinacanthus polonnaruwensisCramerS: Anitta;T: NagamulliNTCR(PE)Rungia apiculata Beddome CR(PE)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCLCRungia longifolia Nees S: Gada-Puruk VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees LCRungia repens (L.) Nees S: Sulu-Nayi LC212

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaStaurogyne zeylanica (Nees) Kuntze CR(PE)Stenosiphonium cordifolium (Vahl) Alston S:Bu-Nelu, Nelu; T: Nelu LCStrobilanthes adenophora Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Strobilanthes anceps Nees LCStrobilanthes arnottiana Nees CR(PE)Strobilanthes calycina Nees LCStrobilanthes caudata T.Anders. EXStrobilanthes deflexa T.Anders. CR(PE)Strobilanthes diandra (Nees) Alston NTStrobilanthes exserta C.B.Clarke ENStrobilanthes gardneriana (Nees)T.Anders.Strobilanthes habracanthoidesJ.R.I.WoodStrobilanthes helicoides (Nees)T.Anders.CR(PE)ENENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Strobilanthes hookeri Nees LCStrobilanthes hypericoides J.R.I.Wood CR(PE)Strobilanthes laxa T.Anders. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Strobilanthes lupulina Nees LCStrobilanthes nigrescens T.Anders. CR(PE)Strobilanthes nockii Trimen ENStrobilanthes pentandra J.R.I.Wood CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Strobilanthes pulcherrima T.Anders. LCStrobilanthes punctata Nees ENStrobilanthes rhamnifolia (Nees)T.Anders.Strobilanthes rhytisperma C.B.Clarke CRCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Strobilanthes sexennis (Nees) T.Anders. LCStrobilanthes stenodon Clarke ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)213

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaStrobilanthes thwaitesii T.Anders. CR(PE)Strobilanthes vestita Nees ENStrobilanthes viscosa (Arn. ex Nees)T.Anders.LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Strobilanthes walkeri Arn. ex Nees NTStrobilanthes willsii Canine CRStrobilanthes zeylanica T.Anders. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. LCThunbergia laevis Wall. ex Nees S: Saban-Pichcha ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : AchariaceaeHydnocarpus octandra Thw. S: Wal-Divul, Wal-Dul LC VU i A1cHydnocarpus venenata Gaertn. S: Makulu; T: Makul LCTrichadenia zeylanica Thw.S: Keti-Kesali, Hal-Milla,Tetti-Gas,Titta-Eta,Titta,TololLC VU i A1cFamily : AdoxaceaeViburnum cylindricum Buch.-Ham. exD.DonViburnum erubescens Wall. ex DC. ENENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : AizoaceaeSesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L.Trianthema decandra L.S: Maha-Sarana;T: VankiruvilaiS: Maha-Sarana;T: CharaniaNTNTTrianthema portulacastrum L. S: Heen-Sarana LCTrianthema triquetra Rottler ex Willd. LCFamily : AlismataceaeCaldesia oligococca (F. Muell.) Buchenau CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCLimnophyton obtusifolium (L.) Miq. LC LCFamily : AmaranthaceaeAchyranthes aspera L.S: Gas-Karal-Heba, Wel-Karal-Sebo, Gaskaralheba,Karalsebo, Wal-Karal-Heba;T: NayururiLC214

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaAchyranthes bidentata Blume ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Achyranthes diandra Roxb. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Aerva javanica (Burm f.) Juss. ex Schult.S: Pol-Kudu-Pala, Pol-Pala;T: Sirm-PulaiCR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. S: Pol-Kudu-Pala, Pol- Pala LCAllmania nodiflora (L.) R.Br. ex Wight S: Wenni-Wella, Kumatiya LCAlternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.Amaranthus spinosus L.Amaranthus viridis L.S: Mukunu-wenna,Mugunuwenna;T: PonankaniS: Katu-Tampala, Thampala,Katukera, Kura-Tampala; T:MudkiraiS: Kuru-Tampala, Kura-Tampala, Sulukura;T: AraikkiraiLC LCLCLCAtriplex repens Roth T: Elichchevi NTCelosia argentea L. S: Kiri-Henda LCCelosia polygonoides Retz. LCCelosia pulchella Moq. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Centrostachys aquatica (R. Br.) Wall. exMoq.CR(PE)Cyathula ceylanica Hook. f. CR(PE)Cyathula prostrata (L.) BlumeS: Bin- Karal-Heba, Bin-KaralseboVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Digera muricata (L.) Mart. T: Toggil NTHalosarcia indica (Willd.) P.G.Wilson T: Kotanai NTNothosaerva brachiata (L.) Wight S: Tampala; T: Chirupilai NTPsilotrichum elliotii Baker NTPsilotrichum scleranthum Thw. NTPupalia lappacea (L.) Juss.S: Wel-Karal-Heba;T: Kummidil, Pichu KodiyaLCSalicornia brachiata Roxb. NTSuaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. T: Umiri, Umuddi, Umunddi NTSuaeda monoica Forssk. ex J.F.Gmelin NT215

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSuaeda vermiculata Forssk. ex J.F.Gmelin T: Umiri, Umuddi, Umunddi NTTrichurus monsoniae (L. f.) C.C. Towns. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : AmaryllidaceaeAllium hookeri Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Crinum asiaticum L. S: Tolabo; T: Vichamunkil LCCrinum defixum Ker-Gawl. S: Heen-Tolabo LCCrinum latifolium L. S: Goda-Manel VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Crinum zeylanicum (L.) L. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Pancratium biflorum Roxb. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pancratium zeylanicum L. S: Wal-Lunu LCFamily : AnacardiaceaeBuchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramamoorthy S: Kiri-Palu; T: Kolamau EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Campnosperma zeylanicum Thw. S: Aridda LCLannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. S: Hik; T: Odi LCMangifera pseudoindica Kosterm. CR(PE)Mangifera zeylanica (Blume) Hook.f.S: Et-Amba, Wal- Amba;T: Kaddu-MaLC VU i A1cNothopegia beddomei Gamble S: Andum Telageddi, Bala LCSemecarpus acuminata Thw. S: Badulla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cSemecarpus coriacea Thw. S: Badulla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cSemecarpus gardneri Thw. S: Badulla LC VU i A1cSemecarpus marginata Thw. NT VU i A1cSemecarpus moonii Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1c, B1+2cSemecarpus nigro-viridis Thw. LC VU i A1cSemecarpus obovata Moon S: Kalu-Badulla ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU iA1c, B1+2cSemecarpus parvifolia Thw. LC VU i A1cSemecarpus pseudo-emarginataKosterm.CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR i B1+2c216

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSemecarpus pubescens Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cSemecarpus subpeltata Thw. S: Maha-Badulla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cSemecarpus walkeri Hook.f. LC VU i A1cSpondias pinnata (L.f.) KurzFamily : AncistrocladaceaeE: Hog Plum; S: Wal-Amberella; T:AmpallaiVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ancistrocladus hamatus (Vahl) Gilg S: Gona-Wel, Yakada-Wel ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family :AnisophyllaceaeAnisophyllea cinnamomoides(Gardner & Champ.) AlstonS: Weli-Piyana NTFamily : AnnonaceaeAlphonsea hortensis H. Huber EWAlphonsea sclerocarpa Thw. NTAlphonsea zeylanica Hook .f. & Thoms. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Anaxagorea luzonensis A. Gray CR(PE)Artabotrys hexapetalus (L.f.) Bhandari S: Yakada-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Artabotrys zeylanicus Hook.f. & Thoms.Cyathocalyx zeylanica Champ. ex Hook.f. & Thoms.Desmos elegans (Thw.) SaffordDesmos zeylanica (Hook.f. & Thoms.)SaffordEnicosanthum acuminata (Thw.) AiryShawGoniothalamus gardneri Hook.f. &Thoms.S: Kalu-Bambara-Wel,Patika-Wel, Yakada-WelLCS: i-Petta, Kekala, Kotala LCS: Kudu-mirissa, Kukurmana(Kukuruman)S: Ini-Pettu, I-Pettu, Mal-Lawulu, MaloluVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)NTLCS: Kalu-Kera VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cGoniothalamus hookeri Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1c, B1+2cGoniothalamus salicina Hook.f. &Thoms.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Goniothalamus thomsonii Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Goniothalamus thwaitesii Hook.f. &Thoms.S: Kalu-Kera NTMiliusa indica Leschen. ex A. DC. S: Kekili-Messa LCMiliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)217

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMiliusa zeylanica Gardner ex Hook.f. &Thoms.Mitrephora heyneana (Hook.f. & Thoms.)Thw.Orophea zeylanica Hook.f. & Thoms. CR(PE)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cNTPhoenicanthus coriacea (Thw.) H.Huber ENPhoenicanthus obliqua (Hook.f. &Thoms.) AlstonNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Beddome S: Patta-Ul-Kenda LCPolyalthia coffeoides (Thw. ex Hook.f. &Thoms.) Thw.Polyalthia korinti (Dunal) Thw.Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw.S: Omara;T: Katilla, NedunariS: Mi-Wenna, Ul-Kenda;T: UluvintaiS: Devadara, I-Petta, O-lila,O-wila; T: Assathi, Marai-Illipa, Mara-IluppaiLCLCLCPolyalthia moonii Thw. CR(PE)Polyalthia persicaefolia (Hook.f. &Thoms.) Thw.ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thw. S: Kalati; T: Kalatti EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Sageraea thwaitesii Hook.f. & Thoms. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN B1+2cSageraea zeylanica Heusden ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Uvaria cordata (Dunal) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Uvaria macropoda Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Attu-Muddah NTUvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. S: Pangan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Uvaria semecarpifolia Hook. f. & Thoms. S: Kara-Bambara LCUvaria sphenocarpa Hook. f. & Thoms. LCUvaria zeylanica L.S: Palanga, Palu-Kan;T: Kalu- Veppal, Karu-VeppalLCXylopia championii Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Dat-Ketiya LCXylopia nigricans Hook.f. & Thoms.Xylopia parvifolia (Wight) Hook. f. &Thoms.Family : ApiaceaeS: Heen-Kenda;T: See-VindaiS: Atu-Ketiya, Netawu;T: ChiddavintaiNTLCBupleurum ramosissimum Wight & Arn. S: Wal-Enduru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)218

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaBupleurum hakgalense Klack. ENCentella asiatica (L.) UrbanS: Gotukola, Heen-Gotukola;T: VallaraiHeracleum ceylanicum Gardner ex Clarke CRPeucedanum ceylanicum Gardner CR(PE)LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pimpinella heyneana Wall. S: Wal-Asamodagam LCPimpinella leschenaultii DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sanicula elata Ham. ex D.Don CR(PE)Trachyspermum stictocarpum (Clarke) H.WolffDDFamily : ApocynaceaeAganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G.Don S: Muwa-Kiri-Wel LCAlstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br.S: Ruk- Attana , Eth-mada;T:Elilaipattai, Elilaippalai,MukanpelaiLC LC iAnodendron paniculatum A.DC. S: As-Wel, Dul, Girandi-Ul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Anodendron rhinosporum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR i B1+2cBrachystelma lankana Dassanayake &JayasuriyaCalotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br.S: Ela-Wara, Hela-Wara,Wara, Mudu-Wara;T: Errukalai, Manakkovil,UrukkovilCRLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) Haw. T: Mankalli CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Caralluma umbellata Haw. S: Weluk EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Carissa carandas L.S: Maha-Karamba; T:Kalaka,PerunkilaDDCarissa Inermis Vahl VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Carissa spinarum L.S: Heen-Karamba;T: Chirukila, Chirukula, KilattiLCCatharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G.Don VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cerbera odollam Gaertn.S: Gon-Kaduru;T: Nangi-MaLCCeropegia candelabrum L. S: Muttu-Pala,Wel-Mottu LCCeropegia elegans Wall. ENA2; B1(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ceropegia juncea Roxb. DD219

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCeropegia parviflora Trimen CR(PE)Ceropegia taprobanica Huber CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ceropegia thwaitesii Hook. CR(PE)Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) AlstonS: Bu-Kiri-Wel, Eulu-Wel-Anguna, Bu-Wal-AngunaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cleghornia acuminata Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cosmotigma racemosum (Roxb.) Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptolepis buchananii Roem.& Schult. S: Wel-Rukattana, Kiri-Vel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cynanchum alatum Wight & Arn. ex Wight CR(PE)Cynanchum tunicatum (Retz.) Alston S: Kan-Kumbala ENA2;B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dischidia nummularia R. Br. CR(PE)Gymnema lactiferum (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. T: Kurinnan LCGymnema pergularioides (Thw.) Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Gymnema rotundatum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. exSchult.Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.Heterostemma tanjorense Wight & Arn.ex WightHolarrhena mitis (Vahl) Roem. & Schult.S: Mas-Bedde, Mas-Bedda,Muva-Kiri-VelS: Iramusu, Heen-Iramusu;T: NannariS: Kalinda, Kiri-Mawara,Kiri-WallaVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)LCVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Hoya ovalifolia Wight & Arn. ex Wight S : Gonu-Ke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hoya pauciflora Wight S: Heen -Aramessa ENHunteria zeylanica ( Retz.) Gardner exThw.Ichnocarpus frutescens ( L.) R. Br.Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.) Wight & Arn.ex WightMarsdenia brunoniana Wight & Arn. exWightS: Wal-Waraka, Mediya,Wal-MediyaS: Gerandi-Dul, Gerandi-Wel, Gopi, Priyawarna,Kiri-WelNTLCT: Pala, Palai LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)S: Et-Anguna EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon T: Muruva, Muruwa-Dul EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ochrosia oppositifolia (Lam.) Schum. S: Gonna, Mudu-Kaduru VUB1ab(I,ii,iii,v)+2ab(I,ii,iii,v)220

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaOxystelma esculentum (L.f.) R.Br. exSchult.Pagiantha dichotoma (Roxb.) MarkgrafParsonsia alboflavescens (Dennst.)Mabb.S: Usepale; T:Kulappalai LCE: Eve's Apple, ForbiddenFruit; S: Divi Kaduru; T: Nanthia-VattaiLCS: Kiri-Anguna, Val-anguna LCPentatropis capensis (L.f.) Bullock LCPergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov.Petchia ceylanica (Wight) LiveraRauvolfia densiflora (Wall.) Benth. exHook. f.Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex KurzSarcostemma brunonianum Wight & Arn.ex WightSecamone emetica (Retz.) R. Br. exSchult.S:Langali, Maha-Medahangu, Meda-Hangu,Wissani;T: Uttamakam,VeliparatiiS: Kukul-Kaduru, Vasa-Kaduru, Wal-KaduruS: Ekaweriya, Nakula, Rath-Ekaweriya;T: Chivan-Ampelpodi, Co-VannamilporiS:Muwakeeriya, Mudu-KandaLCNTLCENNTS: Mudu-Kiriya LCToxocarpus kleinii Wight & Arn. ex Wight ENTylophora cordifolia Thw. ENTylophora fasciculata Buch. -Ham. exWightTylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr. S: Mudu Bin-Nuga, Apa-Sith LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Tylophora multiflora (Wight & Arn. exWight) AlstonTylophora pauciflora Wight & Arn. exWightTylophora tenuissima (Roxb.) Wight &Arn. ex WightENENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tylophora zeylanica Decne. CR(PE)Vallaris solanacea (Roth) Kuntze ENWalidda antidysenterica (L.) M. PichonS: Sudu-Idda, Idda, Kelidha,Wal-iddaLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) StapfS: Kirianguna, Anguna,Thitha-Anguna, Anukkola;T:Kodi-Palai, KurinchaLCWillughbeia cirrhifera Abeywick. S: Kiri-Gedi, Kiri-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cWrightia angustifolia Thw. LC221

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaWrightia flavido-rosea Trimen CRWrightia puberula (Thw.) Ngan CR(PE)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb. T: Pal-Madankai NTFamily : AponogetonaceaeAponogeton crispus Thunb. S: Kekatiya VU A2d LCAponogeton jacobsenii Bruggen S: Kekatiya CR B1ab(I,ii,iii)Aponogeton natans (L.) Engler & Krause VU A2d LCAponogeton rigidifolius Bruggen S: Kekatiya, Kokati ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : AquifoliaceaeIlex denticulata Wall. ENIIex knucklesensis Philcox ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ilex walkeri Wight & Gardner ex Thw. LCIlex zeylanica (Hook. f.) Maxim. S: Andunwenna NTFamily : AraceaeAlocasia fornicata (Roxb.) Schott CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCAmorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.)Nicolson var. campanulatus (Decne)SivadasanAmorphophallus paeoniifolius var.paeoniifoliusCRS: Kidaran; T: Karunai DDB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth NTArisaema constrictum Barnes CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Arisaema leschenaultii Blume S: Wal-Kidaran VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott S: Wal-Kidaran ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott E: Taro; S: Gahala LC LCCryptocoryne alba de Wit CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptocoryne beckettii Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptocoryne bogneri Rataj CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptocoryne nevillii Trimen ex Hook.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)222

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCryptocoryne parva de Wit ENCryptocoryne thwaitesii Schott ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptocoryne undulata Wendt. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptocoryne walkeri Schott CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptocoryne waseri KettnerDDCryptocoryne wendtii de Wit VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptocoryne x willisii Reitz CRLagenandra bogneri de Wit S: Wana-Ketella ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lagenandra erosa de Wit CR A2dLagenandra jacobsenii de Wit ENLagenandra Koenigii (Schott) Thw. ENLagenandra lancifolia (Schott) Thw. S: Ati-Udayan ENA2d;B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)A2d;B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)A2d;B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lagenandra ovata (L.) Thw. S: Kethala LC LCLagenandra praetermissa de Wit S: Kethala LCLagenandra thwaitesii Engl. ENLasia spinosa (L.) Thw.S: Angili Kohila, Kohila,Maha-KohilaA2d;B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LC LCLemna gibba L. CR(PE) LCLemna perpusilla Torrey S: Diya-Panshi LC LCPistia stratiotes L.E: Water Lettuce;S: Diya-ParadelLCPothos hookeri Schott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pothos parvispadix Nicolson ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pothos remotiflorus Hook. VUPothos scandens L. S: Pota-Wel LCRemusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)223

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaRhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott S: Dada-Kehel, Wel-Kohila CRRhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott S: Nil-Walla, Nil-wella ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Spirodela polyrrhiza (L.) Schleid. LC LCTheriophonum minutum (Willd.) Baill. LCTyphonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) Blume S: Panu-Ala CRTyphonium roxburghii Schott S: Polong-Ala NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCTyphonium trilobatum (L.) Schott S: Panu-Ala LCWolffia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimm. ENFamily : AraliaceaeB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCAralia leschenaultii (DC.) J. Wen DDHydrocotyle javanica Thunb. S: Maha-Gotukola NTHydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. LCPolyscias acuminata (Wight) Seemann CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Schefflera emarginata (Moon) Harms VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Schefflera exaltata (Thw.) Frodin ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Schefflera hererobotrya Frodin S: Itha NTSchefflera stellata (Gaertn.) Baill.S: Itha, Itta, Itta-Wel, Maha-Itta-WaelaLCFamily : ArecaceaeAreca concinna Thw.S: Lenatheriya, Lenteri,Lenteri-PuwakENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Calamus delicatulus Thw. S: Nara-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calamus digitatus Becc. S: Kukulu-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calamus ovoideus Thw. ex TrimenS: Sudu-Wewel, Tambutu-Wel,ThudarenaCalamus pachystemonus Thw. S: Kukulu-Wel ENCalamus pseudotenuis Becc.S: Kola-Hangala, Heen-WewelENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calamus radiatus Thw. S: Kukulu-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calamus rivalis Thw. ex TrimenS: Ela-Wel, Ela-Wewel,Kaha-WewelVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)224

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCalamus rotang L.Calamus thwaitesii Becc.S: Heen-Wewel, Polonnaru-Wewel, Wewel; T: PirambuS: Kath-Wel, Ma-Wewel,Puwak-Wel;T: Periya PirambuNTVUA2d;B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calamus zeylanicus Becc. S: Thambotu-Wel EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Caryota urens L.Loxococcus rupicola (Thw.) H. Wendl.& DrudeNypa fruticans WurmbE: Fish Tail Palm; S: Kitul; T:Kitul TippilipanaS:Dothalu, Dotalu-Gas, Ran-DotaluE: Water Coconut;S:Gin-PolLCENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Oncosperma fasciculatum Thw. S: Katu-Kitul, Rata-Kitul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. S: Indi; T: Inchu LCFamily : AristolochiaceaeAristolochia bracteolata Lam.Aristolochia indica L.S: Sapsanda;T: Aduthinnapalai,AdutintappalaiE: Indian Birthworth;S: Sapsanda; T: Isuru, Neya,Perumarrrindu, Adagam,Isadesatti, Isuruver, Isurumli,Iyavari, Karudakkodi,Kirttikodi, Perumarindu,Perumaruntu, Perunkiarge,SasugadeNTLCThottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou S: Thapasara Bulath LCFamily : AsparagaceaeAsparagus falcatus L. S: Hatawariya LCAsparagus gonoclados Baker ENAsparagus racemosus Willd.S: Hathawariya;T: ChattavariChlorophytum heynei Rottler ex Baker CRLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Chlorophytum laxum R. Br. VU B2 ab (I,ii,iiiChlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker CR B2 ab (I,ii,iiiDipcadi montanum (Dalz.) Barker CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)225

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDracaena thwaitesii Regel NTDrimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop CRDrimia rupicola (Trimen) Dassanayake ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophiopogon intermedius D.Don LCSansevieria zeylanica (L.) Willd.E: Bow-String Hemp;S: Niyanda; T: MaralNTScilla hyacinthina (Routh) Macbridge NTFamily : AsteraceaeAdenostemma angustifolium Arn. DDAdenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze S: Laveniya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Adenostemma macrophyllum (Blume)DC.ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Adenostemma parviflorum (Blume) DC. DDAnaphalis brevifolia DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Anaphalis fruticosa Hook. f. CR(PE)Anaphalis marcescens (Wight) C.B.Clarke ENAnaphalis pelliculata Trimen ENAnaphalis pseudocinnamomeaGriersonAnaphalis subdecurrens (DC.) Gamble NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Anaphalis sulphurea (Trimen) Grierson NTAnaphalis thwaitesii C.B. Clarke NTAnaphalis zeylanica C.B. Clarke NTAnaphalis "species X" Grierson DDArtemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess. E: Mugwort; S: Wal-Kolondu LCBidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff LCBlainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson S: Agada,Tumba LCBlepharispermum petiolare DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Blumea angustifolia Thw. EX226

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaBlumea axillaris (Lam.) DC. S: Kukula LCBlumea barbata DC. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Blumea bifoliata (L.) DC. LCBlumea crinita Arn. CRBlumea hieracifolia var. flexuosa (D.Don)DC.Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Blumea membranacea Wall. ex DC. NTBlumea obliqua (L.) DruceS: Muda-Mahana;T: Nara-KarambaLCBlumea virens Wall. ex DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Blumea zeylanica (Hook.f.) Grierson CR(PE)Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.S: Kikirindi, Sindu-Kirindi;T: Kaikechi, Kaivichillai,Karichalankanni, KarippanLCElephantopus scaber L. S: Et-Adi; T: Anichovadi LCEmilia alstonii Fosberg LCEmilia baldwinii Fosberg NTEmilia exserta FosbergS: Hulan-Tala, Kadupara;T: Elunthani, Ilaip Patti,Inumpatti-Pillu, Musalkal-PilluLCEmilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. S: Kadu Pahara LCEmilia speeseae Fosberg VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Emilia zeylanica C.B.Clarke LCEpaltes divaricata (L.) Cass. S: Heen-Mudu-Mahana LCEpaltes pygmea DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Erigeron sublyratus DC. T: Nara-Karamba VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Glossogyne bidens (Retz.) Alston CR(PE)Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. NT227

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaGynura hispida Thw.Gynura lycopersicifolia DC.T: Mookuthi, Pangi Pillu,Singula Tunda,ThanduCheddi, Pattu-NalS: Hulan-Tala,Wal-Tampala; T:Mookuthi,PangiPillu,Singula Tunda,Thanducheddi,Pattu-NalVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCGynura zeylanica Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Helichrysum buddleioide DC. var.hookerianum (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Kleinia grandiflora (Wall. ex DC.) N.Rani LCLagenophora gracilis Steetz VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Laggera alata (D.Don) Sch. Bip. ex Oliver NTLaunaea intybacea (Jacq.) Beauv. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Launaea sarmentosa (Willd.) Sch. Bip. exKuntzeLCMoonia heterophylla Arn. NTMyriactis wightii DC. Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Notonia walkeri (Wight) C.B.Clarke ENPseudoconyza viscosa (Miller) D'Arcy ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Psiadia ceylanica (Arn.) Grierson S: Pupula LCSenecio corymbosus Wall. ex DC. LCSenecio gardneri (Thw.) C.B. Clarke CR(PE)Senecio ludens C. B. Clarke LCSenecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don NTSenecio zeylanicus DC. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sphaeranthus africanus L. S:Vel-Mudda LCSphaeranthus amaranthoides Burm.f. T: Chiva-Charantai ENSphaeranthus indicus L.Spilanthes calva DC.S: Aet-Maha-Mahana, MuduMahanaE:Toothache Plant; S:Maha-AkmellaLCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Spilanthes iabadicensis A. H. Moore LCSpilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC. LC228

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaVernonia anceps C. B. Clarke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham.Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.S: Kobo-Mella, Mal-GedumbaS: Mangul-Kumburu-Venna, Monara-Kudumbiya, Vatu-Pala;T: Chitiviyarchenkalainir,Neichatti-Kirai, NeichattiPillu, Neisudi-KiraiVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCVernonia gardneri Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Vernonia hookeriana Arn. NTVernonia lankana Grierson ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Vernonia nemoralis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Vernonia pectiniformis DC. subsp.puncticulata (DC.) GriersonENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Vernonia setigera Arn. NTVernonia thwaitesii C. B. Clarke ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Vernonia wightiana Arn. S: Konde VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Vernonia zeylanica (L.) LessS: Henn-Botiya, Papula,Pupula; T: Kappilay, Kuppilay LCVicoa indica (L.) DC. S: Ran-Hiriya LCWedelia biflora (L.) DC. S:Moodu-Gam-Palu LCWedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. S: Ranwan Kikirindi LCXanthium indicum KoenigS: Wal-Rambutang, Uru-KossaLCYoungia fuscipappa Thw. NTFamily : BalanophoraceaeBalanophora fungosa J. R. & G. Forst. CR A2cdFamily : BalsaminaceaeHydrocera triflora (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Diya Kudalu, Wal-kudalu LCImpatiens acaulis Arn. E:Balsam VUA2;B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens appendiculata Arn. NTImpatiens arnottii Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)229

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaImpatiens ciliifolia Grey- Wilson VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens cornigera Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens cuspidata Wight & Arn. subsp.bipartitaLCImpatiens elongata Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens flaccida Arn. S: Kudalu Mal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens grandis Heyne ex Wall. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens henslowiana Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens janthina Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens leptopoda Arn. LCImpatiens leucantha Thw. CRImpatiens linearis Arn. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens macrophylla Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens oppositifolia L. NTImpatiens repens Moon S: Gal-Demata CRA2c;B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens subcordata Arn. CR(PE)Impatiens taprobanica Hiern ENImpatiens thwaitesii Hook.f. ex Grey-WilsonImpatiens truncata Thw. NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Impatiens walkeri Hook. CR(PE)Family : BasellaceaeBasella alba L. S: Niviti; T: Pasalai EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : BegoniaceaeBegonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw. S: Gal-Ambala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Begonia dipetala R.Graham ENBegonia malabarica Lam.S: Hak-Ambala, Maha-hak-AmbalaBegonia subpeltata Wight CRNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii,v)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)230

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaBegonia tenera Dryander ENFamily : BerberidaceaeB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii,v)Berberis ceylanica Schneider E: Barberry NTBerberis tinctoria Leschen. E: Barberry DDBerberis wightiana Schneider E: Barberry DDFamily : BignoniaceaeDolichandrone spathacea (L.f) K.SchumS: Diya-Danga;T: Vil- PadriNT LCOroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. S: Totila LCStereospermum colais (Dillwyn) Mabb.S: Dunu-madala, LunuMadala; T: PadriLCStereospermum suaveolens DC. S: Ela-Palol, Palol DDFamily : BoraginaceaeCarmona retusa (Vahl) MasamuneS: Heen-Thambala;T: pakkuvettiLCColdenia procumbens L. T: Chirupaddi LCCordia dichotoma Forst. f. S: Lolu; T: Naruvilli, Vidi LCCordia monoica Roxb. T: Naruvili, Ponnaruvili LCCordia nevillii Alston CR(PE)Cordia oblongifolia Thw. NTCordia sinensis Lam. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cordia subcordata Lam. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LC iCynoglossum furcatum Wall.Cynoglossum zeylanicum Thunb. exLehm.E: Forget-Me-Not;S: Bu-Katu-HendaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)S: Bu-Katu-Henda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ehretia laevis Roxb. T: Addula, Chiru-Pulichchul LCHeliotropium curassavicum L. LCHeliotropium indicum L.S: Et-Honda, Et-Setiya,Dimi-biya; T: TedkodukkuLCHeliotropium scabrum Retz. LCHeliotropium supinum L. CR(PE)231

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaHeliotropium zeylanicum (Burm. f.) Lam. ENRotula aquatica Lour. DDB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tournefortia argentea L. f. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tournefortia walkerae Clarke CR(PE)Trichodesma indicum (L.) Smith T: Kavil-Tumpai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm. f.) R. Br. LCFamily : BurmanniaceaeBurmannia championii Thw. ENBurmannia coelestis D. Don CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)C2a;B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCBurmannia disticha L. S: Mediya-Jawala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCBurmannia pusilla (Wall. ex Miers) Thw. NT LCThismia gardneriana Hook. f. ex Thw. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : BurseraceaeBoswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. CR(PE)Canarium zeylanicum (Retz.) BlumeS: Dik-Kakuna, Kekuna;T: PakkilipalVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) Vu i A1cCommiphora berryi (Arn.) Engl. T: Mulkiluvai LCCommiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. T: Kilivai LCScutinanthe brunnea Thw. S: Maha-Bulu- Mora ENFamily : BuxaceaeB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LR/LC iSarcococca brevifolia (Muell.Arg.) Stapfex GambleVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sarcococca zeylanica Baill. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : CactaceaeRhipsalis baccifera (J.S.Mueller ) Stearn S: Wal-Nawahandi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : CalophyllaceaeCalophyllum acidus Kostem. S: Dehi-Kina, Batu-Kina NTCalophyllum bracteatum Thw. S: Walu-Keena NT232

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCalophyllum calaba L.S: Guru-Keena, HeenKeena; T: ChirupunnaiCalophyllum cordato-oblongum Thw. S: Kalu-Keena ENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Calophyllum cuneifolium Thw. S: Keena CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Calophyllum inophyllum L.E: Alexandrian Laurel;S: Domba,Tel-Domba;T: Dommakottai, Punnai,PunnaigamLCCalophyllum lankaensis Kosterm. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Calophyllum moonii WightS:Domba-Keena, Mapal-KeenaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calophyllum thwaitesii Planch. & Triana S: Batu-Keena VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calophyllum tomentosum WightS: Keena, Tel-Keena;T: PonguVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calophyllum trapezifolium Thw. S: Keena VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calophyllum walkeri WightS: Keena, Tel-Keena;T: PonguCalophyllum zeylanicum Kosterm. S: Keena ENMesua ferrea L. S: Na; T: Naka LCVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Mesua stylosa (Thw.) Kosterm. S: Suwanda CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Mesua thwaitesii Planch. & Triana S: Diya-Na LCFamily : CampanulaceaeAsyneuma fulgens (Wall.) Briq. CR(PE)Campanula benthamii Wall. ex Kitam. CR(PE)Lobelia alsinoides Lam. LCLobelia chinensis Lour. NTLobelia heyneana Roem. & Schult. LC LCLobelia leschenaultiana (Presl) Skottsb. VULobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Roem. &Schult.S: Rasni LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lobelia zeylanica L. LC LCWahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) DC. E: Hare-Bell LCFamily: CannabaceaeAphananthe cuspidata (Blume) Planch. S: Wal-Muna Mal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)233

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCeltis philippensis BlancoS: Meditella;T: VellathorasayCeltis timorensis Span. S: Gurenda; T: Pinari LCLCGironniera parvifolia Planch. S: Akmediya LCTrema orientalis (L.) BlumeFamily : CapparaceaeE: Charcoal Tree ;S: GadumbaLCCadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce T: Vili ENCadaba trifoliata (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.T: Maya Adikkuruntu, OothiPeraliCapparis brevispina DC. S: Wal-Dehi NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Capparis divaritica Lam. S: Torikei LCCapparis floribunda Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Capparis grandis L.f. T: Mudkondai NTCapparis heyneana Wall. S: Wal-Dehi, Leeniya Dehi ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Capparis moonii Wight S: Rudanti EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Capparis rotundifolia RottlerS: Balal-Katu;T: Karunchurai, PichchuvilattiLCCapparis roxburghii DC.S: Kalu-Illan-Gedi;T: Punai-Virandi, VelungiriyaLCCapparis sepiaria L.S: Rila-Katu;T: KarunchuraiCapparis tenera Dalz. ENCapparis zeylanica L.Crateva adansonii DC.S: Sudu-Welangiriya,Welangiriya; T: Kattoddi,VennachchiS: Lunu-Warana;T: Navala, NavilankaiLCLCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Maerua arenaria Hook.f. & Thoms. NTFamily : CaprifoliaceaeDipsacus walkeri Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Valeriana moonii Arn. ex Clarke CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)234

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : CaryophyllaceaeCerastium fontanum Baumg. subsp.vulgare (Hartm.) Greuter & BurdetCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. LCCerastium indicum Wight & Arn. NTDrymaria cordata (L.) Roem. & Schult.subsp. diandra (Blume) DukeS: Kukulu-Pala LCPolycarpaea aurea Wight & Arn. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lam. LCPolycarpaea spicata Wight & Arn. CR(PE) LCPolycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. &Schweinf.Polycarpon tetraphyllum subsptetraphyllum (L.) L.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCSagina saginoides (L.) Karsten DDStellaria pauciflora Zoll. & Moritzi CR(PE)Vaccaria hispanica (Mill.) Rauschert DDFamily : CelastraceaeCassine balae Kosterm.S: Nareloo, Neraloo;T: Perun, PiyareeLCCassine congylos Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cassine glauca (Rottb.) KuntzeS: Neralu; T:Piyari,PerunpiyariCelastrus paniculatus Willd. S: Duhundu ENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Euonymus revolutus Wight NTEuonymus thwaitesii Lawson VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cEuonymus walkeri Wight LC VU i A1cGlyptopetalum zeylanicum Thw. var.zeylanicumKokoona zeylanica Thw. S: Kokun, Wana-Potu ENLoeseneriella africana (Willd.) Wilczek ENLoeseneriella arnottiana (Wight) A. C.SmithLoeseneriella macrantha (Korth.) A. C.SmithVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)A2 acd,B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)S: Sudu-Nawu-Wel EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)S: Diya-Kirindi-Wel EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)235

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMaytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou LCMaytenus fruticosa (Thw.) Loes CR(PE)Microtropis wallichiana Wight ex Thw. LCMicrotropis zeylanica Merr. & Freem. NTPleurostylia opposita (Wall.) AlstonS: Panakka, Piyari; T:Chiru,PiyariLCReissantia indica (Willd.) Halle LCSalacia acuminatissima Kosterm. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Salacia chinensis L. S: Heen-Himbutu Wel NTSalacia diandra Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Salacia oblonga Wall. ex Wight & Arn. S: Himbutu, Gal-Himbutu EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Salacia reticulata WightFamily: CentroplacaceaeS: Himbutu, Himbutu-Wel,Kotala-HimbutuEN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Bhesa ceylanica (Arn. ex Thw.) DingHouS: Et-Heraliya, Palen,Pelang, Uru-Honda;T:KonnaiLC VU i A1cBhesa montana DDBhesa nitidissima Kosterm. LC CR i B1+2cFamily : CeratophyllaceaeCeratophyllum demersum L. LC LCFamily : ChloranthaceaeSarcandra chloranthoides Gardner LCFamily : CleomaceaeCleome aspera Koenig ex DC. LCCleome chelidonii L. f. S: Wal-Aba LCCleome gynandra L. S: Wela; T: Tayirvalai LCCleome monophylla L. LCCleome tenella L. f. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cleome viscosa L. S: Wal-Aba, Ran-Manissa LC236

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : ClusiaceaeGarcinia echinocarpa Thw. S: Madol VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Garcinia hermonii Kosterm. S: Madol, Kana-Goraka VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Garcinia morella (Gaertn.) Desr.Garcinia quaesita PierreGarcinia spicata (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f.E: Gamboge; S: Kana-Gorake, Kokatiya, GokatuS: Goraka, Rat-Goraka;T: KorakkaipuliS: Ela-Gokatu, Gonapana;T: KokottaiNTLCNTGarcinia terpnophylla (Thw.) Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Garcinia thwaitessii Pierre ENGarcinia zeylanica Roxb. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : ColchicaceaeGloriosa superba L.S: Niyangala; T: KartikaiKilanku, VentontiLCIphigenia indica (L.) A.Gray ex Kunth LCFamily : CombretaceaeAnogeissus latifolius (Roxb.) BeddomeS: Dawu,T: Vekkali, Velai-NagaLCCombretum acuminatum Roxb. CR(PE)Combretum albidum G.Don S: Kaduru-Ketiya-Wel NTCombretum latifolium Blume S: Geta-kaha NTLumnitzera littorea (Jack) Voigt CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. S: Beriya; T: Tipparuthin NTTerminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.Terminalia chebula Retz.Terminalia zeylanica van Heurck & Muell.Arg.Family : CommelinaceaeS: Kumbulu, Kumbuk;T: MarutuE: Myrabalans; S: Bulu;T: Ahdan-Koddai,TantiE: Gall-Nut, Ink Nut,Myrabalans; S: Aralu;T: KadukkayS: Hampalanda,HanpalandaLCLCLCLCCommelina appendiculata Clarke ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Commelina attenuata Vahl LC237

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCommelina benghalensis L. S: Diya-Meneriya LC LCCommelina clavata Clarke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCCommelina diffusa Burm.f. S: Gira Pala LC LCCommelina ensifolia R.Br. LCCommelina indehiscens E.Barnes S: Gira Pala NTCommelina kurzii Clarke LCCommelina paludosa Blume CR(PE)Commelina petersii Hassk. LCCyanotis adscendens Dalz. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyanotis axillaris (L.) Sweet LC LCCyanotis burmanniana Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyanotis ceylanica Hassk. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyanotis cristata (L.) D.Don S: Bol-Hinda LC LCCyanotis obtusa (Trimen)Trimen EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyanotis pilosa Schult.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyanotis racemosa Heyne ex Hassk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyanotis thwaitesii Hassk. NTCyanotis villosa (Spreng.) Schult.f. NTDictyospermum montanum Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dictyospermum ovalifolium Wight ENFloscopa scandens Lour. ENMurdannia audreyae Faden ENMurdannia blumei (Hassk.) Brenan ENMurdannia dimorphoides Faden NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCMurdannia esculenta (Wall. ex Clarke)R.S.Rao & KammathyMurdannia gigantea (Vahl) G.Brückn. ENNT LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)238

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMurdannia glauca (Thw. ex Clarke)G.Brückn.Murdannia lanceolata (Wight) Kammathy ENMurdannia loriformis (Hassk.) R.S.Rao &KammathyMurdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan LCCR(PE)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)VU D2Murdannia simplex (Vahl) Brenan CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Murdannia spirata (L.) G.Brückn. LC LCMurdannia striatipetala Faden ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Murdannia vaginata (L.) G.Brückn. LC LCMurdannia zeylanica (Clarke) G.Brückn VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pollia secundiflora (Blume.) Bakh.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Rhopalephora scaberrima (Blume) Faden ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : ConnaraceaeConnarus championii Thw. S: Wel-Radaliya, Radaliya NTConnarus monocarpus L.S: Radaliya; T:ChettupulukodiEllipanthus unifoliatus (Thw.) Thw. ENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston S: Kirindi-Wel, Goda-Kirindi LCFamily : ConvolvulaceaeArgyreia choisyana Wight ex Clarke DDArgyreia elliptica Choisy ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Argyreia hancorniaefolia Gardner EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Argyreia hirsuta Arn. LCArgyreia osyrensis (Roth) Choisy LCArgyreia pomacea Choisy T: Unam-Kodhy LCArgyreia populifolia Choisy S: Giri-Tilla LCArgyreia splendens (Roxb.) Sweet CR(PE)Argyreia thwaitesii (Clarke) D.Austin S: Ma-Banda, Ginitilla LC239

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaBonamia semidigyna (Roxb.) Hall. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cressa cretica L. LCCuscuta chinensis Lam.Cuscuta campestris Yunck.Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.Erycibe paniculata Roxb.Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L.E: DodderS: Aga-Mula-Neti-Wel;E: Golden Dodder, FieldDodderS: Aga-Mula-Neti-Wel;E: DodderS: Aga-Mula-Neti-Wel;S: Atamberiya, Etamberiya,Eta-MiriyaS: Visnu-Kranti; T: VichnuKirantiLCDDVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCLCHewittia sublobata (L.f.) O. Ktze. S: Wal-Trasta-Walu LCIpomoea aquatica Forssk. S: Kan-Kun LCIpomoea campanulata L. ENIpomoea coptica (L.) Roem. & Schult. ENIpomoea deccana D.Austin DDB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCIpomoea eriocarpa R. Br. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ipomoea jucunda Thw. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ipomoea littoralis Blume S: Tel-kola NTIpomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. S: Waha-Tel,Tel-Vel,Tel-Kola LCIpomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br.S: Mudu-bin-tamburu,Muhudu Bim Thamburu, Bin-TamburuLCIpomoea pes-tigridis L. S: Divi-Adiya, Divi-Pahura LCIpomoea pileatea Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Verdc.(Syn. Ipomoea sepiaria Roxb.)S: Rasa-Tel-Kola LCIpomoea staphylina Roem. & Schult. S: Tel-Kola CR(PE)Ipomoea stolonifera (Cyrill.) Gmelin VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ipomoea tuberculata Ker-Gawl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ipomoea violacea L. LCIpomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)240

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMerremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hall. f. NTMerremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f. S: Kaha-Tel-Kola LCMerremia tridentata (L.) Hall. f.S: Hawari-Madu, Heen-Madu; T: MudiyakuntalLCMerremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f. S: Kiri Madu, Mahamadu LCOperculina turpethum (L.) S. Manso S: Trastawalu LCRivea ornata Choisy T: Muchuddai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Stictocardia tiliifolia (Desr.) Hall.f. S: Ma-Banda, Maha-Banda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : CornaceaeAlangium salviifolium (L. f.) Wangerin NTMastixia congylos Kosterm. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Mastixia macrophylla (Thw.) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1c, B1+2cMastixia montana Kosterm. S: Diya-Taleya, Diya-Taliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Mastixia nimalii Kosterm. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Mastixia tetrandra (Wight ex Thw.) Clarke S: Diyataliya, Maha-Tawara LC VU i A1cFamily : CostaceaeCostus speciosus (Koenig) Smith S: Koltan,Tebu LCFamily : CrassulaceaeKalanchoe floribunda Wight & Arn. var.glabraCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Kalanchoe laciniata (L.) Pers. DDFamily : CrypteroniaceaeAxinandra zeylanica Thw. S: Kekiri-Wara VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : CucurbitaceaeCitrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.Coccinia grandis (L.) J.VoigtE: Colocynth; S: Yak-Komadu; T: Peykkomadi,Peykkomakki, PeykummattiE: Ivy Gourd; S: Kowakka;T: KovvaiVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)LCCorallocarpus epigaeus (Arn.) Hook.f. S: Gopalanga VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ctenolepis garcinii (Burm.f.) Naud.T: Mochu-Mochukkai,MossumossukeVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)241

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDiplocyclos palmatus (L.) C.Jeffrey S: Pasengilla LCGymnopetalum integrifolium (Roxb.) Kurz VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Gymnopetalum tubiflorum (Wight & Arn.)Cogn.Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.)MakinoS: Vel Kekiri LCENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Kedrostis courtallensis (Arn.) C.Jeffrey S: Kawudu-Kekiri VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Momordica charantia L.S: Batu-Karavila, Karavila; T:Pakal, Nuti-PakalLCMomordica denudata (Thw.) Clarke LCMomordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.S: Mal-Tumba, Tumb-Karawila; T: Paluppakal,TumpaiLCMukia leiosperma (Wight & Arn.) Wight CR(PE)Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.RoemerSolena amplexicaulis (Lam.) GandhiS: Gon-Kekiri, Heen-Kekiri,Lene-Kekiri, Kekiri;T: MochumochukkaiS: Kawudu-Kekeiri, TelaBeriya; T: PeyppudalTrichosanthes anaimalaiensis Beddome ENTrichosanthes cucumerina L.S: Dum-Mella, Kunu-Mella;T: PudalNTLCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Trichosanthes integrifolia Thw. CR(PE)Trichosanthes nervifolia L. CR(PE)Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour.S: Titta-hondala;T: AnakoruthiLCZanonia indica L. S: Wal-Rasakinda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Zehneria maysorensis(Wight & Arn.) Arn.EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Zehneria thwaitesii (Schweinf.) C.Jeffrey VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : CymodoceaceaeCymodocea serrulata (R.Br.) Asch. &MagnusNT LCHalodule uninervis (Forssk.) Asch. NT LCSyringodium isoetifolium (Asch.) Dandy NT LCFamily : CyperaceaeActinoscirpus grossus (L.f.) Goetgn. &D.A.SimpsonLC LC242

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaBulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Kunth exClarkeBulbostylis densa (Wall.ex Roxb.) Hand.-Mazz.Bulbostylis puberula (Poir.) Kunth exClarkeS: Uru-Hiri LCCarex arnottiana Nees ex Drejer ENNTLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Carex baccans Nees ex Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCCarex breviscapa Clarke ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Carex filicina Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCCarex indica L. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Carex jackiana Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Carex lateralis Kukenth. CR(PE)Carex lenta D. Don CR(PE)Carex leucantha Arn. ex Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Carex ligulata Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Carex lindleyana Nees VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Carex lobulirostris Drejer EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Carex longicruris Nees NTCarex longipes D.Don DDCarex maculata Boott ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCCarex nubigena D.Don EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Carex phacota Spreng. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCCarex rara Boott subsp patanicolaT.KoyamaCarex spicigera Nees ENENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Carex taprobanensis T.Koyama CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Carex walkeri Arn. ex Boott VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. NTCyperus arenarius Retz. S: Mudu-Kalanduru LC LCCyperus articulatus L. DD243

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCyperus bifax Clarke LCCyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. LCCyperus bulbosus Vahl T: Chilanti Arichi LCCyperus castaneus Willd. LC LCCyperus cephalotes Vahl ENCyperus clarkei Cook ENCyperus compactus Retz. ENCyperus compressus L. LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCLCCyperus conglomeratus Rottb. subsp.pachyrrhizus (Nees) T. KoyamaCR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyperus corymbosus Rottb. S: Gal-Ehi NTCyperus cuspidatus Kunth LCCyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Vahl LCCyperus cyperoides (L.) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCCyperus difformis L. LC LCCyperus diffusus Vahl EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyperus digitatus Roxb. LC LCCyperus disruptus C.B. Clarke LCCyperus distans L.f. LC LCCyperus dubius Rottb. LC LCCyperus exaltatus Retz. LCCyperus haspan L. S: Hal-Pan LCCyperus iria L. S: Wel-Hiri LCCyperus javanicus Houtt. S: Ramba; T: Irampai LCCyperus kyllingia Endl. S: Mottu-Tana LCCyperus melanospermus ( Nees) Valken LCCyperus mitis Steud. LC LC244

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCyperus nutans Vahl LC LCCyperus pangorei Rottb. S: Hewan-Pan LC LCCyperus paniceus (Rottb.) Boeckler LC LCCyperus pilosus Vahl LC LCCyperus platyphyllus Roem. & Schult. NT LCCyperus platystylis R.Br. NTCyperus procerus Rottb. LC LCCyperus pulcherrimus Willd. ex Kunth NTCyperus pygmaeus Rottb. LCCyperus radians Nees & Meyen ex Kunth CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cyperus rotundus L. S: Kalanduru; T: Korai LC LCCyperus sesquiflorus (Torr.) Mattfeld &Kükenth.NTCyperus squarrosus L. LC LCCyperus stoloniferus Retz. LC LCCyperus tenuiculmis Boeckeler LC LCCyperus tenuispica Steud. LC LCCyperus triceps (Rottb.) Endl. LCCyperus umbellatus Clarke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyperus zollingeri Steud. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCDiplacrum caricinum R.Br. NT LCEleocharis actangula (Roxb. ) Schult. LCEleocharis confervoides (Poir.) T. Koyama CR(PE)Eleocharis congesta D.Don NTEleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.)Trin. exHensch.S: Boru-Pan LCEleocharis geniculata (L.) Roem. & Schult. LC LCEleocharis lankana T.Koyama CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LC245

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaEleocharis ochrostachys Steud. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eleocharis retroflexa (Poir.) Urban VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCEleocharis spiralis (Rottb.) Roem. &Schult.Eleocharis tetraquetra Nees ENLCLC LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Fimbristylis acuminata Vahl LC LCFimbristylis aestivalis (Retz) Vahl ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Fimbristylis argentea (Rottb.) Vahl LC LCFimbristylis bisumbellata (Frossk.) Bubani VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCFimbristylis cinnamometorum (Vahl)KunthLCFimbristylis complanata (Retz.) Link VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCFimbristylis consanguinea Kunth ENFimbristylis cymosa R.Br. LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCFimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl LCFimbristylis dipsacea (Rottb.) Clarke CR(PE)Fimbristylis dura (Zoll.& Moritzi) Merr. ENFimbristylis eragrostis (Nees & Meyen)HanceFimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Kunth LCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl LCFimbristylis fusca (Nees) Clark ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Fimbristylis insignis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Fimbristylis leptoclada Benth. CR(PE)Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl S: Muduhal-Pan LCFimbristylis monticola Hochst. ex Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Fimbristylis nutans (Retz.) Vahl VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCFimbristylis ovata (Burm.f.) Kern LC LCFimbristylis polytrichoides (Retz.) Vahl LC LC246

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFimbristylis pubisquama Kern LCFimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth LCFimbristylis salbundia (Nees) Kunth subsppentapetra (Nees) T.KoyamaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCFimbristylis schoenoides (Retz.) Vahl LC LCFimbristylis tenera Schult. DDFimbristylis tetragona R.Br. LC LCFimbristylis thouarsii (Kunth) Merr. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Fimbristylis triflora (L.) Schum. ex Engl. LCFimbristylis umbellaris (Lam.) Vahl S: Hal-Pan LCFimbristylis zeylanica T.Koyama CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Fuirena capitata (Burm.f.) T.Koyama LCFuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. LC LCFuirena umbellata Rottb. LC LCHypolytrum longirostre Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hypolytrum nemorum (Vahl) Spreng. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hypolytrum scirpoides (Presl) Merr. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Hypolytrum turgidum Clarke ENIsolepis fluitans (L.) R.Br. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lepironia articulata (Retz.) Domin. S: Eta-Pan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCLipocarpha chinensis (Osbeck) Kern LC LCLipocarpha sphacelata (Vahl) Kunth LCMachaerina rubiginosa (Spreng.) T.Koyama subsp. crassa (Thw.) T.KoyamaCR(PE)Mapania immersa (Thw.) Benth. exClarkeMapania zeylanica (Thw.) Benth.ex Clarke ENCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pycreus flavidus (Retz.) T.Koyama LCPycreus polystachyos (Rottb.) Beauv. LC247

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPycreus pumilus (L.) Nees S: Go-Hiri LCPycreus puncticulatus (Vahl) Nees. LC LCPycreus sanguinolentus (Vahl) Nees exClarkeNTPycreus stramineus (Nees) Clarke CR(PE) LCQueenslandiella hyalina (Vahl) Ballard VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCRemirea maritima Aublet VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchospora chinensis Nees & Meyenex NeesCR(PE)Rhynchospora corymbosa (L.) Britt. LC LCRhynchospora gracillima Thw. CR(PE)Rhynchospora rubra (Lour.) Makino NTRhynchospora rugosa (Vahl) Gale subsp.brownii (Roem. & Schult.) T. KoyamaENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchospora triflora Vahl CR(PE)Rikliella squarrosa (L.) Raynal LCSchoenoplectus articulatus (L.) Palla S: Maha Geta-Pan LCSchoenoplectus juncoides (Roxb.) Palla LCSchoenoplectus littoralis (Schrad.) Palla LCSchoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Schoenoplectus supinus (L.) Palla LCScirpodendron ghaeri (Gaertn.) Merr. CR(PE)Scleria biflora Roxb. CR(PE)Scleria corymbosa Roxb. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Scleria levis Retz. S: Goda Karawu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Scleria lithosperma (L.) Sw. LCScleria mikawana Makino VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCScleria multilacunosa T.Koyama CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Scleria neesii Kunth S: Bakamunu Tana ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)248

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaScleria oblata S.T.Blake ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Scleria parvula Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Scleria pergracilis (Nees) Kunth S: Mehi-Wal CR(PE)Scleria pilosa Boeckeler CR(PE)Scleria poaeformis Retz. LCScleria rugosa R.Br. NTScleria sumatrensis Retz. NTScleria terrestris (L.) Fassett LCScleria thwaitesiana Boeckeler VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Trichophorum subcapitatum (Thw. &Hook.) D.A.SimpsonCR(PE) LCTricostularia undulata (Thw.) Kern CR(PE)Family : DaphniphyllaceaeDaphniphyllum glaucescens Blume CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : DichapetalaceaeDichapetalum gelonioides (Roxb.) Engl. S: Balal-Hula LCDichapetalum zeylanicum Kosterm. NTFamily : DilleniaceaeAcrotrema dissectum Thw. ex Hook. f.CRAcrotrema intermedium Thw. ENAcrotrema lanceolatum Hook. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Acrotrema lyratum Thw. ex Hook. f. S: Bin-Beru CR B2 ab (i,ii,iii)Acrotrema thwaitesii Hook.f. & Thoms.ex Hook.f.Acrotrema uniflorum Hook.S: Passana, Ettadi,Gondiwa, Bim- BeruAcrotrema walkeri Wight ex Thw. S: Ulwerreni, Bim-Beru VUDillenia indica L.S: Hondapara, Wam-Para;Tamil: AkkuDillenia retusa Thunb. S: Godapara LCCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dillenia triquetra (Rottb.) Gilg S: Diyapara LC CR i B1+2cd249

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSchumacheria alnifolia Hook.f. &Thoms.Schumacheria angustifolia Hook.f. &Thoms.Schumacheria castaneifolia VahlS: Kekiri-Wara ENS: Kikeriwera, HeenkekiriwaraS: Kekiri-Wara, Heen-Kekiri-WaraENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr. S: Eth-Korassa-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Tetracera sarmentosa (L.) VahlS: Korossa-Wal, Korasa,Korass-WelLCFamily : DioscoreaceaDioscorea bulbifera L.E: Aerial Yam, Potato Yam;S: Bakamuna-Wel, Panu-Kondol, Udala; T: MothakaValli(Wild), Rasa Valli(Cultivars)LCDioscorea koyamae JayasuriyaS: Gonala, Kahata-Gonala,Kiri-GonalaENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dioscorea oppositifolia L.S: Gonala, Hiritala, Kitala,VialaNTDioscorea pentaphylla L.S: Katu-Ala, Katuwala-Ala;T: AllaiLCDioscorea spicata Roth S: Gonala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dioscorea tomentosa Koenig ex Spreng. S: Uyala LCDioscorea trimenii Prain & Burkill S: Dahiya-Ala ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze S: Garandi-Kidaran DDTrichopus zeylanicus Gaertn. S: Bim-Pol VU A2 dFamily : DipterocarpaceaeBalanocarpus brevipetiolaris (Thw.)AlstonBalanocarpus kitulgallensis Kosterm. CRENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dipterocarpus glandulosus Thw. S: Dorana EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR i A1cd, B1+2cDipterocarpus hispidus Thw. S: Bu-hora VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR i A1cdDipterocarpus insignis Thw. S: Weli-Dorana EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR i A1bcd, B1+2cDipterocarpus zeylanicus Thw. S: Hora NT EN i A1cdDoona affinis Thw.Doona congestifolora Thw.Doona gardneri Thw.S: Pathuru Yakahalu,Beraliya-Dun, Miris-DunS: Tiniya, Thinniya,Tiniya-DunE: Red Doon; S: Ratu-Dun;T: Konge-KoongiliVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) EN i A1cdVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CR i A1cd250

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDoona macrophylla Thw.Doona nervosa Thw.S: Honda-Beraliya, Kana-Beraliya, Maha-BeraliyaE: Red Doon; S: HalBeraliya, Kotikan-BeraliyaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CR i A1cdVU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) CR i A1cdDoona oblonga Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii,v) EN i A1cdDoona ovalifolia Thw. S: Pini-Beraliya EW CR i A1cd, C2aDoona trapezifolia Thw. S: Yakahalu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR i A1cdDoona venulosa Thw. S: Beraliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i A1cdDoona zeylanica Thw. S: Dun; T: Koongili ENHopea cordifolia (Thw.) Trimen S: Mendora, Uva-Mendora ENHopea discolor Thw. S: Peely-Dun, Ratu-Dun ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR iA1cd, C2aA1cd, B1+2c,EN iDA1bcd,EN i B1+2c, C1, DHopea jucunda Thw. S: Rat-Beraliya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hopea modesta (A.DC.) Kosterm. S: Pini-Beraliya ENShorea dyeri Thw.S: Nawara-Dun, Yakahalu-Dun, YakahaluShorea hulanidda Kosterm. S: Hulan-Idda, Nawa-Dun ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Shorea lissophylla Thw. S: Gal-Pana Mora, Mal-Mora VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR i A1cd, C2aShorea oblongifolia Thw.S: Pana-Mora, Panadora,Pathuru-YakkahaluShorea pallescens Ashton S: Ratu-Dun ENShorea stipularis Thw.Stemonoporus acuminatus (Thw.)BeddomeS: Hulan-Idda, Nawa-Dun,NawadaStemonoporus affinis Thw. CRStemonoporus angustisepalumKosterm.Stemonoporus bullatus Kosterm. CRStemonoporus canaliculatus Thw. ENStemonoporus cordifolius (Thw.) Alston S: Iri Dorala ENStemonoporus elegans (Thw.) Alston VUStemonoporus gardneri Thw.S: Hal, Ugudu-Hal, Hal-MandoraStemonoporus gilimalensis Kosterm. CRStemonoporus gracilis Kosterm. CRVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR i A1cdB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR iVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR i A1cdENENVUB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN iCR iA1cd, C2aA1cA1cEN i A1cEN i A1cCRA1cEN i A1cCR iA1cEN i A1c iCR iCR iA1c, C2aA1c, D251

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaStemonoporus kanneliyensis Kosterm. ENStemonoporus laevifolius Kosterm. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i A1c, C2aEN i A1c, B1+2cStemonoporus lanceolatus Thw. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR i A1c, DStemonoporus lancifolius (Thw.) Ashton ENStemonoporus latisepalum Kosterm. CRStemonoporus marginalis Kosterm. CRStemonoporus moonii Thw. S: Hora-Wel CRStemonoporus nitidus Thw. CRStemonoporus oblongifolius Thw. ENStemonoporus petiolaris Thw. ENStemonoporus reticulatus Thw. S: Hal-Mandora ENStemonoporus revolutus Trimen exHook.f.Stemonoporus rigidus Thw. ENStemonoporus scalarinervis Kosterm. S: Ugadu-Hal ENStemonoporus scaphifolius Kosterm. CRStemonoporus wightii Thw. S: Hal-Mendora ENSunaptea scabriuscula (Thw.) Trimen S: Na-Mendora ENCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR i A1c, DCR i B1+2c, DCR i B1+2c, DCR i C2a, DCR i A1c, DEN i A1cCR i A1c+2c, C2aEN i A1cEN i A1cEN i A1cEN i A1cVateria copallifera (Retz.) Alston S: Hal; T: Kungiliyam Pinai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i A1cd, C2aVatica affinis Thw. S: Hal-Mendora ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR iA1c, C2aVatica lewisiana (Trimen ex Hook.f.)LiveraCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Vatica obscura Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i A1cdVatica paludosa Kosterm. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : DroseraceaeDrosera burmannii Vahl E: Sundew; S: Wata-Essa VU C1 LCDrosera indica L. E: Sundew; S: Kandulessa VU C1 LCDrosera peltata SmithE: Sundew; S: Ada-Handa-EssaENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LC252

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : EbenaceaeDiospyros acuminata (Thw.) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cDiospyros acuta Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN iB1+2cDiospyros affinis Thw.S: Eta-Thimbiri, Kalu-Wella,Kalu-Welle ;T: SemelpanachaiNTDiospyros albiflora Alston ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU iA1cDiospyros atrata Alston EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU i B1+2cDiospyros attenuata Thw. S: Kadumberiya ENDiospyros chaetocarpa Kosterm. S: Kalu-Mediriya ENDiospyros crumenata Thw. ENDiospyros ebenoides Kosterm.Diospyros ebenum KoenigS: Kalu-Habaraliya;T: Irumpalai, JuwaraiE: Ebony; S: Kaluwara ;T: KarunkaliENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)A2 ad,B2ab(i,ii,iii)EN iVU iEN iEN iEN A2 ad DD iB1+2cA1c, B1+2cB1+2cB1+2cDiospyros hirsuta L.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cDiospyros insignis Thw.S: Gona, Porawa-Mara, Wal-MediriyaDiospyros koenigii Kosterm. CRDiospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel.E : Gaub Persimmon;S: Timbiri; T :PanichchaiLC B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. S: Kadumberiya ENA2 ad,B1B2 ab(i,ii,iii,v)Diospyros montana Roxb.T: Katukanni, Mulkarunkali,Vakkana, VakkaniNTDiospyros moonii Thw. S: Kadumberiya, Kaluwella ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR iB1+2cDiospyros nummulariifolia Kosterm. LCDiospyros oblongifolia (Thw.) Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cDiospyros okkesii Kosterm. DDDiospyros oocarpa Thw.S: Ela-Thimbiri, Kalu-Kudumberiya; T: Velli-KarunkkaliNTDiospyros oppositifolia Thw.S: Kalu-Mediriya,KudumberiyaENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN iB1+2cDiospyros ovalifolia WightS: Habara, Kunumella;T: Vedukkanari, VedukunariLC253

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDiospyros pemadasai Jayasuriya S: Kola-Pellan ENDiospyros quaesita Thw.Diospyros racemosa Thw.E: Calamander; S: Kalu-MediriyaS: kahakala, Kaluwella;T: Vellai ThoveriiB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cdVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Diospyros rheophytica Kosterm. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR i B1+2cDiospyros sylvatica Roxb.S: Hompilla, Sudu-Kudumberiya; T: Kurruppu-ThoveriaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Diospyros thwaitesii Beddome S: Boromala, Kadumberiya, VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1c, B1+2cDiospyros trichophylla Alston ENDiospyros walkeri (Wight) GuerkeE: Bastard Ebony;S: Porowa Mala, KaluwelleMaba buxifolia (Rottb.) Juss LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU iVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cA1c, B1+2cFamily : ElaeagnaceaeElaegnus latifolia L. S: Katu-Embilla, Wel-Embilla LCFamily : ElaeocarpaceaeElaeocarpus amoenus Thw. S: Titta-Weralu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Elaeocarpus coriaceus Hook. S: Gal-Weralu ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i B1+2cElaeocarpus glandulifer (Hook.) Masters S: Gal-Weralu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cElaeocarpus hedyosmus Zmarzty ENElaeocarpus montanus Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Elaeocarpus serratus L. E: Wild Olive; S: Weralu LCElaeocarpus subvillosus Arn. S: Gal-Weralu NTElaeocarpus taprobanicus Zmarzty ENElaeocarpus zeylanicus (Arn.) Masters ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : ElatinaceaeBergia ammanioides Roxb. ex Roth NTBergia capensis L. S: Geta - Purukwila LCFamily : EricaceaeGultheria leschenaultii DC. S: Wel-Kapuru ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)254

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaRhododendron arboreum Smith subsp.zeylanicum (Booth) TaggS: Ma-Ratmal VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Vaccinium leschenaultii Wight S: Boralu VUFamily : EriocaulaceaeB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eriocaulon atratum Kornicke VUEriocaulon brownianum Mart. VUEriocaulon catopsioides S.M. Phillips CREriocaulon ceylanicum Kornicke ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eriocaulon cinereum R. Br. LCEriocaulon fergusonii (Moldenke) S.M.PhillipsEriocaulon fluviatile Trimen CREriocaulon longicuspe Hook.f. VUCR(PE)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCLCEriocaulon odoratum Dalz. LC LCEriocaulon philippo-coburgi Szyszyl. exWawraEriocaulon psammophilum S.M. Phillips ENVUB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eriocaulon quinquangulare L. S: Heen-Kokmota LCEriocaulon setaceum L. S: Penda LCEriocaulon sexangulare L. S: Kokmota LCEriocaulon subglaucum Ruhland CR(PE)Eriocaulon thwaitesii Kornicke VUEriocaulon thysanocephalum S.M.PhillipsEriocaulon trimeni Hook.f. CREriocaulon truncatum Mart. LCCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCEriocaulon walkeri Hook.f. VU BI ab(i,ii,iii)Eriocaulon willdenovianum Moldenke NTFamily : ErythroxylaceaeErythroxylum lanceolatum (Wight) Walp. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb.S: Devadaram;T: ChemanattiNT255

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaErythroxylum moonii Hochr.S: Bata-Kirilla;T: Chiru-ChemannattiErythroxylum obtusifolium (Wight) Hook.f. LCNTErythroxylum zeylanicum O. Schulz LCFamily : EuphorbiaceaeAcalypha fruticosa Forssk. LCAcalypha indica L.S: Kuppameniya;T: Kuppameni, PunairanankiLCAcalypha lanceolata Willd. LCAcalypha racemosa Wall. ex Baill. LCAcalypha supera Forssk. DDAdenochlaena zeylanica (Baill.) Thw. CR(PE)Agrostistachys coriacea Alston S: Beru LC VU i A1cAgrostistachys hookeri (Thw.) Benth.S: Diya-Beru, Kunu-Beru,Maha-BeruLC CR i B1+2cAgrostistachys indica Dalz. LCAgrostistachys intramarginalis Philcox LCChaetocarpus castanocarpus (Roxb.)Thw.Chaetocarpus coriaceus Thw.S: Hedawaka, Hedoka LCS: Gal-Hadoka, Hedawaka,HedokaLC VU i A1cChaetocarpus ferrugineus Philcox VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Chaetocarpus pubescens (Thw.) Hook.f.Chrozophora plicata (Vahl) A. Juss exSpreng.Cleidion nitidum (Muell. Arg.) Thw. ex Kurz ENVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)DDB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cleidion spiciflorum (Burm.f.) Merr. S: Okuru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Croton aromaticus L.S: Wel-Keppetiya;T: TeppaddiLCCroton caudatus Geisel S: Vel-Keppetiya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Croton laccifer L.S: Gas- Keppetiya,Keppetiya; T: TeppaddiCroton moonii Thw. ENCroton nigroviridis Thw. ENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)256

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCroton officinalis (Klotzsch) Alston LCCroton persimilis Muell.Arg. S: Akurella; T: Milla Kunari VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Croton zeylanicus Muell.Arg. CR(PE)Dalechampia indica Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw.S: Weli-Wenna;T: Tentuikki, TentukkiLCEuphorbia antiquorum L. S: Daluk; T: Chatura Kalli LCEuphorbia atoto Forst. CR(PE)Euphorbia cristata Heyne ex Roth DDEuphorbia granulata Frossk. DDEuphorbia hirta L. S: Bu-Dada-Kiriya; T: Palavi LCEuphorbia indica Lam. S: Ela-Dada-Kiriya LCEuphorbia rosea Retz. S: Mudu-Dada-Kiriya LCEuphorbia rothiana Spreng. LCEuphorbia thymifolia L.S:Bin-Dada-Kiriya,T:ChittirapalaviLCEuphorbia tortilis Rottler ex Ainslie S: Sinuk CR(PE)Euphorbia trigona Haw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Excoecaria agallocha L.S: Tala-Kiriya,Tela Kiriya,TelKiriya; T: TilaiLC LCExcoecaria oppositifolia Griffith var.crenulata (Wight) Chakrab. & M.G.GanopVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Fahrenheitia minor (Thw.) Airy Shaw S: Olu-Petta, Wal-Kekuna LCFahrenheitia zeylanica (Thw.) Muell.Arg. S: Mawata, Olu-Petta LCGivotia moluccana (L.) Sreem. T: Puttalai LCHomalanthus populifolius GrahamS:Gini-kanda, Kanda;T: PramaramLCHomonoia riparia Lour. NTJatropha glandulifera Roxb. T: Atalai NTMacaranga digyna (Wight) Muell.Arg. S: Gal-Ota, Ota NT257

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMacaranga indica Wight S: Kenda; T: Vattakanni LCMacaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.ArgS: Kenda, Pat-kenda;T: VattakanniLCMallotus distans Muell.Arg. DDMallotus eriocarpus (Thw.) Muell.Arg.S: Bulu-Petta, Vel-Keppetiya;T: MaratiniLCMallotus fuscescens (Thw.) Muell.Arg. LCMallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell. Arg.S: Hamparila, Hamparilla; T:KapilaLCMallotus repandus (Willd.) Muell. Arg. LCMallotus resinosus (Blanco) Merr. S: Ma-Endaru LCMallotus rhamnifolius (Willd.) Muell. Arg.Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) KurzS: Molabe; T: Marai-Tinni,MaraitiumS: Bu-Kenda;T: MullupolavuLCLCMicrococca mercurialis (L.). Benth. LCMicrococca oligandra (Muell. Arg.) Prain VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ptychopyxis thwaitesii (Baill.) Croizat S: Wal-Rambutan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sapium indicum Willd. S: Kiri-Makulu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. S: Kaduru,Tel-Kaduru LCSebastiania chamaelea (L.) Muell. Arg. S: Rat Pita Wakka LCSuregada angustifolia (Muell. Arg.) AiryShawLCSuregada lanceolata (Willd.) Kuntze T: Kakkaipalai, Potpattai LCTragia hispida Willd. S: Wel-Kahabiliya LCTragia involucrata L. S: Wel-Kahabiliya LCTragia muelleriana Pax & Hoffm. CR(PE)Tragia plukenetii Radcliffe-Smith S: Wel-Kahabiliya NTTrewia nudiflora L.E: Fever Tree; S: Opinna;T:Karachal-Maran,TidimbiVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Trigonostemon diplopetalus Thw. CR(PE)Trigonostemon nemoralis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : Fabaceae258

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaAbarema abeywickramae Kosterm. ENAbarema bigemina (L.) Kosterm. S: Kalatiya LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Abarema subcoriacea (Thw.) Kosterm. S: Mimini-Mara VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Abrus melanospermus Hassk. S: Ella-Olinda LCAbrus precatorius L.E: Crab's Eyes, IndianLiquorice; S: Olinda, Olinda-Wel; T: Kundu-Mani, Kuntu-ManiLCAcacia caesia (L.) Willd. S: Hinguru-Vel LCAcacia chundra Willd.Acacia eburnea (L. f.) Willd.S: Rat-Kihiriya; E: Redcutch;T: karangali,kodalimurukaiE: Cockspur Thorn;S: Kaludai, Udai-VelAcacia lankaensis Kosterm. ENAcacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.S: Katu-Andara, MahaAndara; T: Velvalayam,VelveLCLCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. S: Goda Hinguru, Hinguru LCAcacia planifrons Wight & Arn.Acacia tomentosa Willd.E: Jungle Nail, UmbrellaTree; T: Odai, UdaiE: Elephant Thorn, JungleNail; T: AnaimulliLCVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Adenanthera bicolor Moon S: Mas-Mora NTAdenanthera pavonina L.Aeschynomene aspera L.Aeschynomene indica L.S: Madatiya;T: Anaikuntumani,AnikundumaniE: Pith Plant, Shola,Shola-Pith; S: Maha-Diya-Siyambala; T: AttuneddiS: Diya-Siyambala, Heen-Diya-SiyambalaAganope heptaphylla (L.) Polhill CRAlbizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin.Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr.T: Thuringi, Usil Ujil, Uyil,WienjaS: Kabal-Mara, Hulan-Mara;T: Pili VagaiAlbizia lankaensis Kosterm. CRAlbizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth.S: Mara, Suriya-Mara;T: Kona, Vakai, VageiS: Huriyi, Suriya-Mara;T: PonnaimurankaiLCLCLCNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)NTLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)259

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaAlysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. T: Kutiraival DDAlysicarpus heyneanus Wight & Arn. DDAlysicarpus longifolius (Rottler ex Spreng.)Wight & Arn.DDAlysicarpus monilifer (L.) DC. DDAlysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC. DDAlysicarpus scariosus (Rottler ex Spreng.)Graham ex Thw.DDAlysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. S: Aswenna LCAphyllodium biarticulatum (L.) Gagnep. LCAtylosia albicans (Wight & Arn.) Benth. S: Wal-Kollu NTAtylosia rugosa Wight & Arn. S: Wal-Kollu LCAtylosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth.S: Wal-Kollu, Wa- Undu,Wal-Undu-WelLCAtylosia trinervia (DC.) Gamble S: Atta-tora, Et-tora LCBauhinia racemosa Lam. E: Atti; S: Maila, Mayila LCBauhinia tomentosa L.Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.S: Kaha-Petan, Petan;T: Tiruvathi, TiruvattiE: Bengal Kino; S: Gas-Kela;T: Parasu, MurrakanE: Grey Nicker; S: Kalu-Vavuletiya, Kumburu-Wel,Wael-Kumburu;T: PunaikkalaichchiLCVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)LCCaesalpinia crista L. S: Diya-Wavuletiya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston NTCaesalpinia digyna Rottler E: Tari Pods; S: Hinguru CRCaesalpinia hymenocarpa (Prain) HattinkCaesalpinia major (Medikus) Dandy &ExcellCaesalpinia sappan L.S: Goda-Wawuletiya, Rat-Kalabatu-WelNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)E: Yellow Nicker VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)E: Sappan Wood;S: PatangiCanavalia cathartica Thouars E: Wild Bean LCDDCanavalia mollis Wall. ex Wight & Arn. DDCanavalia rosea (Sw.) DC. S: Mudu-Awara LC260

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCanavalia virosa (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. S: Mudu-Awara, Wal-Awara LCCassia absus L. S: Bu-Tora LCCassia aeschinomene DC. ex Collad. LCCassia auricoma Graham ex Steyaert VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cassia auriculata L.S: Ranawara; E: Matara Tea;T: AvaraiLCCassia hirsuta L. LCCassia italica (Mill.) Spreng.E: Italian senna;T: NilavakaiDDCassia kleinii Wight & Arn. S; Bin-siyambala LCCassia mimosoides L. S: Bin-Siyambala LCCassia occidentalis L.E: Cofee-Senna, Cofee-Weed; S: Peni Tora, HiwalThora; T:PonnantakaraiLCCassia roxburghii DC. S: Ratu-Wa; T: Vakai LCCassia senna L. E: True senna DDCassia siamea Lam.S: Aramana,Wa; E; Kassodtree; T: manga konnei, vakaiLCCassia sophera L. S:Uru-Kona; T:Munjal-Kona LCCassia tora L. S: Peti-Tora, Tora LCCathormion umbellatum (Vahl) Kosterm. T: Ichchavalai, Iyamalai VUClitoria ternatea L.S: Katarodu-Wal, Nil-Katarodu; T: KaruttappuLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth LCCrotalaria angulata Mill. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Crotalaria berteroana DC. DDCrotalaria bidiei Gamble VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Crotalaria calycina Schrank S: Gorandiya LCCrotalaria clavata Wight & Arn. ENCrotalaria evolvuloides Wight ex Wight &Arn.NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Crotalaria ferruginea Graham ex Benth. LC261

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCrotalaria hebecarpa (DC.) Rudd S: Bu-Gota-Kota LCCrotalaria juncea L.S:Hana; E: Hemp, Sunn-HempDDCrotalaria laburnifolia L. S: Yak-Beriya LCCrotalaria linifolia L. f. DDCrotalaria lunulata Heyne ex Wight & Arn. LCCrotalaria medicaginea Lam. NTCrotalaria montana Roth DDCrotalaria multiflora (Arn.) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Crotalaria mysorensis Roth CR(PE)Crotalaria nana Burm. f. LCCrotalaria pallida Ait. LCCrotalaria prostrata Rottler ex Willd. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Crotalaria quinquefolia L. LCCrotalaria retusa L.S: Kaha-Andana-Hiriya;T:KilukiluppaiLCCrotalaria scabrella Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Crotalaria verrucosa L.E:Blue-Andana; S: Nil-Andana-Hiriya, Silibili;T:KilukiluppaiLCCrotalaria walkeri Arn. LCCrotalaria wightiana Graham ex Wight &Arn.CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Crudia zeylanica (Thw.) Benth. EXCullen corylifolium (L.) MedikusCyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.Cynometra iripa Kostel.S: Bodi; T: Karporgam,Kavothi, KavotiE: Cluster Bean, Guar;T: Koth-AverayS: Opulu; T: Attukaddupuli,KadumpuliEN B2ab(i,ii,iii)DDVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cynometra zeylanica Kosterm. NTDalbergia candenatensis (Dennst.) Prain VUDalbergia lanceolaria L.f.Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo Miq.S: Bol-Mara, Kala, HuriMara; T: VelaruvaiE: Hornet Creeper;S: Bambara-WelB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LC262

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDendrolobium triangulare (Retz.) Schindl. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dendrolobium umbellatum (L.) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Derris benthamii (Thw.) Thw.Derris canarensis (Dalz.) BakerS: Han-Kala-Wel; T: Karapu-TekelS: Diya-Kala-Wel, Kalu-Kala-WelVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)NTDerris parviflora Benth. S: Kala-Vel, Sudu-Kala-Wel LCDerris scandens (Roxb.) Benth.Derris trifoliata Lour.S: Ala-Vel, Bo-Kala-Wel,Kala-Wel; T: KalunguKodi,Telil, Welan-TekalS: Kala-Wel;T: Tekil,Tilankoddi, UppuThailan-KodiLCLCDesmodium caudatum (Thunb.) DC. CR(PE)Desmodium ferrugineum Wall. ex Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. S: Et-Undupiyali LCDesmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. S: Maha-Undupiyaliaya LCDesmodium jucundum Thw. CR(PE)Desmodium laxum DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.) DC. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Desmodium pryonii DC. LCDesmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Desmodium styracifolium (Osbeck) Merr. DDDesmodium triflorum (L.) DC. S: Heen-Undupiyali LCDesmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. CRDesmodium zonatum Miq. ENDialium ovoideum Thw.E: Velvel Tamarind; S: Gal-Siyambala; T: KaddupuliDichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Andara; T: Vindattai LCVU A1 dB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dioclea javanica Benth. CR(PE)Dolichos trilobus L. S: Wal Dambala NT263

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDumasia villosa DC. var. leiocarpa(Benth.) BakerDunbaria ferruginea Wight & Arn. ENDunbaria heynei Wight & Arn. CR(PE)ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eleiotis monophyllos (Burm.f.) DC. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Entada pusaetha DC. S : Pus-Wel LCEntada zeylanica Kosterm VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Erythrina fusca Lour. S: Yak-Erabadu NTErythrina variegata L.E: Coral Tree, IndianCoral Tree,Thorny Dadap;S: Erabadu, Eramudu,Katu-Eramudu,Weta-Erabodu,Yak-Erabodu;T: Mulu-Murukku, Murukku,MurunguFlemingia lineata (L.) Roxb. CRLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. S: Wal-Undu CR(PE)Flemingia strobilifera (L.) Roxb S: Hampilla, Hampinna LCFlemingia wightiana Graham ex Wight &Arn.DDGalactia striata (Jacq.) Urban DDHumboldtia laurifolia (Vahl) VahlIndigofera aspalathoides Vahl ex DC.S: Gal-Karanda, Ruan-KarandaS: Rat Kohomba;T: Chivanarvempu,SivanarvumLCNTIndigofera barberi Gamble DDIndigofera colutea (Burm.f.) Merr. NTIndigofera constricta (Thw.) Trimen CR(PE)Indigofera galegoides DC. S: Veliveriya NTIndigofera glabra L. LCIndigofera hirsuta L. S: Boo-Awari LCIndigofera karnatakana Sanjappa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)264

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaIndigofera linnaei AliIndigofera nummulariifolia (L.) Livera exAlstonS: Bin-Avari, Binavari;T: CheppunerenchiIndigofera oblongifolia Forssk. T: Kuttukarasmatti, Nante VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)LCLCIndigofera parviflora Heyne ex Wight &Arn.Indigofera tinctoria L.E: Indigo; S: Nil-Awari;T: NilamDDLCIndigofera trita L. f. S: Wal-Awari LCIndigofera wightii Graham ex Wight & Arn. CR(PE)Lablab purpureus (L.) SweetE: Bonavist Bean, HyacinthBean, Lablab Bean, WildBean; S: Ho-Dhambala, Kiri-Dambala, Kos-Ata-Dambala,Ratu-Peti-Dambala, Sudu-Peti Dambala;T: Minni,Motchai,Tatta-PayaruLCMacrotyloma axillare (E. Meyer) Verdc. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Macrotyloma ciliatum (Willd.) Verdc. CRMacrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc.E: Horse Gram, MadrasGram; S: Kollu; T: KolluB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Mucuna atropurpurea (Roxb.) DC. exWight & Arn.S: Buchariwa, Ginipus Eta,Bu-Chariya, Gini-Pus-Wel,Ginipus Wel, Buchariwa,Mudu- Evara; T: Pandatullai,PunnakalichiNTMucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. S: Kana-Pus-Waela CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Mucuna monosperma (Roxb.) DC. CR(PE)Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. ChevalierE: Cowage, Cowhage,Cowitch; S: Achariya,Achariya-Pala, Wanduru-Me,Wel-Damiya; T: Chunao-Avarai, Poonayakali,PunnaikkaaliS: Gal-Buruta, Kang-Bandi-Gas, Wal-Buruta, Gal-Burutu; T: PilavaiamLCNTNeonotonia wightii (Graham ex Wight &Arn.) LackeyS: Goradiya ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Neptunia oleracea Lour. S: Diya-Nidikumba LC265

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaOrmocarpum sennoides (Willd.) DC. S: Sudu Avariya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Painteria nitida (Vahl) Kosterm. S: Diya-Mara VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham. Ex D.DonE: Hamrock Pea EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Pericopsis mooniana (Thw.) Thw. E: Nadun Wood; S: Nadun VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. S: Hampilla NTPongamia pinnata (L.) PierreE: Indian Beech, MullikulamTree; S: Gal-Karanda,Karanda, Magul-Karanda; T:Poona, Punka, PunkuLCPseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Gas Gonika LCPterocarpus marsupium Roxb.S: Gammalu; T: Utera-Venkai, VenkaiVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pycnospora lutescens (Poir.) Schindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchosia acutissima Thw. CR(PE)Rhynchosia aurea (Willd.) DC. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchosia cana (Willd.) DC. S: Gas-Kollu NTRhynchosia capitata (Roth) DC. DDRhynchosia densiflora (Roth) DC. CR(PE)Rhynchosia hirta (Andr.) Meikle & Verdc. S: Heen-Garadiya CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. S: Maha-Wal-Kollu LCRhynchosia nummularia (L.) DC. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchosia rufescens (Willd.) DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchosia suaveolens (L.f.) DC. CR(PE)Rhynchosia velutina Wight & Arn. CRRhynchosia viscosa (Roth) DC. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Rothia indica (L.) Druce LCSaraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wild.S: Ashoka, Asoka, Diya-Rathambala, Diya-Ratmal;T: AsogamVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W.F. Wight LCSesbania sericea (Willd.) Link CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)266

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaShuteria vestita Wight & Arn. NTSmithia conferta Smith VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Smithia racemosa Heyne ex Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sophora tomentosa L. S; Mudu-Murunga LCSophora violacea Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Sophora zeylanica Trimen ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Strongylodon siderospermus Cordemoy CR(PE)Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston S; Wal-Nanu LCTadehagi triquetrum (L.) Ohashi S: Baloliya LCTephrosia maxima (L.) Pers. LCTephrosia pumila (Lam.) pers. LCTephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.S: Pila, Gam-Pila; T: Kavilai,Kawati, KolinchiLCTephrosia senticosa (L.) Pers. S:Alu-Pila NTTephrosia spinosa (L. f.) Pers. T: Mukavaliver CR(PE)Tephrosia tinctoria (L.) Pers. S: Alu-Pila LCTephrosia villosa (L.) Pers. S: Bu-Pila LCTeramnus labialis (L. f.) Spreng. S: Wal-Kollu LCTeramnus mollis Benth. S: Wal-Kollu ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Uraria picta (Jacq.) DC. NTUraria rufescens (DC.) Schindl. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Vigna aridicola N. Tomooka & Maxted EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Vigna dalzelliana (Kuntz) Verdcourt ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Vigna marina (Burm.) Merr. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Vigna radiata var. sublobata (Roxb.)Verdc.,NTVigna stipulacea (Lam.) Kuntze NTVigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. S: Bin-Me, Munwenna NT267

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaVigna trinervia (Heyne ex Wight & Arnott)TetaishiZornia diphylla (L.) Pers. NTEN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Zornia gibbosa Span. LCZornia walkeri Arn. NTFamily : FlacourtiaceaeChlorocarpa pentaschista Alston S: Makulla, Gomma, Patma VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dovyalis hebecarpa (Gardner) Warb.Erythrospermum zeylanicum (Gaertn.)AlstonS: Ketambilla; E: CeylonGooseberryS: Dodan-Wenna LCEN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Osmelia gardneri Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : FlagellariaceaeFlagellaria indica L. S: Goyi-Wel LCFamily : GentianaceaeCanscora decussata (Roxb.) Roem. &Schult.Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. ENVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Canscora heteroclita (L.) Gilg VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Canscora roxburghii Arn. ex Miq. ENCrawfurdia championii (Gardner)TrimenCR(PE)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Enicostema axillare (Lam.) Raynal LCExacum axillare Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Exacum macranthum Arn. ex. Griseb. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)Exacum pallidum (Trimen) Klack. ENExacum pedunculatum L. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Exacum petiolare Griseb. LCExacum sessile L. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Exacum trinervium (Trimen) Cramer NT268

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaExacum walkeri Arn. ENFagraea ceilanica Thunb. S: Etamburu NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Gentiana quadrifaria var. zeylanica Blume NTHoppea fastigiata (Griseb.) Clarke VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Swertia zeylanica (Griseb.) Walker exClarkeEN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : GeraniaceaeGeranium nepalense Sweet CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : GesneriaceaeAeschynanthus ceylanica Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Championia reticulata Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Chirita angusta (Clarke) Theobald &GrupeChirita moonii Gardner ENVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Chirita walkeri Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Chirita zeylanica Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Didymocarpus floccosus Thw. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Didymocarpus humboldtianus Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Didymocarpus zeylanicus R.Br. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Epithema carnosum (G.Don) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchoglossum gardneri Theobald &GrupeENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) Burtt S: Diya Nilla NTRhynchotechum permolle (Nees) Burtt VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : GisekiaceaeGisekia pharnaceoides L.Family : GoodeniaceaeS: Atthiripala; T: Manlkirai,ManaliLCScaevola plumieri (L.) Vahl S: Heen-Takkada NTScaevola taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. S: Takkada LC269

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : HaloragaceaeLaurembergia coccinea (Blume) Kanitz VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Laurembergia minor (Clarke) Philcox CR(PE)Laurembergia zeylanica (Clarke)SchindlerCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Myriophyllum indicum Willd. LC LCFamily : HernandiaceaeGyrocarpus americanus Jacq. S: Wal-Papol, Diya-labu-gas LCHernandia nymphaeifolia (Presl) Kubitzki S; Palatu, Paluta VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : HydrocharitaceaeBlyxa auberti Rich. S: Diya-Hawari LCBlyxa octandra (Roxb.) Planch. ex Thw. LCEnhalus acoroides (L. f.) Royle NT LCHalophila beccarii Asch. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VUB2ab(iii)c(ii,iii)Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld NT LCHalophila ovalis (R. Br.) Hook. f. LC LCHydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle S: Halpenni LC LCNajas graminea Del. LCNajas marina L. DDNajas minor All. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Planch.ex Thw.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCOttelia alismoides (L.) Pers. LC LCThalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Asch. NTFamily : HydroleaceaeHydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl S: Diya-Kirilla NT LCFamily : HypericaceaeHypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murray NT270

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaHypericum mysurense Wight & Arn. E: St.John's Wort EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : HypoxidaceaeCurculigo orchioides Gaertn.Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr.Family : IcacinaceaeS: Bim-Thal, Heen-Bin-Tal; T:WolappanaiS: Bu-Bim Thal, Ma-BimThal, Maha Bin ThalLCVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Apodytes dimidiata E. Meyer ex Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham)Mabb.NTPyrenacantha volubilis Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : JuncaceaeJuncus effusus L. LCJuncus leschenaultii J.Gay ex Laharpe VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Juncus wallichianus Laharpe VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : LamiaceaeAnisochilus carnosus (L.f.) Wall. ex Benth. S: Gal Kapuru Walliya LCAnisochilus paniculatus Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Anisochilus velutinus Trimen S: Bolila, Bolvila VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze S: Yak Wanassa LCAnisomeles malabarica (L.) R. Br. ex Sims T: Pey Maruddi LCBasilicum polystachyon (L.) Moench LCCallicarpa tomentosa (L.) Murr.Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn.Clerodendrum infortunatum L.Clerodendrum phlomidis L.S: Eela-Gas, Illa; T: Koat-KomalS: Wal Gurenda, Boerende,Gulinda;T: Sangam, Dangamkuppi,Pinari, KoikaS: Gas Pinna, Pinna, PinnaKole, Pine-Ette;T: Perugilai, Perumkila, VataMadakkiS: Gas-Pinna; T: VataMadakkai, Talu DalaLCLCLCNT271

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaClerodendrum serratum (L.) MoonS: Kan Henda; T: ChiruDekku, Chiru Tekku, SiriTekku, Vatamadakki, Rata-Madakki, Kandu-ParangiLCClinopodium umbrosum (Bieb.) Koch VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Glossocarya scandens (L.f.) Trimen NTGmelina arborea Roxb.Gmelina asiatica L.E: Kashmir Tree, CandaharTree, Comb Tree,Snapdragon Tree, MalayBeachwood; S: At Demata;T: Gumadi, Kumil, Kainadi,Gumudu-Takku, UmiE: Asiatic Beechberry;S: Demata, Gatta Demmata;T: Kumil, Kainadi, Gumadi,Nela-Kumi, Nilacumal, Nil-KumiNTLCIsodon capillipes (Benth.) H.Hara CR(PE)Isodon coetsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don.)KudoNTIsodon hians (Benth.) H.W.Li. CR(PE)Isodon nigrescens (Benth.) H.Hara LCIsodon walkeri (Arn.) H. Hara ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Leucas angularis Benth. DDLeucas biflora (Vahl) Benth.S: Geta-Tumba; T: Peyt-TumpaiLCLeucas longifolia Benth. CR(PE)Leucas marrubioides Desf. S: Sudu Tumba LCLeucas mollissima Wall. ex Benth. DDLeucas zeylanica (L.) R. Br.Mentha arvensis L. var. javanica (Blume)Hook. f.Ocimum americanum L.S: Geta Tumba; T: Mudi-TumpaiLCS: Odu-Talan DDE: Heen-Tala; S: SuwanduTalaLCOcimum filamentosum Forssk. LCOcimum gratissimum L. S: Gas-Tala,O-Tala LCOcimum tenuiflorum L.E: Sacred basil, S: Maduru-TalaLCOrthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. DD272

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaOrthosiphon thymiflorus (Roth) Sleesen NTPlatostoma elongatum (Benth.) A. J.PatonVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Platostoma menthoides (L.) A. J. Paton LCPlectranthus barbatus Andr. S: Wal-Kapuru-Walliya NTPlectranthus crameri Willemse. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Plectranthus elongatus (Trimen )WillemseCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Plectranthus gardneri Thw. LCPlectranthus glabratus ( Benth.) Alston CR(PE)Plectranthus inflatus ( Benth.) Willemse LCPlectranthus kanneliyensis (Cramer &Balasubramaniam) WillemsePlectranthus malabaricus ( Benth.)WillemseLCLCPlectranthus subincisus Benth. CR(PE)Plectranthus zatarhendi (Forssk.) E. A.Bruce var. tomentosa (Benth.) CoddS: Iriweriya ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pogostemon auricularius (L.) Hassk. S: Hemanilla LCPogostemon heyneanus Benth.S: Gan-kollan-Kola, Gas-Kolan-KolaLCPogostemon hirsutus Benth. LCPogostemon lythroides (Diels) Press DDPogostemon reflexus Benth. NTPogostemon rupestris Benth. NTPogostemon verticillatus (Benth.) Bhatti &IngrouilleLCPremna alstoni Moldenke S: Mulla, Gal Kera LCPremna divaricata Wall. ENPremna latifolia Roxb.S: Maha Midi;T: PachumullaiLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Premna obtusifolia R.BrE: Headache Tree;S: Middee Gas, Maha Midi;T: ErumaimullaLC273

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPremna procumbens MoonS: Le-Kola-Pala; T: Mullai,MullaPremna purpurascens Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCPremna thwaitesii Clarke S: Mulla CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Premna tomentosa Willd.S: Boo-Seru, Noo-Sairou,Boo Sera, Boo-Sairoo-Gas,Bu-Seru; T: Koluk-Kutti,Loluto-Kutti, Kollay-Cottaynellay, KolkuttiLCPriva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Scutellaria oblonga Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Scutellaria robusta Benth. CR(PE)Scutellaria violacea Heyne ex Benth. LCSymphorema involucratum Roxb. DDTeucrium tomentosum Heyne ex Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Vitex altissima L.f.Vitex leucoxylon L.f.Vitex negundo L.S: Kaha-Milla, Mililla-Gas,Millla, Miyan- Milla, Sapu-Milla ; T: Kaaddmanakku,Kadamanakku,Kadamananakku, Maila,MayilaS: Nabudda, Nabada,Nebedda ; T: Kaddu-Nochchi, Kardu-Nochi, Nir,Kardu-NochS: Nika, Nikka, Nike,Helarika, Nil-Nika, Nirgundi,Sudu Nika;T: Nir-Nichchi, Nochchi,Vallai-Nochchi, VennochchiNTLCLCVitex trifolia L.E: Beach Vitex, Polinalina,Oval Leaved Chest Tree; S:Nieke, Nikki, NochchiNTFamily : LauraceaeActinodaphne albifrons Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cActinodaphne ambigua (Meissner)Hook.f.Actinodaphne candolleana (Thw.)MeissnerLCNTActinodaphne elegans Thw. LC274

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaActinodaphne glauca Nees var.subtriplinervis (Meissner) Kosterm.Actinodaphne molochina Nees ENVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Actinodaphne moonii Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Actinodaphne speciosa Nees. E: Elephants' Ears ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Actinodaphne stenophylla Thw. S: Nika-Daula VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Alseodaphne semecarpifolia NeesS: Wewaranai;T: Yavaranai, RanaiVU A2 (d)Beilschmiedia zeylanica (Thw.) Trimen S: Kanu NTCassytha capillaries Meissner CR(PE)Cassytha filiformis L. LCCinnamomum capparu-coronde BlumeE: Camphor Cinnamon;S: Kappuru- KurunduVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1c, B1+2cCinnamomum citriodorum Thw. S: Pengiri- Kurundu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cCinnamomum dubium NeesS: Sewel- Kurundu, Wal-KurunduCinnamomum litseaefolium Thw. S: Kudu-Kurundu ENVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cinnamomum ovalifolium Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cinnamomum rivulorum Kosterm. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR iB1+2cCinnamomum sinharajaense Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cinnamomum zeylanicum BlumeE: Cinnamon;S: Kurundu;T: Kuruva,KuruwaVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptocarya membranacea Thw. S: Gal-Mora,Tawenna VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cCryptocarya wightiana Thw. S: Gal-mora, Golu-mora NT VU i A1cLitsea fosbergii Kosterm. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Litsea gardneri (Thw.) Meissner S:Talan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cLitsea glaberrima (Thw.) Trimen NT EN i B1+2cLitsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.RobinsonS: Bombee, Bomee;T: Elumpurukki, Maida-LaktiLCLitsea iteodaphne (Nees) Hook.f. S: Kalu-Nika VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cLitsea ligustrina (Nees) Kosterm. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU i B1+2c275

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaLitsea longifolia (Nees) Trimen S:Rat-Keliya LC VU i A1cLitsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. CRLitsea nemoralis (Thw.) Trimen ENLitsea ovalifolia (Wight) Trimen NTLitsea quinqueflora (Dennst.) C.R.Suresh S: Kosbsda, Landittan ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i B1+2cLitsea walkeri (Meissner) Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm.E: Wild Cinnamon;S: Dawul-KurunduLCNeolitsea foliosa (Nees) Gamble CR(PE)Neolitsea fuscata (Thw.) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Neolitsea lancifolia (Thw.) Kosterm. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. S: Ululu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : LecythidaceaeBarringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn.S: Ela Midella, Era Midella;T: AdampuLCBarringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz S: Mudilla LC LC iBarringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng.S: Goda-Midella, Diya-Midella, MidellaLCBarringtonia waasii P.Chantaranothai DDCareya arborea Roxb.Family : LentibulariaceaeE: Patana Oak; S: Kahata; T:KachaddaiLCUtricularia aurea Lour. S: Diya Pasi LC LCUtricularia australis R.Br. DD LCUtricularia bifida L. NT LCUtricularia caerulea L. S: Nil-Monerassa LCUtricularia gibba L. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCUtricularia graminifolia Vahl NT LCUtricularia hirta Klein ex Link CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Utricularia minutissima Vahl EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)276

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaUtricularia moniliformis P.Taylor VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Utricularia polygaloides Edgew. LCUtricularia reticulata Sm. S: Nil-Monerassa LC LCUtricularia scandens Benj. S: Nil Monerassa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Utricularia stellaris L.f. LCUtricularia striatula Sm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Utricularia uliginosa Vahl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : LinaceaeHugonia ferruginea Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hugonia mystax L.Family: LindernaceaeS: Bu-Getiya, Maha-Getiya,Watti-Weti;T: MotirakanniLCArtanema longifolium (L.) Vatke S: Gas Kotala LCLindernia anagallis (Burm.f.) Pennell LCLindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. NTLindernia antipoda (L.) Alston S: Wila LCLindernia ciliata (Colsmann) Pennel NTLindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell. LCLindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines LCLindernia nummularifolia (Don) Wettst. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lindernia pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh LCLindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston LCLindernia srilankana Cramer & Philcox ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lindernia tenuifolia (Colsmann) Alston NTLindernia viscosa (Hornem.) Boldingh CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Torenia aerinea Alston ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Torenia cyanea Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)277

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaTorenia travancorica Gamble S: Kotala NTFamily : LoganiaceaeMitrasacme indica Wight NTStrychnos benthamii C.B.Clarke NTStrychnos coriacea Thw. CR(PE)Strychnos minor Dennst.Strychnos nux-vomica L.S: Kaduru, Kaduru Ketiya-Wel; T: KachchalkodiE: Nux-Vomica; S:Godakaduru; T: Eddi,KanchuraiLCVU A2 (d)Strychnos potatorum L. f. S: Ingini; T: Tetta VU A2 (d)Strychnos tetragona A.W. Hill VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Strychnos trichocalyx A.W. HillS: Thelatiya, Gona-Karaba,KaduruVU A2 (d)Strychnos wallichiana Steud. ex DC. S: Wel-Beli, Eta-Kirindi-Wel NTFamily : LoranthaceaeBarathranthus mabaeoides (Trimen)DanserBarathranthus nodiflorus (Thw.)TieghemENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ethingsh. LCDendrophthoe ligulata (Thw.) Tieghem VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dendrophthoe lonchiphyllus (Thw.)Denser.Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis (Wight &Arn.) TieghemDendrophthoe suborbicularis (Thw.)DenserCR A2cLCVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Helixanthera ensifolia (Thw.) Danser CR(PE)Helixanthera hookeriana (Wight & Arn.)DanserNTMacrosolen albicaulis Wiens VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Macrosolen barlowii Wiens ENMacrosolen capitellatus (Wight & Arn.)DanserNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Macrosolen parasiticus (L.) Danser VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Scurrula cordifolia (Wall.) G.Don NT278

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaScurrula parasitica L. LCTaxillus courtallensis (Gamble) Danser VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Taxillus cuneatus (Roth) Danser LCTaxillus incanus (Trimen) Wiens NTTaxillus sclerophyllus (Thw.) Danser VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Taxillus tomentosus (Roth) Tieghem LCTolypanthus gardneri (Thw.) Tieghem VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : LythraceaeAmmannia baccifera L. LC LCAmmannia octandra L. f. LC LCLagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.Lawsonia inermis L.E: Pride of India, Queen'sflower; S: Murutu, Muruthagaha;T: Kadali, Pu-MaruthuE: Camphire,Henna,Tree-Mignonette; S: Marutondi; T:Marathondi, Marutonti,NTLCNesaea brevipes Koehne NT LCNesaea lanceolata (Heyne ex Clarke)KoehneEN B2ad(I,ii,iii)Pemphis acidula J.R. & G.Forst T: Kiri-Maram NT LCRotala densiflora (Roth ex. Roem. &Schult.) KoehneLC LCRotala indica (Willd.) Koehne DD LCRotala rosea (Poir.) Cook LC LCRotala verticillaris L. NT LCSonneratia alba J. Sm. ENSonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. S: Kirilla LCTrapa bispinosa Roxb. E: Water Chestnut; S: Ikiliya NTWoodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz S: Malitta VUFamily : MagnoliaceaeA2 d,B1ab(i,ii,iii)LC i279

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMichelia nilagirica Zenker S: Wal-Sapu VU B1ad(I,ii,iii)Family : MalpighiaceaeHiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz S: Puwak-Gediya-Wel LCHiptage parvifolia Wight & Arn. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : MalvaceaeAbelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight& Arn.Abelmoschus ficulneus (L.) Wight & Arn.ex WightAbelmoschus moschatus MedikusS: Kapu-Kinissa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)S: Kapu Kinissa;T: KatukkasturiAbutilon crispum (L.) Medikus ENAbutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet T: Vaddattutti LCVUNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Abutilon indicum (L.) SweetS: Wal Anoda, Panagedi,Anoda; T: Peruntulli,Peruntutti, VaddattuttiLCAbutilon pannosum (Forster f.) Schldl. LCAbutilon subumbellatum Philcox ENBerrya cordifolia (Willd.) BurretE: Trincomalee Wood;S: Hal-Milla;T: ChavandalaiLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Bombax ceiba L.Ceiba pentandra var pentandra (L.)Gaertn.E: Cotton Tree; S: KatuImbul; T: Parutti, Kaddu-Olaga, IllavuE: Kapok Tree; S: Pulun-Imbul, ImbulLCLCCorchorus fascicularis Lam. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Corchorus olitorius L. E: Jute VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Corchorus trilocularis L. CR(PE)Corchorus urticifolius Wight & Arn. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cullenia ceylanica (Gardner) K. Schum. S: Katu-Boda, Kata-Boda LC VU i A1cCullenia rosayroana Kosterm.S: Katu-Boda, Kata-Boda; T:Mullu-PilakaDicellostyles axillaris (Thw.) Benth. CRDiplodiscus verrucosus (Thw.) Kosterm.S: Dik Andhe, Dik Wenna; T:Vid Pani, Yakada MaramLC LC iLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR D280

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaEriolaena hookeriana Wight & Arn. CRFirmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br.E: Bonfire tree; S:Bataliya,Pataliya-Gas;T: Malaiparutti, MulaipurathiNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Grewia bracteata Heyne ex Roth VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Grewia carpinifolia Juss. LCGrewia damine Gaertn.Grewia helicterifolia Wall. ex G.DonS: Daminiya; T: Cadachi,ChadachchiS: Bora Daminiya, Boru-Daminiya; T: TaviddaiLCLCGrewia hirsuta Vahl CR(PE)Grewia orientalis L.S: Wel Keliya, Wel-Mediya;T: Kodi Taviddai,TaviddaiLCGrewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori T: Achu, Katu Peratti, Achchu NTHelicteres isora L.Heritiera littoralis DryanderE: Screw tree;S: Lihiniya, Liniya;T: Kawa,Vallampanai,Vallampuri, VellampidiE: Boat-Shaped Mangrove;S: Attona, Etuna, Homediriya;T: ChonmuntiriNTNTHibiscus eriocarpus DC. S: Kapu-Kinissa; T:paritti LCHibiscus furcatus Roxb. S: Na Pirittha LCHibiscus lobatus (Murray) Kuntze LCHibiscus lunariifolius Willd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hibiscus micranthus L. f. S: Bebila; T:Perumaddi LCHibiscus panduriformis Burm. f. CR(PE)Hibiscus surattensis L. S: Hin-Napiritta LCHibiscus tiliaceus L.S: Beli-Patta; T: Aritia, Nir-ParatthiLCHibiscus vitifolius L. S: Maha-Epala; T:Vaddattutti LCJulostylis angustifolia (Arn.) Thw. S: Kirella ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke LCMelochia corchorifolia L. S: Gal Kura, Maha-Galkura LCMicrocos paniculata L.S: Keliya, Kohu-Kirilla;T: KapilaLC281

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPavonia fryxelliana Fosberg & Sachet ENPavonia odorata Willd. LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pavonia procumbens (Wight & Arn.) Walp. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav. NTPentapetes phoenicea L. S: Bandu-Wada LCPterospermum suberifolium (L.) Willd. S: Welang LCPterygota thwaitesii (Masters) Alston S: Etaritiva, Galnawa VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sida acuta Burm. f. S: Gas-Bebila LCSida alnifolia L. LCSida cordata (Burm. f.) Borssum WaalkesSida cordifolia L.Sida mysorensis Wight & Arn.Sida rhombifolia L.S: Bevila; T: Palampadu,PalampasiS: Wal-Bevila ,Heen Anoda;T: CheevakanpuduS: Giriwadi-Bevila, Siriwedi-BevilaS: Kotikan-Bevila, Bebila; T:ChittamaddiLCLCLCLCSida spinosa L. LCSterculia balanghas L. S: Nawa LCSterculia foetida L.Sterculia urens Roxb.S: Telambu,Telembu;T: Kadutenga, Kaduteynga,PinariS: Dadiya, Kawali,AlaheraliyaLCNTSterculia zeylanica Kosterm. S: Kavali, Kavili,Tondi EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibson S: Wal-Kapu ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex CorreaS: Suriya, Gan Suriya,Tuliptree; T: Kavarachu,PuvarachuLCTriumfetta glabra Rottler VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Triumfetta pentandra A.Rich. S: Epala, Kapu Kinissa LCTriumfetta pilosa Roth LCTriumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. S: Epala LC282

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaUrena lobata L. S: Patta-Epala, Epala LCUrena sinuata L. S: Patta-Epala, Heen- Epala LCWaltheria indica L. LCWissadula periplocifolia (L.) Presl ex Thw. S: Kiri-kaju NTFamily : MarantaceaePhrynium rheedii Suresh & Nicolson S: Et-Bemi-Kiriya ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Schumannianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Rolfe S: Geta-Oluwa CR(PE)Stachyphrynium zeylanicum (Benth.)K.Schum.S: Hulan-Kiriya CR(PE)Family : MelastomataceaeKendrickia walkeri (Wight ex Gardner)TrianaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lijndenia capitellata (Arn.) Bremer S:Pini-Baru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lijndenia gardneri (Thw.) Bremer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Medinilla cuneata (Thw.) Bremer &LundinMedinilla fuchsioides Gardner ENMedinilla maculata Gardner ENMelastoma malabathricum L.S: Bovitiya, Katakaloowa,Maha-BovitiyaENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon angustifolium Wight E: Blue Mist; S: Kora Kaha EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon capitellatum L.S: Dedi-Kaha, Dodan- Kaha,Wel-Kaha, Weli- Kaha; T:Katti-Kaya, Pavaddai-Kaya,Venkali-KayaLCMemecylon clarkeanum Cong. NTMemecylon cuneatum Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon discolor Cogn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon ellipticum Thw. ENMemecylon fuscescens Thw. ENMemecylon giganteum Alston ENMemecylon gracillimum Alston CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)283

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMemecylon grande Retz. S:Dedi-kaha, Dodan-Wenna EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon hookeri Thw. S: Kevitiya-Kera VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon leucanthemum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon macrocarpum Thw. S; Mahakuratiya ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon macrophyllum Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon orbiculare Thw. CRMemecylon ovoideum Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon parvifolium Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon petiolatum Trimen ex Alston NTMemecylon phyllanthifolium Thw. exAlstonCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon procerum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon revolutum Thw. ENMemecylon rhinophyllum Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon rivulare Bremer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon rostratum Thw.S: Hen-Kuetiya, Kin-Kuritiya,KuritiyaMemecylon rotundatum (Thw.) Cogn. ENMemecylon royenii BlumeS: Dedi-Kaha, Weli-Kaha; T:KashamaramNTLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon sessile Benth. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon sylvaticum Thw. NTMemecylon umbellatum Burm.f.E: Blue Mist; S: Kora-Kaha; T: Kaya, Kurre-Kaya,PandikayaLCMemecylon urceolatum Cogn. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon varians Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Memecylon wightii Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Osbeckia aspera (L.) Blume S: Bowitiya NTOsbeckia buxifolia Arn. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)284

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaOsbeckia lanata Alston. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Osbeckia moonii Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Osbeckia octandra (L.) DC. S: Bowitiya, Heen Bowitiya LCOsbeckia parvifolia Arn. S: Bowitiya ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Osbeckia rheedii Gardner ex Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Osbeckia rubicunda Arn. ENOsbeckia walkeri Arn. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Osbeckia zeylanica L. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sonerila affinis Arn. ENSonerila arnottiana Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sonerila cordifolia Cogn. CR(PE)Sonerila crassicaulis Lundin ENSonerila firma (Thw. ex Clarke in Hook.f.)LundinSonerila gardneri Thw. CRSonerila glaberrima Arn. ENSonerila glabricaulis (Thw. ex Clarke inHook.f.) LundinSonerila guneratnei Trimen ENSonerila harveyi Thw. CRSonerila hirsutula Arn. ENSonerila hookeriana Arn. ENSonerila lanceolata Thw. ENSonerila pedunculosa Thw. ENSonerila pilosula Thw. ENSonerila pumila Thw. ENSonerila rhombifolia Thw. ENSonerila robusta Arn. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)285

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSonerila silvatica Lundin ENSonerila tomentella Thw. CR(PE)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sonerila wightiana Arn. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Sonerila zeylanica Wight & Arn. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : MeliaceaeAglaia apiocarpa (Thw.) Hiern. LC VU i A1cAglaia elaeagnoidea (A.Juss.) Benth. T: Kannakampu LC LC iAphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.ParkerS: Ela-Hirilla, Hingul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LC iChukrasia tabularis A.Juss.E: Chittagong Wood;S: Hiri-Kita, Hulan-Hik;T: Aglai, KalotiNT LC iCipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq.Dysoxylum championii Hook. f. &Thoms. ex Thw.S: Hal-Bebiya; T: Pulippan-CheddiLCS: Gona-Pana VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dysoxylum excelsum Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dysoxylum ficiforme (Wight) Gamble NT VU i B1+2cMunronia pinnata (Wall.) Theob. S: Bin-Kohomba ENA2 d,B2ab(i,ii,iii)Walsura gardneri Thw. CR CR i B1+2cWalsura trifoliolata (A.Juss.) HarmsXylocarpus granatum KoenigS: Kirikon, Mal-Petta;T: Chadavakku, Chokala,Kanjimaran, MalaiviraliS: Mutti-Kadol; T: KandalAnga, Kontalai, SomuntheriLCEN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LCXylocarpus rumphii (Kostel.) Mabb. S: Mudu-Delun CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : MenispermaceaeAnamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. S: Titta-Wel LCCissampelos pareira L. S: Diya-Mitta; T: Appatta, LCCocculus hirsutus L. (Theob.) T: Kattukkodi, Sirunkattukodi ENCoscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr.Cyclea peltata (Burm.f.) Hook.f. & Thoms.E: False Calumba; S:Veni-Val-Gata, Weni-Wel,Bang-WelaS: Kehi-Pittan, Kessi-Pissan;T: VouthuvullykodiDiploclisia glaucescens (Blume) Diels T: Kottaiyachachi ENLCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)286

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaHypserpa nitida Miers S: Niri-Wel. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pachygone ovata (Poir.) Hook.f. & Thoms. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Stephania japonica (Thumb.) Miers S: Lunu-Ketiya-Wel VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Tiliacora acuminata (Lam.) Miers T: Manchone, Kocha-Kodi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. &Thoms.S: Rasakinda; T: Chintil VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook.f. & Thoms. S: Titta-Kinda VUTinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.Family : MenyanthaceaeS: Bu-Kinda, Wal-Kinda,Rasa-KindaDDB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Nympoides aurantiacea (Dalz.) Kuntze ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Nympoides hydrophylla (Lour.) Kuntze S: Heen-Ambala, Heen-Olu LCNympoides indica (L.) Kuntze S: Maha-Ambala, Olu LCNympoides parviflora (Griseb.) Kuntze S: Bin Olu ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : MolluginaceaeGlinus lotoides L. LCGlinus oppositifolia (L.) A. DC.Mollugo cerviana (L.) SeringeS: Heen-Ala;T: KachchantiraiS: Udetta; T: Kachchantirai,Pat-padakamLCLCMollugo disticha (L.) Seringe S: Manal-Thishni LCMollugo nudicaulis Lam. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Mollugo pentaphylla L. LCFamily : MonimiaceaeHortonia angustifolia (Thw.) Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hortonia floribunda Wight ex Arn. S: Wawiya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Hortonia ovalifolia Wight CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : MoraceaeAntiaris toxicaria Leschen. var. toxicariaArtocarpus gomezianus Wall. ex Treculsubsp. zeylanicus JarrettE: Upas Tree; S: Riti;T: NetaviliS: Kana-Gona; T: MonkeyJa, Arsini-PalaNTNT287

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaArtocarpus nobilis Thw.S: Bedi-Del, Del, Hingala-Del, T: Arsini-plaBroussonetia zeylanica (Thw.) Corner S: Alandu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCDorstenia indica Wight NTFicus amplissima Smith S: Ela-Nuga; T: Kalatti LCFicus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq.Ficus benghalensis L.E: Banyan; S: Kaudu-Bo,Patana-BoE: Krishna Bo, Krishna'SCup; S: Maha-Nuga;T: Al, ArlaLCLCFicus callosa Willd. S: Wal-Gona LCFicus caulocarpa Miq. LCFicus costata Ait. NTFicus diversiformis Miq. LCFicus drupacea Thunb. var. pubescens(Roth) CornerFicus exasperata VahlFicus fergusoni (King) WorthingtonS: Bu-Nuga LCE: Furniture Leaf; S: Bu-Thediya, Sewan-MediyaS: Kos-Gona, Nuga;T: Al, ArlaLCLCFicus heterophylla L.f. S: Wal-Ehetu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ficus hispida L.f. S: Kota-Dimbula LCFicus laevis Blume LCFicus microcarpa L.f. LCFicus mollis Vahl S: Wal-Aralu LCFicus nervosa Heyne ex Roth S: Kalu-Maduwa LCFicus pubilimba Merr. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ficus racemosa L. S: Attikka; T: Atti LCFicus talboti King VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ficus tinctoria Forst.f. subsp. parasitica(Willd.) CornerS: Gas-Anguna, Gas-Netul,Wal-EhetuLCFicus trimenii King VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ficus tsjahela Brum.f. S: Kiri-Pela, Kiripella LCFicus virens Ait. LC288

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMaclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Plecospermum spinosum Trecul S: Katu-Timbol VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Streblus asper Lour.E: Crooked Rough-Bush; S:Geta-Netul; T: Papirai, Pirasu LCStreblus taxoides (Heyne) Kurz S: Gon-Gotu; E: Fig-Lime LCStreblus zeylanicus (Thw.) Kurz VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : MusaceaeMusa acuminata L.A. Colla S: Gal Kehel, Unel ENMusa balbisiana L.A. Colla S: Eti Kehel ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : MyristicaceaeHorsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb. S: Iriya LC LC iHorsfieldia iryaghedhi (Gaertn.) Warb.S: Ruk, Malabodde,Malaboda, Ruk-Gedhi,TalanVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR i B1+2cMyristica ceylanica A. DC. S: Maloboda, Malabodde VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i B1+2cMyristica dactyloides Gaertn.Family : MyrtaceaeS: Malaboda, Perimavara; T:PalmanikamLC LC iCleistocalyx operculatus (Roxb.) Merr.& PerryS: Bata Damba, Kobo Mal,Diya-DambaEugenia amoena Thw. ENEugenia floccifera Thw. CR(PE)LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU i A1c+2cEugenia fulva Thw. CR(PE) VU i A1c, B1+2cEugenia glabra Alston CR(PE) EN i B1+2cEugenia haeckeliana Trimen CR(PE)Eugenia haputalense Kosterm. DDEugenia hypoleuca Thw. ex Kosterm. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i B1+2cEugenia insignis Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) CR B1+2cEugenia mabaeoides Wight LCEugenia madugodaense Kosterm. ENEugenia pedunculata Trimen CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)289

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaEugenia phillyraeoides Trimen CREugenia pseudomabaeoides Kosterm. CREugenia rheophytica Kosterm. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eugenia rivulorum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cEugenia rotundata Trimen NT VU i A1c, B1+2cEugenia rufo-fulva Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cEugenia sripadaense Kosterm. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i B1+2cEugenia terpnophylla Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cEugenia thwaitesii Duthie LCEugenia willdenowii DC. LCEugenia xanthocarpa Thw. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk. E: Wild Guava NTSyzygium alubo Kosterm. S: Alu-Bo NTSyzygium amphoraecarpus Kostermans S: Wal-Jambu NTSyzygium assimile Thw. S: Damba LCSyzygium batadamba Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston S: Heen-Dan, Rin-Dan, Dan LC EN i B1+2cSyzygium cordifolium (Wight) Walp. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Syzygium cumini SkeelsS: Madan, Maha Dan;T: Naval, PerunavalLCSyzygium cyclophyllum (Thw. exDuthie) AlstonENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)CR iB1+2cSyzygium cylindricum (Wight) Alston LCSyzygium fergusonii (Trimen) Gamble VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cSyzygium firmum Thw. S: Wal Jambu LC VU i A1cSyzygium gardneri Thw. LCSyzygium hemisphericum (Walp.) Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Syzygium kanneliyensis Kosterm. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)290

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSyzygium lewisii Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Syzygium lissophyllum Thw. NTSyzygium micranthum Thw. LCSyzygium montis-adam Kosterm CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Syzygium neesianum Thw. S: Panu Kera LC VU i A1cSyzygium oliganthum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i B1+2cSyzygium potamicum Kosterm. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Syzygium revolutum Walp. LCSyzygium rotundifolium Arn. LC VU i A1c, B1+2cSyzygium sclerophyllum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Syzygium spathulatum Thw. LCSyzygium spissum Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i B1+2cSyzygium turbinatum Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cSyzygium umbrosum Thw.Syzygium wightianum Wall. ex W. &Arn.S: Heen Damba, Vali-Damba; T: NavalLC B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cLCSyzygium zeylanicum ( L. ) DC. LCSyzygium zeylanicum var. lineare DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Syzygium zeylanicum var. zeylanicumDC.S: Yakul Maran LCFamily : NelumbonaceaeNelumbo nucifera Gaertn.Family : NepenthaceaeNepenthes distillatoria L.Family : NyctaginaceaeE: Lotus, Sacred Beam;S: Nelum; T:TamaraiE: Pitcher Plant;S: Bandura WelLCVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i B1+2dBoerhavia diffusa L.S: Pita-Sudu-Pala, PitaSudda; T: Karichcharanai,MukkaraichchiLCBoerhavia erecta L. LCPisonia aculeata L.E: Lettuse Tree, MoluccanCabbage; S: Vavul-LairitiyaNT291

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPisonia grandis R.Br.E: Lettuce Tree, Moluccancabbage; S: Lechchakotta,Wathabanga; T: Chandi,Lechchai Kedda,LCFamily : NymphaeaceaeNymphaea nouchali Burm.f. E: Water Lily; S: Manel VU A2ae LCNymphaea pubescens Willd.Family : OchnaceaeGomphia serrata (Gaertn.) KanisOchna Jabotapita L.Ochna lanceolata Spreng.Ochna obtusata DC.Family : OlacaceaeE: Egyptian Lotus, WaterLilly; S: Et-Olu, OluS: Bo-Kera, Kera, Go-kera;T:Katharai, RamanchiS: Bo-Kera, Mal-Kera;T:ChilantiS: Gal Kena, Bo-Kera, Ge-Karal, Mal-kera;T: Katharai, KatkaraiS: Mal-kera; T: Chilanti,SellindiLC LCLCLCLCLCOlax imbricata Roxb. S: Telatiya NTOlax scandens Roxb. T: Kadalranchi LCOlax zeylanica L. S: Malla, Maila, Mella LCStrombosia ceylanica Gardner S: Pub-Beriya, Pathu-Bari VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Strombosia nana Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ximenia americana L.Family : OleaceaeChionanthus albidiflora Thw.Chionanthus zeylanica L.Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd.E: Hog-Plum, MonkeyPlum,Tallow Nut; T: Chiru-IllantaiS: Embul-Korakaha, Gal-Metta,Taccada-GasS: Dambu, Geratiya, Geriata;T: KattimuruchanE: Wild Jasmine; S: We-Kanda, Wal-Pichcha, Wal-Saman PichchaDDVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCLCJasminum auriculatum Vahl LCJasminum bignoniaceum Wall. ex G.Don ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Jasminum flexile Vahl LC292

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaJasminum rottlerianum Wall. ex DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ligustrum robustum (Roxb.) Blume S: Bora LCOlea paniculata R.Br. CR(PE)Olea polygama Wight LCFamily : OnagraceaeLudwigia adscendens (L.) HaraS: Beru-Diyanilla, Beru-Diya-MillaLCLudwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell LC LCLudwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven LCLudwigia perennis L. S: Piduruwella LC LCLudwigia prostrata Roxb. DDFamily : OpiliaceaeCansjera rheedii J.Gmelin S: Eta-Mura LCOpilia amentacea Roxb. LCFamily : OrchidaceaeAcampe ochracea (Lindley) Hochr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatter & McCannAcampe rigida (Buch.-Ham.ex J.E. Smith)P.F. HuntLCVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Acanthephippium bicolor Lindley EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Adrorhizon purpurascens (Thw.)Hook.f.Aerangis hologlottis (Schltr.) Schltr. ENVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Aerides ringens (Lindley) C.E.C Fischer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Agrostophyllum zeylanicum Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Angraecum zeylanicum Lindl. NTAnoectochilus elatus Lindl. DDAnoectochilus regalis Blume S.Wana-Raja ENA2cd;B2ab(i,ii,iii)293

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaAphyllorchis montana Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Apostasia wallichii R.Br. ENArundina minor Lindl. ENBromheadia srilankensis Kruizinga &de Vogel.Bulbophyllum crassifolium Thw. exTrimen.ENENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Bulbophyllum elegans Gardner ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Bulbophyllum elliae Reichb.f. NTBulbophyllum jayaweerae Fernando etOrmerodDDBulbophyllum macraei Reichb. f. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)Bulbophyllum maskeliyense Livera ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Bulbophyllum petiolare Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Bulbophyllum purpureum Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Bulbophyllum thwaitesii Reichb.f. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Bulbophyllum tricarinatum Petch CRBulbophyllum trimenii (Hook.f.) J. J.Sm.B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Bulbophyllum wightii Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calanthe sylvatica (Thouars) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Calanthe triplicata (Willemet) Ames NTCheirostylis flabellata Wight CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cheirostylis parvifolia Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Chiloschista fasciata (F.v. Mull.) Seidenf.& Ormerod.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Chrysoglossum ornatum Blume. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cleisostoma tenuifolium (L.) Garay. NTCoelogyne breviscapa Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Coelogyne odoratissima Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Coelogyne zeylanica Hook.f. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)294

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaConchidium articulatum (Lindl.) Rauschert CRConchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Conchidium muscicola (Lindl.) Rauschert LCCorymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cottonia peduncularis (Lindl.) Rchb.f. NTCrepidium purpureum (Lindl.)Szlach. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cryptostylis arachnites (Blume) Hassk. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. LCCymbidium bicolor Lindley LCCymbidium ensifolium (L.) Sw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyrtosia javanica Blume CR(PE)Dendrobium maccarthiae Thw. S: Wesak-Mal ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dendrobium panduratum Lindley NTDendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C.Fisher.LCDendrobium diodon Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dendrobium heterocarpum Wall. exLindleyDendrobium nutantiflorum A.D. Hawkes &A.H. Heller.E: Primrose Orchid ENDendrobium salaccense (Blume) Lindley ENNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Didymoplexis pallens Griff. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Didymoplexis seidenfadenii Sathish &Ormerod.Dienia ophrydis (J.Konig) Ormerod &Seidenf.DDEN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Diplocentrum recurvum Lindl. DDDiploprora championi Hook.f. NTDisperis neilgherrensis Wight. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Epipogium roseum (D.Don) Lindl. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eria bicolor Lindl. NT295

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaEria lindleyi Thw. NTEria thwaitesii Trimen ENEria tricolor Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Erythrodes latiloba Ormerod VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Eulophia epidendraea (J. Köenig exRetz.) C. E. C. FischerEulophia graminea Lindl. ENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eulophia pulchra (Thouars) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Eulophia zollingeri (Rchb.f.) J.J.Sm.ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Flickingeria macraei (Lindl.) Seidenf. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Gastrochilus acaulis (Lindl.) Kuntze NTGastrodia zeylanica Schltr. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Geodorum recurvum (Roxb.) Alston DDGoodyera fumata Thw. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Goodyera procera (Ker-Gawl.) Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Goodyera stelidifera Ormerod. DDHabenaria acuminata (Thw.) Trimen. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Habenaria barbata Wight ex Hook.f. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Habenaria crinifera Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Habenaria dichopetala Thw. ENHabenaria dolichostachya Thw. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Habenaria macrostachya Lindl. VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)Habenaria plantaginea Lindl. E: Pigeon Orchid NTHabenaria pterocarpa Thw. ENHabenaria rhynchocarpa (Thw.) Trimen ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)296

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaHabenaria roxburghii Nicolson. ENHabenaria viridiflora (Sw.) Spreng. NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hetaeria oblongifolia Blume. ENIpsea speciosa Lindley E: Daffodil Orchid ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)A2d;B2ab(i,ii,iii)Liparis caespitosa (Lam.) Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Liparis atropurpurea Lindley ENLiparis barbata Lindley CRLiparis brachyglottis Reichb.f. exTrimen.ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Liparis cespitosa (Lam.) Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Liparis elliptica Wight DDLiparis nervosa (Thunb.) Lindley VUB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Liparis thwaitesii Hook.f. DDLiparis viridiflora Lindley NTLiparis walkeriae R. Graham. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Liparis wightiana Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Luisia birchea Blume Rumhia. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Luisia zeylanica Lindl. LCMalaxis densiflora (A.Rich.) Kuntze ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Malaxis discolor (Lindley) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Malaxis thwaitesii Bennet. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Malaxis versicolor (Lindley) Abeywick. LCNervilia juliana (Roxb.) Schlechter DDOberonia claviloba Jayaweera ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia dolabrata Jayaweera CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia forcipata Lindl. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia fornicata Jayaweera CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)297

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaOberonia longibracteata Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia quadrilatera Jayaweera ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia recurva Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia scyllae Lindley ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia tenuis Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia thwaitesii Hook.f. NTOberonia truncata Lindley ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia wallie-silvae Jayaweera CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia weragamaensis Jayaweera ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Oberonia wightiana Lindley NTOberonia zeylanica Hook.f. NTOctarrhena parvula Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Papilionanthe cylindrica (Lindl.) Seidenf. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Peristylus aristatus Lindley ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Peristylus brevilobus Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Peristylus cubitalis (L.) Kraenzlin VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Peristylus densus (Lindl.) DDPeristylus gardneri (Hook.f.) Kraenzlin ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Peristylus plantagineus (Lindley) Lindley CR(PE)Peristylus spiralis A. Rich. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Peristylus trimenii (Hook.f.) Abeywick. ENPhaius luridus Thw. ENPhaius wallichii Lindl. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Phalaenopsis deliciosa Rchb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Phalaenopsis mysorensis C.J Sadanha. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pholidota imbricata Lindl. S: Nari Ala LC298

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPhreatia elegans Lindley CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Phreatia jayaweerae Ormerod. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Podochilus saxatile Lindley NTPodochilus falcatum Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Podochilus malabaricum Wight. NTPolystachya concreta (Jacq.) Garay &SweetPomatocalpa maculosum (Lindley) J. J.Sm.LCNTPomatocalpa spicatum Breda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pteroceras viridiflorum (Thw.) Holttum CR(PE)Rhynchostylis retusa BlumeRobiquetia virescens (Gard. ex Lindley)JayaweeraE: Batticaloa Orchid, Fox-TailOrchidEN B2ab(i,ii,iii)NTRobiquetia brevifolia (Lindley) Garay VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)Robiquetia gracilis (Lindley) Garay EN B2ab(I,ii,iii)Robiquetia rosea (Lindley) Garay VU B1ab(I,ii,iii)Satyrium nepalense D.Don E: Hyacinth Orchid NTSchoenorchis nivea (Lindley) Schltr. NTSchoenorchis tortifolia (Jayaweera)Garay.Seidenfadeniella filiformis (Rechb. f.) E.A.Christenson & OrmerodENENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sirhookera latifolia (Wight) Kuntze CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Sirhookera lanceolata (Wight) Kuntze NTSpiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames. NTStichorkis disticha (Thouars) Pfitzer VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Taeniophyllum alwisii Lindley VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Taeniophyllum gilimalense Jayaweera ENTainia bicornis (Lindley) Reichb. f. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Taprobanea spathulata (L.) Christenson. VU A2d299

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaThrixspermum pugionifolium (Hook.f.)SchlechterThrixspermum pulchellum (Thw.)SchlechterThrixspermum walkeri Seidenf. &Ormerod.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Trichoglottis tenera (Lindley) Reichb.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Tropidia bambusifolia (Thw.) Trimen ENTropidia thwaitesii Hook. f. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Lodd. ex G. Don VU A2dVanda testacea (Lindley) Reichb. f. LCVanda thwaitesii Hook. f. CR(PE)Vanda wightii Rchb.f. DDVanilla moonii Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Vanilla walkerae Wight VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Vanilla wightii Lindl. ex White DDZeuxine blatteri C.E.C. Fischer. ENZeuxine longilabris (Lindley) Trimen CRZeuxine regia (Lindley) Trimen S: Iru Raja ENZeuxine reginasilvae Ormerod. ENZeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schlecht. ENFamily : OrobanchaceaeB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCAeginetia indica L. S: Kolikarmal CR(PE)Aeginetia pedunculata Wall. ENCampbellia cytinoides (Reuter) Wight CRCentranthera indica (L.) Gamble S: Dutu-Satutu LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Centranthera tranquebarica (Spreng.)Merr.NT LCChristisonia albida Thw. ex. Benth. CR(PE)Christisonia bicolor Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)300

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaChristisonia lawii Wight ENChristisonia subacaulis (Benth.) Gardner ENChristisonia thwaitesii Trimen ENChristisonia tricolor Gardner ENLegocia aurantiaca (Wight) Livera CRPedicularis zeylanica Benth. ENSopubia delphinifolia (L.) G. Don LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sopubia trifida Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Striga angustifolia (Don) Saldanha NTStriga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Striga lutea Lour. NTFamily : OxalidaceaeBiophytum intermedium Wight ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Biophytum nervifolium Thw. NTBiophytum nudum (Arn.) Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Biophytum proliferum (Arn.) Wight LCBiophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) KlotzschFamily : PandanaceaeS: Gas-Nidikumba; S: Bin-NelliLCFreycinetia pycnophylla Solms S: Kolla VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Freycinetia walkeri Solms NTPandanus ceylanicus SolmsS: Watta-Keyiya, Dunu-Keyya, O-KeyiyaPandanus furcatus Roxb. ENPandanus kaida Kurz.Pandanus odoratissimus L. f.Pandanus thwaitesii MartelliFamily: PapaveraceaeS: Watta-Keyiya, Arulu,Watta-Keyiya-Aralu, Weta-KeyiyaE: Screw-pine; S: Wetta-Keyiya; T:TalaiS: Duna-Keyiya, Dunu-KeyiyaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCLCNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)301

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDicentra scandens (D.Don) Walp DDFamily : PassifloraceaeAdenia hondala (Gaertn.) de Wilde S: Hondala LCAdenia wightiana (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.)Engl.VU A2 dFamily : PedaliaceaePedalium murex L.S: Eth-Nerenchi;T: Anai-nerinchi, Periru-ArNerenchi, Peru-NerinchiSesamum prostratum Retz. CRLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sesamum radiatum Schum LCFamily : PentaphylaceaeAdinandra lasiopetala (Wight) Choisy S: Ratu -Mihiriya ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eurya acuminata DC. E: Wild Tea; S: Wana-Halu NTEurya ceylanica Wight VUEurya chinensis R. Br. ENEurya nitida Korth ENTernstroemia emarginata (Gardner)ChoisyTernstroemia gymnanthera (White & Arn.)BeddomeS: Rathatiya ENS: Rattota, Rattiya, Pena-Mihiriya, MihiriyaENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : PhrymaceaePeplidium maritimum (L. f.) Asch. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : PhyllanthaceaeActephila excelsa (Dalz.) Muell. Arg. S: Et-Pitawakka LCAntidesma alexiteria L. S: Heen-Embiliya LCAntidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. S: Karawala- Kebella LCAntidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. S: Bu-Embilla LCAntidesma pyrifolium Muell. Arg. LC VU i A1cAntidesma thwaitesianum Mulell. Arg. S: Karawala- Kebella VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Antidesma walkeri (Tul.) Pax & Hoffm. S: Thimbiliya LC302

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaAporusa acuminata Thw. LCAporusa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr.S: Mapat-Kabella, Kampotta,PepiliyaLC VU i A1cAporusa fusiformis Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Aporusa lanceolata (Tul.) Thw.S: Heen Kebella, Veli-MediyaLC VU i A1cAporusa lindleyana (Wight) Baill. S: Barawa-Embilla, Kebella LCBischofia javanica Blume. LCBlachia umbellata (Willd.) Baill. S: Goda-Ratmale, Kosatta LCBreynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston S: Wa, Wal-Murunga LCBreynia vitis-idaea (Burm.f.) C.E.C.FischerS: Gas-Kayila;T: MmanipunatiLCBridelia moonii Thw. S: Patkela LC VU i A1cBridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss. S: Ketakala; T: Mul-Venkai LCBridelia stipularis (L.) Blume CR(PE)Cleistanthus acuminatus (Thw.) Muell.Arg.Cleistanthus ferrugineus (Thw.) Muell.Arg.ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LC VU i A1cCleistanthus pallidus (Thw.) Muell. Arg. T: Visa LCCleistanthus patulus (Roxb.) Muell. Arg. S: Wa LCCleistanthus robustus Muell. Arg. S: Pala VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) CR i B1+2cFlueggea leucopyrus Willd.S: Heen-Katu-Pila;T: MudpulanthiLCFlueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt DDGlochidion acutifolium Alston NTGlochidion coriaceum Thw. LCGlochidion gardneri Thw. DDGlochidion montanum Thw. LCGlochidion mooni Thw. LCGlochidion nemorale Thw. LCGlochidion pachycarpum Alston LC303

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaGlochidion pycnocarpum (Muell.Arg.)BeddomeS: Hunu Kirilla LCGlochidion stellatum (Retz.) Beddome S: Kirilla LCGlochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A.Juss. S: Hunu Kirilla LCMargaritaria cyanospermus (Gaertn.)Airy ShawS: Karawu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Margaritaria indicus (Dalz.) Airy Shaw VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Meineckia parvifolia (Wight) G.L. Webster NTPhyllanthus amarus Schum.S: Pita-Wakka;T: KilkaunelliLCPhyllanthus baillonianus Mulell. Arg. S: Kela-Karapincha VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Phyllanthus cinereus Mulell. Arg. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Phyllanthus dealbatus Alston ENPhyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd.S: Bim-Nelli, Pitawakka;T: KulhainelliLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Phyllanthus emblica L. S: Nelli; T: Topu-Nelli VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Phyllanthus gardnerianus (Wight) Baillon NTPhyllanthus hakgalensis Thw. exTrimenPhyllanthus heyneanus Muell.Arg. CRCR(PE)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. LCPhyllanthus myrtifolius (Wight) Muell.Arg.Phyllanthus oreophilus Muell. Arg. ENVUB1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Phyllanthus pinnatus (Wight) Webster LCPhyllanthus polyphyllus Willd. LCPhyllanthus reticulatus Poir.S: Gas-Dummella, Kaila,Wel-Kayila; T: Mipullanti,Pula, PullantiLCPhyllanthus rheedii Wight NTPhyllanthus rotundifolius Klein ex Willd. LCPhyllanthus simplex Retz. LCPhyllanthus urinaria L.S: Rat Pita Wakka;T: KilkaynelliLCPhyllanthus wheeleri G. L. Webster NT304

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPhyllanthus zeylanicus Muell. Arg. ENSauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.S: Mella Dum Kola, JapanBatuSauropus assimilis Thw. ENSauropus bacciformis (L.) Airy Shaw S: Bin-Delung, Et Pitawakka LCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sauropus quadrangularis (Willd.) Muell.Arg.CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sauropus retroversus Wight CR(PE)Sauropus rigidus Thw. S: Ginihiriya NTFamily : PicrodendraceaeMischodon zeylanicus Thw.Family : PiperaceaeS: Tammanna, Tammanua;T: TampanaiLCLepianthes umbellatum (L.) Raf. S: Mala-Labu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth NTPeperomia candolleana Miq. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Peperomia heyneana Miq. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Peperomia pseudo-rhombea C. DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Peperomia species 6 CR(PE)Peperomia tetraphylla (Forst.) Hook. &Arn.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Piper hymenophyllum Miq. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Piper sylvestre Lam.S: Mala Miris, Mala-Miris-Wel, Wal-Gam-Miris-WelLCPiper trineuron Miq. NTPiper walkeri Miq. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Piper zeylanicum Miq. LCFamily : PittosporaceaePittosporum ceylanicum Wight S: Ketiya NTPittosporum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : PlantaginaceaeAdenosma camphoratum (Vahl) Hook. f. S: Kaha-Gona-Kola NT305

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaAdenosma indianum (Lour.) Merr. LC LCAdenosma subrepens (Thw.) Benth. CR(PE)Bacopa floribunda (R. Br.) Wettst. DD LCBacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell S: Lunuwila LC LCCallitriche stagnalis Scop. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dopatrium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham.ex Benth.S:Bimsavan LC LCDopatrium lobelioides (Retz.) Benth. LCDopatrium nudicaule (Willd.) Benth. LC LCLimnophila aquatica (Roxb.) Alston S: Reewul-Puruk-Wila LCLimnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr. LC LCLimnophila chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. CR(PE) LCLimnophila heterophylla (Roxb.) Benth. T: Vanetchi NT LCLimnophila indica (L.) Druce T: Thirai LC LCLimnophila laxa Benth. DD LCLimnophila polystachya Benth. DD LCLimnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. S; Amba-Wila LC LCLimnophila rugosa (Roth) Merr CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) LCLimnophila sessiliflora (Vahl) Blume LC LCMicrocarpaea minima (Koenig ex Retz.)Merr.LC LCPlantago erosa Wall. LCStemodia viscosa Roxb. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Veronica javanica Blume CR(PE)Family : PlumbaginaceaePlumbago zeylanica L.Family : PoaceaeE: Ceylon Leadwort; S: Ela-NetulLCAcrachne racemosa (Heyne ex Roem. &Schult.) OhwiCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Acroceras munroanum (Bal.) Henrard DD306

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaAeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw. LCAgrostis pilosula Trin. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Alloteropsis cimicina (L.)Stapf S: Budeni-Tana; T: Unni Pul LCAlloteropsis semialata (R. Br.) A. Hitchc. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Andropogon lividus Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Andropogon polyptychos Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Apluda mutica L.Apocopis mangalorensis (Hochst.)HenrardS: Kuru-Kuda-Ana;T: Mungil-PulLCLCAristida adscensionis L. S: Teli-Tana VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Aristida hystrix L.f. DDAristida setacea Retz. S: Et-Tuttiri LCArthraxon castratus (Griffith)Narayanaswami ex BorVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Makino NTArundinaria debilis Thw. ENArundinaria densifolia Munro ENArundinaria floribunda Thw. S: Mal-Bata ENArundinaria scandens Soderstrom &EllisArundinaria walkeriana MunroArundinella blephariphylla (Trimen)Hook.f.Arundinella laxiflora Hook. f. ENArundinella leptochloa (Steud.) Hook. f ENCRENCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Arundinella metzii Hochst. ex Miq. DDArundinella pumila (Hochst. ex A. Rich.)Steud.CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Arundinella setosa Trin. DDArundinella thwaitesii Hook.f. DDArundinella villosa Arn. ex Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)307

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaBambusa bambos (L.) Voss ex VilmorinE: Spiny Bamboo; S: Katu-Una; T: MungilBothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T.Blake LCLCBothriochloa pertusa (L.) A.Camus LCBothriochloa pseudischaemum (Nees exSteud.) HenrardDDBrachiaria distachya (L.) Stapf LCBrachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb. DDBrachiaria kurzii (Hk.f.) A.Camus DDBrachiaria paspaloides (Presl) C.E.Hubb. DDBrachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf LCBrachiaria remota (Retz.) Haines LCBrachiaria reptans (L.) C.A. Gardner &C.E. Hubb.Brachiaria semiundulata (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) StapfBrachiaria semiverticillata (Rottler exSteud.) AlstonLCENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Brachiaria subquadripara (Trin.) A.Hitchc. LCBrachypodium sylvaticum (Hudson)P.Beauv.Calamagrostis srilankensis Davidse CRENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. NTChionachne koenigii (Spreng.)Thw. LCChloris montana Roxb. LCChrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.E:Love Grass; S:Tuttiri,T: Ottu-pulLCChrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. S: Karu-vi LCChrysopogon nodulibarbis (Steud.)HenrardVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Chrysopogon orientalis (Desv.) A.Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Coelachne perpusilla (Steud.)Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Coelachne simpliciuscula (Steud.) Benth. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)308

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaCoelachyropsis lagopoides (Burm. f.)SenaratneCoix gigantea Roxb. S: Heen-Kirindi NTLCCoix lacryma-jobi L. S: Kirindi VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cymbopogn caesius (Hook. & Arn.) Stapf NTCymbopogn nardus (L.) RendleE: New Citronella Grass;S: Heen-Pangiri, Lena Batu,Lena- Batu-Pengiri, Pegiri,ManaLCCymbopogn polyneuros (Steud.) Stapf DDCynodon arcuatus J.S.Presl ex C.Presl LCCynodon barberi Rang. & Tad. NTCynodon dactylon (L.) PersE: Bermuda Grass, DoobGrass; S: Ruha; T: Arugam-Pillu, Arugam-PulLCCyrtococcum deccanense Bor VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Hochst. exSteud.) StapfNTCyrtococcum patens (L.) A.Camus DDCyrtococcum trigonum (Retz.) A.Camus LCDactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. S: Putu-Tana LCDavidsea attenuata (Thw.) Soderstrom& EllisDendrocalamus cinctus R.B.Majumderex Soderstrom & EllisVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dichaetaria wightii Nees ex Stude. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dichanthium caricosum (L.) A.Camus S: Geta Mana ENDichanthium foveolatum (Del.) Roberty CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Digitaria abyssinica (A.Rich.) Stapf EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Digitaria cliaris (Retz.) Koeler DDDigitaria bicornis (Lam.) Loud. LCDigitaria ciliaris (Retz.) KoelerDigitaria cruciata (Nees ex Steud.) A.CamusDigitaria fuscescens (J.S. Presl in K.B.Presl) HenrardS: Guru- Tana; T: Akki-Pul,Arisi-PulLCDDENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)309

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDigitaria griffithii (Hook.f.) Henrard DDDigitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. LCDigitaria stricta Roth ex Roem. & Schult. DDDigitaria thwaitesii (Hack) Henrard DDDigitaria tomentosa (Koenig ex Willd.)HenrardDigitaria violascens Link CRVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Digitaria wallichiana (Steud.) Stapf VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dimeria aristata (Hack.) Senaratna DDDimeria avenacea (Retz.) C.E.C.Fischer ENDimeria ballardii Bor ENDimeria fuscescens Trin. ENDimeria gracilis Steud. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dimeria lehmannii (Steud.) Hack. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dimeria leptorhachis Hack. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Dimeria pubescens Hack. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Dimeria thwaitesii Hack. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Echinochloa colona (L.) Link S: Gira Tana; T: Adipul LCEchinochloa crusgalli (L.) P.Beauv. LCEchinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P.Beauv. LCEleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.S: Bela-Tana, Wal-Mal-Kurakkan, Wal-KurkkanLCElytrophorus spicatus (Willd.) A. Camus DDEnteropogon dolichostachyus (Lagasca)Keng ex LazaridesEnteropogon monostachyos (Vahl)K.Schum. ex Engl.LCVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor LCEragrostiella brachyphylla (Stapf) Bor ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Hook. & Arn. LCEragrostis atrovirens (Desf.)Trin. exSteud.LC310

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaEragrostis cilianensis (Allioni) Janchen DDEragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. LCEragrostis ciliata (Roxb.) Nees DDEragrostis curvula (Schrad) Nees DDEragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud. S: Ela-Kuru-Tana LCEragrostis japonica (Thumb.) Trin. LCEragrostis minor Host DDEragrostis nigra Nees ex Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. LCEragrostis pilosa (L.) P.Beauv. LCEragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees LCEragrostis subsecunda (Lam.) E. Fourn. DDEragrostis tenuifolia (A.Rich) Hochst. exSteud.Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees exSteud.VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCEragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Trin. LCEragrostis zeylanica Nees et Meyer. DDEremochloa muricata (Retz.) Hack. NTEremochloa zeylanica (Trimen) Hack. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Eriachne triseta Nees ex Steud. S: Pini Tuttiri DDEriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. LCEulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) Kuntze NTEulalia thwaitesii (Hack.) Kuntze ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henrard LCGarnotia courtallensis (Arn. & Nees) Thw. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Garnotia exaristata Gould VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Garnotia fergusonii Trimen NTGarnotia fuscata Thw. CR(PE)311

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaGarnotia micrantha Thw. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Garnotia panicoides Trimen CR(PE)Garnotia scoparia Thw. NTHackelochloa granularis (L.) Kuntze LCHalopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Helictotrichon virescens (Nees ex Steud.)HenarardENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hemarthria compressa (L.f.) R.Br. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Hemisorghum venustum (Thw.) W.D.ClaytonHeteropholis nigrescens (Thw.)C.E.Hubb.Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. &Schult.S: I-Tana LCVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Heteropogon triticeus (R.Br.) Stapf NTHolcolemma canaliculatum (Steud.) Stapf& C.E.Hubb.LCHygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees S: Go-Jabba NTHymenachne amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees LCHyparrhenia filipendula (Hochst.) Stapf VUIchnanthus pallens (Sw.) Munro ex Benth. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Imperata cylindrica (L.) Rausch. S: Illuk LCIsachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze S: Bata-Della LCIsachne kunthiana (Wight & Arn. exSteud.) Miq.LCIsachne multiflora (Thw.) Ferguson CR(PE)Isachne walkeri (Arn. ex Steud.) Wight &Arn. ex Thw.NTIschaemum barbatum Retz. LCIschaemum ciliare Retz. S: Rat-Tana LCIschaemum commutatum Hack. LCIschaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor DDIschaemum muticum L. S: Bada-Mal-Tana LC312

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaIschaemum polystachyum J. & C.Presl CR(PE)Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. S: Kudu Kedu LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ischaemum timorense Kunth S: Rila-Rat-Tana LCIseilema laxum Hack. LCIseilema prostratum (L.) Andersson LCJansenella griffithiana (C.Mueller) Bor LCLeersia hexandra Sw. S: Layu, Lev LCLeptaspis urceolata (Roxb.) R.Br. NTLeptaspis zeylanica Nees ex steud. NTLeptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees LCLeptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth LCLeptochloa neesii (Thw.) Benth. LCLeptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi LCLeptochloa srilankensis N. Snow CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Leptochloa uniflora Hochst. ex A.Rich LCLepturus repens (G.Forst.) R.Br. NTLophatherum gracile Brongn. LCLopholepis ornithocephala (Hook.) Steud. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Melanocenchris monoica (Koenig exRottler) C. FischerENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Microstegium nudum (Trin.) A. Camus VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth LCMyriostachya wightiana (Nees ex Steud.)Hook.f.CR(PE)Ochlandra stridula Moon ex Thw. S: Bata-Li, Bata LCOphiuros exaltatus (L.) Kuntze ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. LC313

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaOplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. LCOplismenus thwaitesii Hook. f. CR(PE)Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) Roem. &Schult.DDOropetium thomaeum (L.f.) Trin. LCOryza eichingeri A. Peter LCOryza granulata Nees & Arn. ex G. Watt EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Oryza nivara Sharma & Shastry NTOryza rhizomatis Vaughan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Oryza rufipogon W. Griffith EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Panicum curviflorum Hornem.S: Wal-Meneri, Meneri;T: Shamai-KarunaiLCPanicum brevifolium L. LCPanicum gardneri Thw. LCPanicum humile Trin. LCPanicum luzonense J. & C. Presl CR(PE)Panicum notatum Retz. LCPanicum paludosum Roxb. LCPanicum phoiniclados Naik & Patunkar NTPanicum repens L. S: Etora; T: Injii-Pul LCPanicum sparsicomum Nees ex Steud. LCPaspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A.Camus E: Arisi-Pul; S: Ha-Thana LCPaspalidium geminatum (Forssk.) Stapf LCPaspalidium punctatum (Brum.f.) A.CamusLCPaspalum distichum L. LCPaspalum longifolium Roxb. LCPaspalum scrobiculatum L. S: Amu; T: Varagu, Waragu LC314

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPaspalum vaginatum Sw. LCPerotis indica (L.) Kuntze. LCPerotis junceum (Roxb.) Ham DDPharagmites karka (Retz.) Steud. S: Nala-Gas LCPogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth LCPommereulla cornucopiae L.f. CR(PE)Pseudanthistiria umbellata (Hack.) Hook.f. LCPseudechinolaena polystachya (HBK)StapfDDPseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.) Vick. LCPseudoxytenanthera monadelpha (Thw.)Soderstrom & EllisRottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W.D.ClaytonSaccharum arundinaceum Retz.S: Rambuk; T: Pey-Karunmu, Pi-KarumbuVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)LCCR(PE)Saccharum spontaneum L. S: Wal-Uk LCSacciolepis curvata (L.) Chase LCSacciolepis indica (L.) Chase LCSacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf LCSacciolepis myosuroides (R.Br.) A.Camus NTSehima nervosum (Rottler) Stapf LCSetaria gracillima Hook.f. CR(PE)Setaria intermedia Roth ex Roem. &Schult.LCSetaria palmifolia (Koenig) Stapf S: Reli-Tana LCSetaria parviflora (Poir.) M.Kerguelen S: Kavalu, Kawalu LCSetaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. LCSetaria verticillata (L.) P.Beauv. S: Hiwal Tana LCSorghum nitidum (Vahl) Pers. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Sorghum propinquum (Kunth) A.Hitchc. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)315

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSphaerocaryum malaccense (Trin.) Pilger VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Spinifex littoreus (Burm.f.) Merr.Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns &TournaySporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.)KunthS: Maha-Ravana-Ravula; T:Ravana-MeesaiLCLCLCSporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv. LCSporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clayton LCSporobolus maderaspatanus Bor VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Sporobolus tremulus (Willd.) Kunth LCSporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth S: Mudu-Etora LCSporobolus wallichii Munro ex Trimen VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (L.) Brongn. LCStreptogyna crinita P.Beauv. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Themeda cymbaria Hack. S: Kara-Wata-Mana LCThemeda forskalii Hackel DDThemeda tremula (Steud.) Hack. S: Pini-Bara-Tana LCThemeda triandra Forssk. LCThuarea involuta (G.Forst.) R.Br. exRoem. & Schult.Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.)HondaDDNTTrachys muricata (L.) Trin. LCTragus roxburghii Panigrahi LCTripogon bromoides Roth ex Roem. &SchultVU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Urochloa setigera (Retz.) Stapf LCVetiveria zizanioides (L.) NashE: Khas-Khas; S:Sawandara, Sevendara;T: VettiverLCZoysia matrella (L.) Merr. LC316

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : PodostemaceaeDalzellia ceylanica (Gardner) Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Farmeria metzgerioides (Trimen) Willisex Hook.f.Polypleurum elongatum (Gardner)J.B.HallPolypleurum stylosum (Wight) J.B.Hall CRZeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz) Engl. CR(PE)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Zeylanidium olivaceum (Gardner) Engl. ENZeylanidium subulatum (Gardner)C.CussetENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : PolygalaceaePolygala arillata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don LCPolygala chinensis L. LCPolygala elongata Klein ex Willd. DDPolygala glaucoides L. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polygala glomerata Lour. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Polygala hirsutula Arn. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polygala jacobii Chandrab. DDPolygala javana DC. S: Tilo Guru LCPolygala longifolia Poir ENPolygala macrolophos Hassk. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Polygala rosmarinifolia Wight & Arn. NTPolygala telephioides Willd. LCPolygala triflora L. NTSalomonia ciliata (L.) DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Xanthophyllum zeylanicum Meijden S: Palala LCFamily : PolygonaceaePersicaria attenuata (R. Br.) Sojak S: Sudu-Kimbul-Wenna LC LCPersicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara S: Ratu-Kimbul-Wenna LC317

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPersicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. in D.Don)H.GrossPersicaria decipiens (R.Br.) K.L.Wilson DDLCPersicaria glabra (Willd.) Gomez de laMazaLCPersicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach DDPersicaria minor (Hudson) Opiz DDPersicaria nepalensis (Meissner) H.Gross DDPersicaria orientalis (L.) Spach LCPersicaria praetermissa (Hook.f.) H.Hara DDPersicaria strigosa (R.Br.) Nakai LCPolygonum plebeium R.Br. LC LCFamily : PontederiaceaeMonochoria hastata (L.) Solms-Laub S: Diya-Habarala, Jabara NT LCMonochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl S: Diya habarala, Jabara LC LCFamily : PortulacaceaePortulaca oleracea L.S: Genda-kola;T: Pulikkirai, PulichchankiraiLCPortulaca quadrifida L. S: Heen-Genda-Kola LCPortulaca suffruticosa Wall. ex Wight &Arn.LCPortulaca tuberosa Roxb. S: Uru-Genda LCPortulaca wightiana Wall. ex Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : PotamogetonaceaePotamogeton nodosus Poir. LC LCPotamogeton pectinatus L. LCPotamogeton perfoliatus L. LCFamily : PrimulaceaeAegiceras corniculata (L.) BlancoS: Heen Kadol;T: VitlikannaLCArdisia colorata Roxb. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)318

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaArdisia crenata Sims ENArdisia elliptica Thunb. S: Balu-Dan LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ardisia gardneri Clarke LCArdisia lankaensis Kosterm. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ardisia missionis Wall.ex A.DC. LCArdisia moonii Clarke LCArdisia pauciflora Heyne NTArdisia polylepis Mez EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ardisia solanacea Roxb. S: Balu-Dan ENArdisia wightiana (Wall. ex A.DC.) Mez CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ardisia willisii Mez S: Lunu-Dan VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ardisia zeylanica Clarke LCEmbelia aurantiaca (Wall.) Wadhwa ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Embelia ribes Burm. f. S: Wel-Embilla LCEmbelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. &Schult.) A.DC.NTLysimachia laxa Baudo VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lysimachia procumbens Baudo ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Maesa indica (Roxb.) A. DC. LCMyrsine ceylanica (Mez) Wadhwa NTMyrsine robusta (Mez) Wadhwa LCMyrsine thwaitesii (Mez) Wadhwa NTMyrsine wightiana Wall. ex A.DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : ProteaceaeHelicia ceylanica Gardner ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : PutranjivaceaeDrypetes gardneri (Thw.) Pax & Hoffm. S: Eta-Wira, Gal-Wira NTDrypetes lanceolata (Thw.) Pax & Hoffm. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)319

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaDrypetes longifolia (Blume) Pax & Hoffm. ENDrypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax &Hoffm.Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. T: Karippalai, Vitchurunai LCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Putranjiva zeylanica (Thw.) Muell. Arg. S: Pelan LCFamily : RanunculaceaeAnemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. CR(PE)Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Clematis smilacifolia Wall. S: Nara-Wel CR(PE)Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC S: Nara-Wel NTRanunculus sagittifolius Hook. E: Buttercup VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ranunculus wallichianus Wight & Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Thalictrum javanicum Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : RhamnaceaeColubrina asiatica (L.) Brongn.S: Tel-Hiriya;T: MayirmanikkamVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Gouania microcarpa DC. NTRhamnus arnottianus Gardner ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Rhamnus wightii Wight & Arn. NTSageretia hamosa (Wall.) Brongn. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz T: Tudari, Tuvadi LCVentilago gamblei Susseng. LCVentilago madraspatana Gaertn. var..madraspatanaS: Yakada-Wel;T: VempadamLCZiziphus lucida Moon ex Thw. S: Eraminiya CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ziziphus mauritiana var mauritiana Lam.S: Dabara, Maha-Debara,Masan; T: Ilantai, AllantaiLCZiziphus napeca (L.) Willd. S: Yak-Eraminiya LCZiziphus oenoplia (L.) MillerZiziphus rugosa Lam.S: Heen Eraminiya;T: Churai, PerilantaiS: Maha Eraminiya;T: ChuraiLCNT320

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaZiziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd. S: Kakuru; T: Nari-Ilantai NTFamily : RhizophoraceaeBruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) LCBruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Savigny E: Mangrove; S:Mal-Kadol VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) LCCarallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. S: Dawata NTCarallia calycina Benth. S: Ubberiya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1c iCassipourea ceylanica (Gardner) AlstonS: Pana, Kos Daththa, GalGuliya; T:KannuLCCeriops decandra (Griffith) Ding Hou CR B2ab(i,ii,iii) NTCeriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. T: Chiru-Kandal NT LCRhizophora apiculata BlumeRhizophora mucronata Poir.Family : RosaceaeS: Kadol, Rana Kadol;T: KandalE: Mangrove; S:Kadol,KandalNT LCLC LCAgrimonia zeylanica Moon ex Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Alchemilla indica Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Photinia integrifolia LindleyS: Lunu-Warala;T: Anreepawlaycody-Maram LCPotentilla polyphylla Wall. ex Lehman EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Potentilla sundaica (Blume) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Prunus ceylanica (Wight) Miq.Prunus walkeri (Wight) KalkmanRubus ellipticus SmithS: Golu-Mora, Kankumbal-KetiyaS: Golu-Mora, Kankumbal-KetiyaE: False Blackberry, Ovel-Leaved Bramble;S: Nara-ButeNT EN i B1+2cLC VU i A1cLCRubus fairholmianus Gardner NTRubus gardnerianus Kuntz NTRubus indicus Thunb. S: Vel-Batu LCRubus leucocarpus Arn. NTRubus micropetalus Gardner VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)321

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaRubus niveus Thunb.E: Woody-Berried Bramble;S: Rodu-KetambilaRubus rugosus Smith LCNTRubus sorbifolius Maxim. DDSanguisorba indicum (Gardner)Tirv. CR(PE)Family : RubiaceaeAcranthera ceylanica Arn. ex Meissner LCAidia gardneri (Thw.) Tirv. S: Seru VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich.ex Walp.S: Nawatha, Ambul Bakmi,Ela Bakmi, KalambaNTBenkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirv. S: Pudan LCByrsophyllum ellipticum (Thw.) Hook. f.S: Kalu Diyapara, KaluGodaparaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Canthium campanulatum Thw. NTCanthium coromandelicum (Burm. f.)AlstonS: Kara; T: Karai LCCanthium macrocarpum Thw. CR(PE)Canthium puberulum Thw. ex Hook. f. NTCanthium rheedii DC. NTCatunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. S: Kukuruman; T: Karai LCCeriscoides turgida (Roxb.) Tirv. S: Pita Madu ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Chassalia curviflora (Wall.) Thw. LCDentella repens J.R. & G. Forst. LC LCDichilanthe zeylanica Thw. S: Emberella VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN iDiplospora erythrospora (Thw.) Hook. f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Discospermum sphaerocarpum Dalz. exHook. f.Diyaminauclea zeylanica (Hook. f.)Ridsd.T: Vella LCS: Diya-Mi ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Exallage auricularia (L.) Bremek. S: Geta-Kola VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Fergusonia tetracocca (Thw.) Baill. CR(PE)Gaertnera divaricata (Thw.)Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)322

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaGaertnera gardneri Thw. CR(PE)Gaertnera rosea Thw. ex Benth. LC VU i A1cGaertnera ternifolia Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cGaertnera vaginans (DC.) Merr. LCGaertnera walkeri (Arn.) Blume NT VU i A1c, B1+2cGalium asperifolium Wall. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Gardenia crameri Tirv. S: Galis VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Gardenia fosbergii Tirv. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Geophila repens var asiatica (Cham. &Schlecht.) FosbergS: Agu Karni VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Guettarda speciosa L. S: Nil Pichcha; T:Panir VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd.S: Kolon; T:manchalKadampa, Raja MurunkaiLCHedyotis cinereoviridis Thw. CR(PE)Hedyotis coprosmoides Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis cyanantha Kurz NTHedyotis cyanescens Thw. CR(PE)Hedyotis dendroides Alston NTHedyotis evenia Thw. CR(PE)Hedyotis flavescens Thw. NTHedyotis fruticosa L. S: Veraniya LCHedyotis fumata Alston VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis gardneri Thw. CRHedyotis gartmorensis Ridsd. CRHedyotis inamoena Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis lessertiana Arn. LCHedyotis macraei Hook. f. DDHedyotis marginata (Thw. ex Trimen)AlstonENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)323

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaHedyotis membranacea Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis neesiana Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis neolessertiana Ridsd. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis nodulosa Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis obscura Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis quinquinervia Thw. CR(PE)Hedyotis rhinophylla Thw. ex Trimen EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis srilankensis Deb & Dutta ENHedyotis subverticillata AlstonENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis thwaitesii Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis trichoneura Alston ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis tridentata Ridsd. EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Hedyotis trimenii var. trimenii Deb &DuttaLCHydrophylax maritima L. f. S: Mudu-Geta-Kola LCIxora calycina Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cIxora coccinea L.Ixora jucunda Thw.Ixora pavetta Andr.S: Ratambala, Rat-Mal; T:VedchiS: Goda-Rathambala, Gora-Ratambela, Wal-RathmalS: Maharatambala; T:Kanmuttankirai, Karankutti,PainkurayLCLC VU i A1cLCIxora thwaitesii Hook. f. NTKnoxia hirsuta Arn. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Knoxia platycarpa Arn. LCKnoxia spicata (Thw. ex Trimen) Ridsd. NTKnoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. NTKnoxia zeylanica L. NT B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lasianthus chrysocaulis Ridsd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)324

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaLasianthus foetulentus Ridsd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lasianthus gardneri (Thw.) Hook.f. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU iB1+2cLasianthus moonii Wight LCLasianthus neolanceolatus Ridsd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lasianthus obliquus (Thw.) Thw. LCLasianthus oliganthus (Thw.) Thw. LCLasianthus protractus (Thw.) Thw. CR(PE)Lasianthus rhizophyllus (Thw.) Thw. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lasianthus strigosus Wight LCLasianthus thwaitesii Hook.f. CR(PE)Lasianthus varians (Thw.) Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN iB1+2cLeucocodon reticulatum Gardner ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Metabolus decipiens (Thw.) Ridsd. LCMitragyna parvifolia var parvifolia (Roxb.)Korth.T: Nir-Kadampa, Chelampi LCMitragyna tubulosa (Arn.) Havil. S: Helamba EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Morinda citrifolia L. S: Ahu LCMorinda coreia Buch.-Ham. S: Ahu; T: Manchavanna LCMorinda umbellata L. S: Kiri-Wel, Maha-Kiri-Wel LCMussaenda frondosa L.S: Mus-Wenna, Wal-But-Sarana, MussendaLCMussaenda samana Jayaweera LCNargedia macrocarpa (Thw.) Boddome LCNauclea orientalis (L.) L.Neanotis monosperma (Wight & Arn.)W.H. LewisS: Bakmi, Rata-Bakmi;T: Vammi, AtuvangiLCLCNeanotis nummularia (Arn.) W.H. Lewis LCNeanotis nummulariformis (Arn.) W.H.LewisNeanotis quadrilocularis (Thw.) W.H.LewisVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)CR(PE)325

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaNeanotis richardiana (Arn.) W.H. Lewis CRNeurocalyx calycinus (R. Br. ex Benn.)RobinsonB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Neurocalyx championii Benth. ex Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Neurocalyx gardneri Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Neurocalyx zeylanicus Hook. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Oldenlandia biflora L. LCOldenlandia brachypoda DC. LCOldenlandia corymbosa L. S: Wal-Path-Padagam LCOldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. LCOldenlandia erecta (Mani. & Sivarajan)Ridsd.DDOldenlandia herbacea (L.) Roxb. LCOldenlandia ovatifolia (Cav.) DC. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Oldenlandia pumila (L. f.) DC. DDOldenlandia stricta L. NTOldenlandia trinervia Retz. NTOldenlandia umbellata L.E: Chay Root; S: Saya;T: ChayaOphiorrhiza glechomifolia Thw. CRLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophiorrhiza mungos L. S: Dathketiya LCOphiorrhiza nemorosa Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Ophiorrhiza pallida Thw. CR(PE)Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. LCOphiorrhiza radicans Gardner ex Thw. S: Kiri Makulu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. angustifolia(Thw.) Ridsd.Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. argentea(Hook.f.) Deb & MondalOphiorrhiza rugosa var. decumbens(Gardner & Thw.) Deb & MondallOxyceros rugulosus (Thw.) Tirv. ENLCCR(PE)CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)326

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPavetta agrostiphylla Bremek. ENPavetta badullensis Ridsd. ENPavetta blanda Bremek. S: Pavatta; T: Pavaddai LCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pavetta gardneri Bremek. DDPavetta gleniei Thw. ex Hook. f.S: Gal Hambella, Ela Terana;T:vetpavaddaiNTPavetta glomerata Bremek. NTPavetta indica L. S: Pavatta; T:Pavaddai LCPavetta involucrata Thw. NTPavetta macraei Bremek. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pavetta zeylanica (Hook. f.) Gamble S: Es-Rudha NTPleiocraterium plantaginifolium (Arn.)Bremek.Prismatomeris albidiflora Thw. VUPrismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.)SchumannPseudaidia speciosa (Beddome) Tirv. DDENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Psilanthus travancorensis (Wight & Arn.)LeroyPsilanthus wightianus (Wight & Arn.)LeroyS: Gas-Pitchcha VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)T: Kaddumallikai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Psychotria dubia (Wight) Alston NT VU i A1cPsychotria gardneri (Thw.) Hook. f. S: Kalu-Kuratiya NT EN i B1+2cPsychotria glandulifera Thw. ex Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cPsychotria longipetiolata Thw. ENPsychotria meeboldii Deb & M.G.Gangop.Psychotria moonii (Thw.) Hook.f. CR(PE)DDB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i B1+2cPsychotria nigra (Gaertn.) Alston LCPsychotria plurivenia Thw. ENPsychotria sarmentosa Blume S: Wal-Gonika NTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i B1+2cPsychotria sohmeri Kiehn VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)327

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPsychotria sordida Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cPsychotria stenophylla (Thw.) Hook.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cPsychotria waasii Sohmer NT VU i A1c, B1+2cPsychotria zeylanica Sohmer LCPsydrax dicoccos Gaertn.E: Ceylon Boxwood;S: Gal Karanda,Panakarawa, Panduru; T:Vatchikuran, YerkoliLCPsydrax grandifolius (Thw.) Ridsd. CR(PE)Psydrax montanus (Thw.) Ridsd. NTPsydrax pergracilis (Bourd.) Ridsd. CRRubia cordifolia L.S: Manda Madini-Wel,Yogama-WelENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Saprosma foetens (Wight) Schumannsubsp. ceylanicum (Gardner) Gang.LCSaprosma glomeratum var. gardneri(Thw.) Gang.Saprosma scabridum (Thw.) Beddome ENNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Schizostigma hirsutum Arn. LC LCScyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn.f. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Scyphostachys coffaeoides Thw. E: Wild Coffee; S: Wal-kopi ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Scyphostachys pedunculatus Thw. CR(PE)Spermacoce articularis L.f. LCSpermacoce hispida L.S: Hin Geta Kola;T: Nattaichchuri, YarSpermacoce prostrata Aublet ENLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Spermacoce pusilla Wall. DDSpermacoce ramanii Sivarajan & Nair DDTamilnadia uliginosa (Retz.) Tirv. & Sastre S: Et-Kukuruman, Wadiga VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze exSchumannS: Tarana; T: Karanai LCTarenna flava Alston LCTimonius flavescens (Jack) Baker S: Peddimella, Ngana LC328

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaUncaria elliptica R.Br. ex G.Don LCUrophyllum ceylanicum (Wight) Thw. LCUrophyllum ellipticum (Wight) Thw. LCWendlandia bicuspidata Wight & Arn. S: Rawan Idala LCFamily : RuppiaceaeRuppia maritima L. LC LCFamily : RutaceaeAcronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. S: Ankenda LCAtalantia ceylanica (Arn.) OliverS: Wal-Dehi, Yakinaran;S: Yak-Dehi; T: Pey kuruntuLCAtalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC. S: Dodan Pana LCAtalantia racemosa Wight ex Hook. NTAtalantia rotundifolia (Thw.) Tanaka S: Yaki-Naran VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Chloroxylon swietenia DC.E: Satin Wood; S: Buruta;T:Moodudad Marum, Muritai,MutiraiVU A2 cdClausena dentata (Willd.) Roem.Clausena indica (Dalz.) OliverGlycosmis angustifolia Lindley in Wall. exWight & Arn.S: Ganda-Pana, Et Kara,Bembiya, Weda-PanaS: Migon Karapincha;T: Pannai, PurankainariLCLCS: Bol-Pana LCGlycosmis cyanocarpa (Blume) Spreng ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka LCGlycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) A.DC.Limonia acidissima L.S: Dodan-Pana;T: KulapannaiE: Elephant-Apple, WoodApple; S: Divul;T: Mayaladikkuruntu, Vila,VilattiLCLCLuvunga angustifolia (Oliver) Tanaka LCMelicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.HartleyMicromelum minutum (Forst.f.) Wight &Arn. var. ceylanicumS: Lunu-Ankenda LCS: Wal-Karapincha;T: KakaipalaiLCMurraya gleniei Thw. ex Oliver NTMurraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.E: Curry Leaf; S: Karapinch;T: KarivempuLC329

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaMurraya paniculata (L.) JackE: Orange Jessamine;S: EtteriyaNaringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson S: Wal-Beli VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)LCPamburus missionis (Wight) SwingleParamignya armata (Thw.) Beddome exOliverS: Pamburu; T: Kurantu,Kuruntu, Perum KuruntuParamignya beddomei Tanaka ENLCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Paramignya monophylla Wight S: Wellangiriya LCPleiospermium alatum (Wight & Arn.)SwingleS: Tumpat Kurundu, TunpatKurunduLCToddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. S:Kudu Miris; T: Kandai LCZanthoxylum caudatum Alston ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb.) DC. S: Katu-Keena EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Zanthoxylum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : SabiaceaeMeliosma pinnata (Roxb.) MaximS: Nika Daula, Wal-Bilin;T: KusaviVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. S: El-Badda, El-Bedda VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : SalicaceaeCasearia thwaitesii Briq. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Casearia tomentosa Roxb. S: Kiri Makulu NTCasearia zeylanica (Gaertn.) Thw.S: Wal-Waraka;T: Kakapalai, Kakapelar,Kakkaipalai,Tey PalaLCDovyalis hebecarpa (Gardner) Warb.E: Ceylon Gooseberry;S: KetambilaENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr.S: Uguressa, Dik-Patana,Katukurundu, Wal-Divul,Ukkuressa, Katukutundu;T:Katukali, Kurumurukki,MulanninchilLCHomalium ceylanicum (Gardner) Benth.S: Liyang, Eta-Heraliya,Liyan, WaluLCHomalium dewitii Kosterm. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Scolopia acuminata ClosS: Katu-Kenda, Katu-KurunduLCScolopia crassipes Clos LCScolopia pusilla (Gaertn.) Willd.S: Damhi, Katte Kurundu,Katu-Kenda, Katu-Keeree-LC330

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : SalvadoraceaeAzima tetracantha Lam.Salvadora persica L.Family : SantalaceaeS: Katuniyanda; T: Ichanku,IyankuS: Maliththan, Peelu; T:Uvay, ViyayLCNTGinalloa spathulifolia (Thw.) Oliver ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Korthalsella japonica (Thunb.) Engl. CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Notothixos floccosus (Thw.) Oliver ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Osyris wightian Wall ex Wight NTScleropyrum wallichianum (Wight & Arn.)Arn.EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Viscum articulatum Burm.f. LCViscum capitellatum Smith NTViscum heyneanum DC. LCViscum monoicum Roxb. ex DC. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Viscum orientale Willd. LCViscum ramosissimum Roxb. ex DC. CR B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : SapindaceaeAllophylus cobbe (L.) Räusch.S: Kobbe, Bukobbe, Kobo,Moodu- Kobe, Wal-KobbeLCAllophylus zeylanicus L. S: Wal-Kobbe LCCardiospermum canescens Wall. S: Loco Penela VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cardiospermum halicacabum L. S: Wel-Penela, Penela-Wel LCDimocarpus gardneri (Thw.) Leenh. T: Nurai VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Dimocarpus longan Lour.S: Penni-More, Mora, Mora -Mora, Rasa-MoraLCDodonaea viscosa Jacq. S: Eta-Werella; T: Virali LCFilicium decipiens (Wight & Arn.) Thw.S: Pehimbiya; T: ChittiraiVempuLCGlenniea unijuga (Thw.) Radlk. S: Wal-Mora; T: Kuma LCHarpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk. S: Na-Imbul, Pundalu VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)331

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaLepisanthes erecta (Thw.) Leenh. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Lepisanthes senegalensis (Juss.ex Poir.)Leenh.S: Gal-Kuma; T: Kal-Kuma LCLepisanthes simplocifolia (Thw.) Leenh. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. LCPometia pinnata J.R. & G. Forst.Sapindus emarginata VahlSapindus trifoliata L.Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) OkenFamily : SapotaceaeS: Gal-Mora, Na - Imbul,Bulu-MoraE: Soap Nut Tree;S: Kaha-Penela, Matambala,Embilla, Gas-Penela, PenelaS: Kaha Penela, Kon, Kone;T: Puva, KulaE: Ceylon Oak; S : Kon;T: Kula, PuvuLCLCNTLCChrysophyllum roxburghii G.Don.Isonandra compta (Thw. ex Clarke)DubardIsonandra lanceolata WightS: Rata Lawulu, Lawulu;T: Kat IllupaiS: Weliwarana, Kirihembiliya,MolpeddaIsonandra montana (Thw.) Gamble ENNTENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Isonandra zeylanica Jeuken VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Madhuca clavata JayasuriyaE: Clavate Mi; S:Ritigala Mi,WanamiENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Madhuca fulva (Thw.) Macbride S: Wana-Mi, Kiripede VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cMadhuca indica GmelinE: Indian Butter Tree;S: Urulu Mi; T: Kaattu IlluppaiMohwa, MahwaDDMadhuca longifolia (L.) MacbrideE: Mousey Mi; S: Mi, Mi,Gam Mi, Gula Pushpa;T: Illupai ;Madhuca microphylla (Hook.) Alston S: Wana-Mi ENMadhuca moonii ( Thw.) H.J. Lam. ENNTB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i B1+2cVU i A1cMadhuca neriifolia ( Thw.) H.J. Lam. S: Gan-Mi VU B2ab(i,ii,iii) EN i B1+2cManilkara hexandra ( Roxb.) Dubard S: Palu; T: Palai VU B2ab(i,ii,iii)Mimusops andamanensis King &GrambleENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Mimusops elengi L.S: Munamal, Sinha- Kesara;T:Makil, MukalaiNT332

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPalaquium canaliculatum (Thw.) Engl. S: Elakirihembiliya VUPalaquium grande (Thw.) Engl.Palaquium hinmolpedda van RoyenS: Kirihambiliya, Kiripedda,Rathatiya, Kiriheriya,Mihiriya, MolpeddaS: Hinmolpedda, Miriya, Kiri-MeeriyaPalaquium laevifolium (Thw.) Engl. S: Wana-Mi, Molpedda ENVUB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)EN i B1+2cdVU i A1cCR B1+2cdPalaquium pauciflorum (Thw.) Engl. S: Kirihambiliya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cPalaquium petiolare (Thw.) EnglerPalaquium rubuginosum (Thw.) Engl.S: Golabodu, Kiri-Hambiliya,Kiri-NugaS: Kiriwavula, Tawenna,Kiri-PeddaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LciVU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1c, B1+2cPalaquium thwaitesii Trimen S: Rathatiya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) VU i A1cPalaquium zeylanicum Verdc. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU i D2Xantolis tomentosa ( Roxb.) Raf. T: Mulmakil EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : SchizandraceaeKadsura heteroclita (Roxb.) Craib ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : ScrophulariaceaeGlosssostigma diandra (L.) Kuntze DDVerbascum chinense (L.) Satapau CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : SimaroubaceaeAilanthus triphysa (Dennst.) AlstonE: White Siris; S: Wal-Bilin;T:PeruCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Brucea javanica (L.) Merr.E: Macassar kernel;S: Thiththa KohombaLCQuassia indica (Gaertn.) Noot. S: Samadara VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : SmilacaceaeSmilax aspera L. VUSmilax perfoliata Lour.Smilax zeylanica L.S: Maha-Kabarassa,KabarassaS: Heen-Kabaressa,KabarassaLCLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : SolanaceaeLycianthes bigeminta (Nees) Bitter VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)333

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaPhysalis micrantha LinkS: Mottu, Nalal Batu, Lin-Mottu, Heen-MottuSolanum erianthum D.Don S: Hekarilla DDDDSolanum giganteum Jacq. DDSolanum lasiocarpum Dunal S: Mala-Batu DDSolanum mauritianum Scop. S: Hakarilla DDSolanum pubescens Willd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Solanum torvum Sw. S: Tibbatu, Gona-Batu LCSolanum trilobatum L.S: Wel-Tibbatu;T: TuttuvalaiLCSolanum violaceum Ortega LCSolanum virginianum L.Family : SphenocleaceaeS: Kara- Batu, Katuwel-Batu;T: Kandan-KattariLCSphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. LCFamily : StaphyleaceaeTurpinia malabarica GambleFamily : StemonaceaeS: Kankumbala Eta-Hirilla,Garandi-KidaranLCStemona curtisii Hook. f. CR(PE)Family : StemonuraceaeGomphandra coriacea Wight VUB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Gomphandra tetranda (Wall.) Sleumer NTStemonurus apicalis (Thw.) Miers S: Urul-Honda, Uru-Kanu NTFamily : StylidiaceaeStylidium uliginosum Sw. ex Willd. CR(PE)Family : SurianaceaeSuriana maritima L. CR(PE)Family : SymplocaceaeSymplocos bractealis Thw. S: Bombu ENSymplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.)S.MooreS: Wal-Bombu, Bobu,BombuLCB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU i B1+2c334

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaSymplocos cordifolia Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos coronata Thw. S: Galparre, Guduhal EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)VU i B1+2cSymplocos cuneata Thw. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos diversifolia Brand Thw. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos elegans Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos elegans var. angustata CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos kurgensis Clarke CR B2ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos macrophylla Wall. ex DC. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos obtusa Wall. ex G.Don VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos obtusa var obtusa Wall. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos obtusa var. cucullata Thw. ENSymplocos obtusa var. pedicellata(Clarke) Noot.B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos pendula Wight EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Symplocos pulchra Wight EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : TamaricaceaeTamarix ericoides Rottler & Willd. DDTamarix indica Willd. LCFamily : TetramelaceaeTetrameles nudiflora R.Br. S: Muguna, Niguna LCLR/LC iFamily : TheaceaeCamellia kissi Wall. DDGordonia ceylanica Wight S: Rathatiya, Mihiriya EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Gordonia dassanayakei Wadhwa etWeerasooriyaGordonia elliptica Gardner ENGordonia speciosa (Gardner) Choisy S: Ashoka ENENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : ThymelaeaceaeGnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg S: Naha NT335

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaGyrinops walla Gaertn.S: Wal-Aha, Walla, Walla-Patta, Patta-WallaPhaleria capitata Jack CRWikstroemia canescens Meissner LCVU A3bdB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Family : TriuridaceaeHyalisma janthina Champ. ENSciaphila secundiflora Thw. ex Benth. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Sciaphila tenella Blume DDFamily : TyphaceaeTypha angustifolia L.Family : UlmaceaeHoloptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch.Family : UrticaceaeE: Bull-Rush, Cat Tail; S:Hambu-PanE: Indian Elm; S: GodaKirilla; T: Ayil, Kauchia,VelayliiLC LCNTBoehmeria glomerulifera Miq. S: Maha-Diya-Dul VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Boehmeria macrophylla Hornem. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Boehmeria rugosissima (Blume) Wedd. CR(PE)Chamabainia cuspidata Wight CR(PE)Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd. E: Wild Rhea; S: Gas-Dul LCDebregeasia wallichiana (Wedd.) Wedd. S: Muda-Kenda NTDendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew ENElatostema acuminatum (Poir.) Brongn. CRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Elatostema lineolatum Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Elatostema surculosum Wight CR(PE)Elatostema walkerae Hook.f. CR(PE)Girardinia diversifolia (Link) FriisE:Nilgiri Nettle; S: Gas-KahambiliaLaportea bulbifera (Sieb. & Zucc.) Wedd. CRENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew S:Wal-Kahambilia LC336

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaLecanthus peduncularis (Wall. ex Royle)Wedd.Oreocnide integrifolia (Gaudich.) Miq. ENCR(PE)Pellionia heyneana Wedd. CR(PE)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pilea angulata (Blume) Blume VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pilea melastomoides (Poir.) Wedd. NTPilea wightii Wedd. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pouzolzia auriculata Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pouzolzia bennettiana Wight VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Pouzolzia cymosa Wight DDPouzolzia triandra (Blume) Blume ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Pouzolzia walkeriana Wight LCPouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. LCProcris crenata C.Robinson LCFamily: VahliaceaeVahlia dichotoma (Murr.) Kuntze EN B1ab(i,ii,iii)Family : VerbanaceaeChascanum hyderobadense (Walp.)MoldenkeCR(PE)Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene LCFamily : ViolaceaeHybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. T: Oritad-Tamarai LCHybanthus ramosissimus (Thw.)MelchiorCRB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Rinorea bengalensis (Wall.) Kuntze EXRinorea decora (Trimen) Melchior EXRinorea virgata (Thw.) Kuntze VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Viola betonicifolia Sm. E: Violet VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Viola hamiltoniana D.Don E: Violet CR(PE)Viola pilosa Blume E: Violet LC337

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaFamily : VitaceaeAmpelocissus indica (L.) PlanchS: Towel, Rata-Bulat-Wel; T:SambaravaliNTAmpelocissus pheoenicantha Alston NTCayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. ex Gagnep.S: Geranda-Dul-Wel, Media-Wel; T:Kattuppirandaa,NaralaiLCCayratia reticulata (Lawson) Mabb. LCCayratia trifolia (L.) Domin S: Wal-Rat-Diya-Labu LCCissus adnata Roxb. EN B2ab(i,ii,iii)Cissus gardneri Thw. LCCissus glyptocarpa Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Cissus heyneana Steud. S: Wal-Muddarappalam LCCissus latifolia Lam. S: Wal-Diya-Labu LCCissus lonchiphylla Thw. NTCissus quadrangularis L.S: Hirassa, Sirassa;T: Arugni, Indirvalli, Kiritti,Pirandai, Puraindai,Uchiradam, Uttansanjivi,VachiravalliLCCissus trilobata Lam. LCCissus vitiginea L.S: Wal-Nivithi;T: KaddumuntiriLCCyphostemma setosum (Roxb.) Alston T: Anaitta Dichchai NTLeea indica (Burm.f.) Merr.S: Burulla, Gurulla;T: Nyckki, Otta-NaliLCTetrastigma nilagiricum (Miq) Shetty LCFamily : XanthorrhoeaceaeDianella ensifolia (L.) DC S: Monara-Pretan LCFamily : XyridaceaeXyris capensis Thunb. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)LCXyris complanata R.Br. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii) LCXyris indica L. NT LC338

Family/ Scientific Name Common name NCS Criteria GCS CriteriaXyris pauciflora Willd. LC LCFamily : ZingiberaceaeAlpinia abundiflora Burtt & Smith LCAlpinia fax Burtt & Smith VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Alpinia rufescens (Thw.) Schum. CR(PE)Amomum acuminatum Thw. CR(PE)Amomum benthamianum Trimen CR(PE)Amomum echinocarpum Alston S: Bu-Kiriya, Niya VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Amomum fulviceps Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Amomum graminifolium Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Amomum hypoleucum Thw. CR(PE)Amomum masticatorium Thw. ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Amomum nemorale (Thw.) Trimen CR(PE)Amomum pterocarpum Thw. ENAmomum trichostachyum Alston ENCurcuma albiflora Thw. S: Haran-Kaha ENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)B1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Curcuma aromatica Salisb. S: Dada-Kaha, Wal-Kaha DDCurcuma oligantha Trimen VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Cyphostigma pulchellum (Thw.) Benth. NTElettaria cardamomum (L.) MatonE: Cardamomum; S: Ensal ,Rata-Ensal, Cardamungu; T:Alaka, Ellakai, CardumungaVU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Globba marantina L.S: Hinguru-Piyali, Naharai; T:Kechulu KalangaENB1ab(i,ii,iii)+2ab(i,ii,iii)Zingiber cylindricum Thw. VU B1ab(i,ii,iii)Zingiber wightianum Thw. NTFamily : ZygophyllaceaeTribulus terrestris L.S: Sembu-Nerinchi, Gokatu;T:Chiru NerinchiLC339

Analysis of Seed Plants of Sri LankaSiril Wijesundara 1 , H. S. Kathriarachchi 2 , S. W. Ranasinghe 1 , G. Hapuarachchi 21Department of National Botanic Gardens2University of ColomboSeed-bearing plants or seed plants are perhaps the most obvious group of plants on earth.They include gymnosperms and angiosperms.In gymnosperms the seeds are not enclosed in a fruit. Gymnosperms can be further classifiedinto gnetophytes, cycads, ginkgo, and conifers. In Sri Lanka there are no native conifers,gnetophytes or ginkgo. There are only two gymnosperm species In Sri Lanka belongingto genus Cycas in the family Cycadaceae. They are Cycas nathorstii (madu) and Cycaszeylanica (Lindstrom & Hill, 2007). Of these two species, Cycas zeylanica (maha madu) is ahighly threatened species. The habitat of this species was damaged by tsunami in 2005 andit is believed that the population of this species was seriously affected (Lindstrom & Hill, 2007).Angiosperms are flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed in a fruit. They are the mostdiverse group of plants with an estimated number of 200,000 to 400,000 species (Thorne,2002). These species are classified into 415 families (APG, 2009)Sri Lanka’s angiosperm flora has been explored, studied and documented by many botanistssince the colonial times (Jayasuriya, 2007). Trimen’s Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon (Trimen,1893-1900), was considered as one of the most comprehensive floras of that time. Basedon Trimen’s Flora, Abeywickrama (1945) reported 1,065 genera and 2,855 species in 171families. Out of those 853 species were considered to be endemic to Sri Lanka.The revision of the Trimen’s Flora (Dassanayake et al., 1980-2000) described 3,771 speciesin 1,363 genera and that included many naturalized species. The total number of endemicspecies (including varieties and subspecies) was about 1,000 according to that revision.Compared to the other countries in South Asia, angiosperm diversity in Sri Lanka is remarkablyhigher due to multitudes of factors. Origin, affinities and biogeography of our flowering plantshave been discussed by several authors in the past (Trimen, 1885; Abeywickrama, 1945;Ashton and Gunatilleke, 1987).One of the striking features of our angiosperm flora is the high percentage of endemic species.Analyses done during the preparation of this Red List revealed that there are 894 endemicangiosperm species in Sri Lanka. These species are distributed mainly in the central andsouth west region of the island (The map preceding page). However, there may be moreendemic species in the north east and eastern areas of the country which were not botanizedas extensively as the south western regions.340

Distribution of Endemic Angiosperm species in Sri LankaThere are no endemic families in Sri Lanka. But there are about 14 endemic genera.Taxonomy of angiosperms was revolutionized recently by the application of moleculartechniques in plant systematics (Yakandawala, 2006). Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, aninformal international group of systematic botanists, published angiosperm classifications in1998 (APG I), 2003 (APG II) and 2009 (APG III) to address deficiencies in earlier angiospermclassification systems (APG III, 2009). This list uses the classification proposed in APG III andthe changes made to the family names widely used in the past are given in Table 1.341

Table 1: Changes of families and genera according to Angiosperm Phylogeny Groupclassification for the flowering plants: APG III (2009)Previous Family (Genera)AgavaceaeAlliaceaeAlangiaceae (Alangium)AnthericaceaeApiaceae (Hydrocotyle)ApostasiaceaeAsclepiadaceaeAvicenniaceaeBombacaceaeCallitrichaceaeCapparaceae (Cleome)Caprifoliaceae (Viburnum )Celastraceae ( Bhesa)ChenopodiaceaeClusiaceae (Calophyllum, Mesua)CochlospermaceaeConvallariaceaeCuscutaceaeDatiscaceae (Tetrameles)DipsacaceaeDracaenaceaeEuphorbiaceae (Putranjiva, Drypetes)Euphorbiaceae (Mischodon)Euphorbiaceae (Actephila, Antidesma, Aporusa, Bischofia,Breynia, Bridelia, Cleistanthus, Fluggea, Glochidion,Margaritaria, Meineckia, Phyllanthus, Sauropus)Flacourtiaceae (Hydnocarpus,Trichadenia)Flacourtiaceae (Casearia, Dovyalis, Flacourtia,Homalium, Scolopia)HippocrateaceaeHyacinthaceaeHydrophyllaceaeIcacinaceae (Stemonurus,Gomphandra)Lamiaceae (Priva, Stachytarpheta)LeeaceaeLemnaceaeLimnocharitaceaeLobeliaceaeLoganiaceae (Fagraea)Melastomataceae (Axinandra)MemecylaceaeMolluginaceae (Gisekia)MyrsinaceaeNajadaceaeNyctanthaceaePeriplocaceaePhormiaceaeFamily according to APG III in the Angiosperm listAsparagaceaeAmaryllidaceaeCornaceaeAsparagaceaeAraliaceaeOrchidaceaeApocynaceaeAcanthaceaeMalvaceaePlantaginaceaeCleomaceaeAdoxaceaeCentroplacaceaeAmaranthaceaeCalophyllaceaeBixaceaeAsparagaceaeConvolvulaceaeTetramelaceaeCaprifoliaceaeAsparagaceaePutranjivaceaePicrodendraceaePhyllanthaceaeAchariaceaeSalicaceaeCelastraceaeAsparagaceaeHydroleaceaeStemonuraceaeVerbenaceaeVitaceaeAraceaeAlismataceaeCampanulaceaeGentianaceaeCrypteroniaceaeMelastomataceaeGisekiaceaePrimulaceaeHydrocharitaceaeOleaceaeApocynaceaeXanthorrhoeaceae342

PortulacaceaePotamogetonaceae (Ruppia)Rhizophoraceae (Anisophyllea)Scrophulariaceae (Adenosma, Bacopa, Dopatrium,Limnophila, Microcarpaea, Scoparia, Stemodia)Scrophulariaceae (Artanema,Lindernia ,Torenia)Scrophulariaceae (Calceolaria)Scrophulariaceae (Centranthera, Pedicularis, Sopubia,Striga)Scrophulariaceae (Peplidium)SonneratiaceaeSterculiaceaeSymphoremaceaeTaccaceaeTheaceae (Adinandra,Eurya,Ternstroemia)TiliaceaeTrapaceaeTrichopodaceaeTurneraceae (Turnera)Ulmaceae (Aphananthe , Celtis, Gironniera,Trema)Valerianaceae (Valeriana)Verbenaceae (Aegiphila, Clerodendrum, Glossocarya,Gmelina, Premna , Vitex )ViscaceaeZingiberaceae (Costus)CactaceaeRuppiaceaeAnisophylleaceaePlantaginaceaeLinderniaceaeCalceolariaceaeOrobanchaceaePhrymaceaeLythraceaeMalvaceaeLamiaceaeDioscoreaceaePentaphylacaceaeMalvaceaeLythraceaeDioscoreaceaePassifloraceaeCannabaceaeCaprifoliaceaeLamiaceaeSantalaceaeCostaceaeSenaratne (2001) listed 4,143 flowering plant species in 1,522 genera belonging to 214families. According to her 25% of these are exotics and out of the exotics 32% are naturalized.During the preparation of this Red List the distribution data of each species were carefullyanalyzed by an expert panel and only those species which were undoubtedly native were usedfor evaluation. Thus, the total number of angiosperm species evaluated was 3,154. Thesespecies are in 186 families. Of these the Poaceae (grass family) has the largest number ofspecies (262 species). The ten largest angiosperm families in Sri Lanka are given in Table 2.Nearly 45% of all angiosperm species in the country are in those 10 families.Table 2. The 10 largest angiosperm families in Sri Lanka.FamilyNumber of SpeciesPoaceae 262Fabaceae 221Orchidaceae 184Rubiaceae 179Cyperaceae 170Acanthaceae 105Asteraceae 86Malvaceae 72Melastomataceae 71Lamiaceae 70343

Out of 3,154 species evaluated 1,386 are threatened (critically endangered, endangeredor vulnerable). This is about 44% of the total angiosperm flora in Sri Lanka. Five speciesare believed to be extinct (Table 17). These extinct species are Strobilanthes caudata(Acanthaceae), Blumea angustifolia (Asteraceae), Crudia zeylanica (Fabaceae), Rinoreabengalensis and Rinorea decora (Violaceae). It is alarming to note that 177 species are in theIUCN Red List category of CR(PE) meaning that those species are possibly extinct.Alphonsea hortensis (Annonaceae) and Doona ovalifolia (Dipterocarpaceae) are believed tobe found only in cultivation at Botanic Gardens (extinct in the wild).Out of the 186 families evaluated, 81 families have 50% or more threatened species and in24 families all species are threatened. These 24 families are each represented by less than5 species and more than half of these families are represented by a single species. Only 45families have no threatened species.The distribution of the threatened species shows that the highest number of threatened speciesare found in the wet zone districts such as Kandy, Ratnapura, Nuwara Eliya, Badulla, Galleand Kalutara. These districts also house the largest diversity of angiosperm species (Table 3).Data show that in Ratnapura, Kandy, Kilinochchi, Galle, Nuwara Eliya Kalutara, Kegalle, andMatara districts over 60% of the endemic species are threatened.Table 3. Distribution of threatened plants in different Districts in Sri Lanka.DistrictTotal speciesNumber ofthreatened speciesNumber ofendemicspeciesThreatenedendemic speciesAmpara 477 94 39 17Anuradhapura 956 236 100 47Badulla 1129 421 246 145Batticaloa 474 85 24 12Colombo 652 174 111 53Galle 1050 411 385 252Gampaha 418 81 48 24Hambantota 885 178 65 24Jaffna 546 97 21 7Kalutara 902 361 338 213Kandy 1952 868 567 388Kegalle 699 281 275 167Kilinochchi 43 11 3 2Kurunegala 825 215 128 55Mannar 365 77 13 5Matale 1125 344 212 111Matara 667 261 276 165Monaragala 766 217 108 48Mullaitivu 86 22 7 3Nuwara Eliya 1261 596 400 260Polonnaruwa 645 127 52 21Puttalam 694 117 47 13Ratnapura 1539 739 570 397Trincomalee 594 101 29 8Vavuniya 218 41 9 5344

Threats to angiosperms may range from direct causes such as habitat loss to indirect factorssuch as unavailability of pollinators or dispersal agents. Whatever the causal factors there maybe, the proportion of threatened plants is exceedingly high. Therefore, the findings of the RedList need to be paid serious attention, without delay, by all concerned.ReferencesAbeywickrama, B. A. 1945 The origin and affinities of the Flora of Ceylon Proc. Ann. See. Ceylon A.A.S. Part 2.99-121 pp.Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2009. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the ordersand families of flowering plants: APG III. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, Vol 161. 105-121 ppGunatilleke, C. V. S. & P. S. Ashton, 1987. New light on the plant geography of Ceylon II. The ecological biogeographyof the lowland endemic tree flora. Journal of Biogeography, 14: 295–327 pp.Dassanayake, M. D., Fosberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. (eds). 1980-2000. A Revised Handbook To The Flora ofCeylon . Vol 1-14Jayasuriya, A.H.M. 2007. Flora. in National Atlas of Sri Lanka, Survey Department of Sri LankaLindstrom, A.J. and K.D. Hill. 2007. The genus Cycas (Cycadaceae) in India. Telopea 11(4) 463–488 pp.Senaratne, L.K. 2001 A checklist of flowering plants of Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation, Colombo. 440 p.Thorne R. F. 2002. How many species of seed plants are there? Taxon, Vol.51, Number 3, 1, 511-512(2)Trimen, H. 1893-1900. The Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon., Vol. 1-5. Dalau, LondonTrimen H. 1885 Remarks on the composition, geographical affinities and origin of the Ceylon flora Journal of RoyalAsiatic Society (Ceylon Branch) 9.Yakandawala, Deepthi 2006. Recent developments in angiosperm phylogeny and classification in the light ofmolecular data and cladistics. J. Natn. Sci. Foundation Sri Lanka 34(4): 177-187 pp.345

Potential Applications of the National Red List and the Way ForwardThe National Red List provides the conservation status of the assessed species in a givencountry at that particular time. It is also a tool that guides conservation planning in a country as it;• provides baseline information necessary for the preparation of species profiles ofthreatened species, a basis for prioritising conservation efforts and information necessaryfor the preparation and implementation of recovery plans;• indicates information gaps regarding specific taxa and geographic areas;• Provides a scientific basis for the development of a country’s research agenda onbiodiversity;• allows for objective prioritisation of funding for conservation-oriented research;• provides a basis to analyse biodiversity hotspots that will help identify priority areas forconservation of species and ecosystems;• provides a scientific basis for the formulation and revision of legislation related to biodiversityconservation;• provides a scientific framework for new policies and regulations related to biodiversityconservation;• provides information for the creation of awareness and conservation education amongdifferent stakeholders;• provides a sound decision-making platform for regional and local administrative bodies(i.e., at provincial and town level planning ) for formulation of local developmentplans; and• provides a framework for monitoring spatial and temporal changes in biodiversityTherefore, identifying species at risk is only the first step in species conservation. This shouldbe followed with a programme of activities aimed at recovering species at risk. The aim of thischapter is to propose a set of actions that are needed along with detailed action plans in orderto achieve effective biodiversity conservation in Sri Lanka. Further, these actions are aimedat ensuring the future sustenance of the Redlisting process, and facilitate its use towards theconservation of threatened species in Sri Lanka.1. Ensuring sustainability of the Redlisting processAll species are subjected to dynamic changes driven by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors.Therefore, the conservation status of a species changes with time. Thus, it is essential thatthe assessment of the conservation status of species is a continuing process. The Redlistingof Sri Lankan biodiversity has been carried out at least five times over the past two decades.The responsibility of the Redlisting process should lie with a government institute to ensuretransparency and reliability of the final outcome. Therefore, a Species Conservation Unit(SCU) dedicated for constant monitoring and regular updating of the conservation status ofspecies and coordinate all activities related to conservation of threatened species, has beenestablished at the Biodiversity Secretariat (BDS) of the Ministry of Environment. The SCUshould be strengthened through relevant training and other logistic support to continue theirfunctions efficiently in order to ensure sustainability of the Redlisting programme of Sri Lanka.346

Further, evaluation of the conservation status of species is based on an objective process thatrequires great deal of information on species. In order to facilitate collection and analysis of suchdata, a National Species Database (NSD) has been established in the BDS. The database needsto be expanded in order to accommodate as many taxonomic groups as possible. Further, theinformation on species has to be updated regularly as new information becomes available. Thus,the NSD should be maintained and updated on a regular basis by the SCU, with inputs fromindividual researchers and other institutions. In order to ensure wider use of NSD, it should bemade available to researchers and students through the Internet. However, this should be madepossible only after ensuring data safety and integrity as well as a detailed set of guidelines forusers. Researchers should be encouraged to use the database for non-commercial purposes,analyse it to identify trends and also update the NSD with their own research findings. Such aprocess could be facilitated through a formal agreement between the Ministry of Environment andthe individual researcher and/or research institute. A MOU should be developed to facilitate suchinformation exchange. Further, the NSD should be integrated with other relevant databases (i.e.the national wetland database) after formulation of necessary guidelines for data sharing. Also,an incentive/ a rewarding mechanism should be established to encourage individual researchersto deposit publications (research papers, articles, books, monographs, thesis etc.) in the SCUlibrary. As a part of this exercise, a virtual library containing all published information on SriLankan biodiversity should be established in the BDS. As a part of their terms of reference, theSCU should prepare quarterly catalogues on new research outputs related to biodiversity, andforward it to researchers. Further, the national Redlist should be updated at least every two yearsbased on new data that becomes available on species.Area of focusResponsibleInstitution/sTechnicalsupportTime FrameExpansion of the database to include taxathat are not currently availableBDS (SCU)NASCAG, ExpertgroupsOngoing processCollection of new information on taxa that arealready listed in the databaseBDS (SCU)INASCAG, ExpertgroupsOngoing processEvaluation or reevaluation of species basedon new informationBDS (SCU)NASCAG, ExpertgroupsOngoing processUpdating and publication of the NationalRedlistBDS (SCU)NASCAG, ExpertgroupsJanuary 2015Propose revisions to the IUCN global RedlistBDS (SCU)IUCN, ExpertgroupsOngoing processEnsure data safety and integrityBDS (SCU)NASCAG, Expertgroups, NEC-BdOngoing processPrepare guidelines to use the database BDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd June 2013Host the database in the Worldwide Web BDS (SCU) NASCAG December 2013Establish a network of researchers that cancontribute to the RedlistPublish a quarterly catalogue on researchoutputs related to Biodiversity of Sri LankaBDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd December 2013SCU NASCAG Ongoing process347

Establish a virtual library on Sri LankanBiodiversity at the Biodiversity SecretariatFormulate guidelines for sharing andintegrating the NSD with other relevantdatabasesBDS (SCU) NASCAG Ongoing processBDS (SCU) NASCAG, NEC-Bd June 2013Integrate NSD with other relevant databases BDS (SCU) NASCAG December 2013BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, NEC-Bd - NationalExperts Committee on Biodiversity2. Linking the Red list with ongoing cross-sectoral initiativesAlthough four National Red lists were published during the last two decades, these lists havenot been adequately integrated to National Policy nor have they been included into otherongoing national conservation actions. Because of this, previous Red Lists have failed to makea significant impact on overall conservation of species in Sri Lanka. This may be becausethere was a lack of awareness among relevant line agencies about the different purposes,significance and relevance of the National Red List and the need to integrate it into theirplanning processes. It could also be a result of lack of ownership of the Red List as being a trulynational tool for conservation. Therefore, as a follow up action it is essential that awarenessis created among relevant line agencies in order to develop a framework in each of the lineagencies so that they integrate the results of the Red List into their ongoing activities. Some ofthe key conservation-related activities that should be considered and the corresponding lineagencies are listed below. It is proposed that a two day residential workshop be held with theparticipation of at least one high-ranking representative from each of these line agencies withthe specific aim of drafting a document including the activities to be undertaken by each of theline agencies to implement various facets of the Red List and to develop mechanisms throughwhich these outcomes are achieved. This activity should to be completed by July 2013.Area of focusProtected area gap analysisHabitat mapping and biodiversity baseline surveys in selectedprotected areas of DWCNational Species Conservation StrategyProtected area management plan preparationRevision of fauna and flora protection ordinanceRevision of other conservation-related legislationRegulation of species subjected to export tradeConservation of crop wild relativesFunding and conducting biodiversity related researchConservation of medicinal speciesEx situ conservation of species with special emphasis ofestablishing a captive breeding programme for threatenedspeciesNational policy and planningResponsible Institution/sMOE, DWC, and FDDWCMOEDWC, FD, CEADWCDWC, FD, CCD, DF., DC, CEA, ID etc.DWC, FD, DC, DFDANSF, Universities, Research Institutes NonGovernmental OrganizationsMinistry of indigenous medicineDBG, DZG, etc.,Department of physical planning348

MOE: Ministry of Environment, DWC: Department of Wildlife Conservation, FD: Forest Department, CEA: CentralEnvironmental Authority, CCD: Coast Conservation Department, DC: Department of Customs, DF: Departmentof Fisheries, ID: Irrigation Department, DA: Department of Agriculture, NSF: National Science Foundation,DBG: Department of Botanical Gardens, DZG: Department of Zoological Gardens3. Update local level biodiversity profilesThe NSD contains a wealth of information that has been used to prepare the regional biodiversityprofiles to assist decision-making at a regional level. These profiles needs to be updated withthe new information that has become available during the preparation of current Red List.Further, awareness about the Red List and its implications to local developmental planningshould also be created among local government bodies. A series of district level workshopsshould be held with the participation of representatives from local government bodies withthe aim of formulating a set of local level actions to implement various facets of the RedList results. The Biodiversity Secretariat (BDS) of the Ministry of Environment (MOE) shouldorganise these workshops, between the period of June to December 2013.4. Implement programmes to recover populations of threatened speciesThe primary aim of assessing the conservation status of species to identify conservation actionsneeded to protect these species so that natural populations can recover to a point where theycan be down-listed or de-listed after a period of time. However, a simple comparison of theRed Lists published to date indicates that the status of most threatened species has remainedunchanged or has worsened with time and this is therefore a very serious issue. This maybe because necessary conservation measures have not been taken despite Red List data.Therefore, it is proposed that the proposed species conservation strategy be completed as anessential and immediate follow-up action of the Red List. As a part of the species conservationstrategy, a set of single or multi species recovery plans should be identified and developed,and a mechanism should be devised to implement these plans, in order that as many ofthe species that are listed are recovered. Thus far a single recovery programme for Puntiusbandula (Bandula pethiya) has been carried out with financial support from BDS under theoverall supervision of NASCAG. The lessons learned from this project should be documentedand incorporated in conducting future recovery programmes.Area of focus (links)ResponsibleInstitution/sTechnical support Time FrameComplete the species conservationNASCAG, NEC-Bd,BDS (SCU)strategyExpert groupsJune 2013Identify a set of single and multiNASCAG, NEC-Bd,BDS (SCU)species recovery plansExpert groupsJune 2013Prepare recovery plansTeams identified bythe BDSNASCAG December 2013Seek funds for the implementation BDS, NSF, Otherof recovery plansfunding agenciesNASCAG June 2014Implement recovery plansRelevant lineTeams that preparedagenciesthe recovery plansJune 2014BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, NEC-Bd - National Experts Committeeon Biodiversity349

5. Initiatives to conserve point endemics occurring outside PA’sAccording to the NSD, a number of endemic species in Sri Lanka have highly restricteddistribution patterns, where they are known to exist only in one or a few locations. The NSD alsoreveals that many such point endemics exist outside the protected area network. Therefore,these species are at a high risk of extinction if appropriate conservation measures are nottaken. In many of these cases simply integrating these locations into the existing protectedarea network may not be possible. Therefore, it will be desirable to develop other conservationmodels such as community-based conservation actions where local communities and civilsociety can play a major role in conserving these species. The NSD provides a platform toidentify such point endemics. Therefore, it is proposed that such point endemics that needsimmediate conservation action should be identified and management plans prepared for theirconservation.Area of focus (links)ResponsibleInstitution/sTechnical support Time FrameIdentify point endemics thatoccur outside the PA networkBDS NASCAG June 2013Prepare management plans toconserve these point endemicsDWC, FD, CEA NASCAG, December 2013Implementation of theseDWC, FD, CEA,management plansNGO’sNASCAG January 2014BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, DWC - Department of WildlifeConservation, FD - Forest Department, CEA - Central Environment Agency, NGO - Non Governmental Agencies6. Develop a research agenda for threatened species and initiate island-wide surveyson biodiversityOne of the major constraints during the Redlisting process was lack of data, except for theirdistribution, on most of the evaluated taxa. Even baseline data, particularly for invertebrates,is not available for several key ecosystems in Sri Lanka. The BDS over the past few yearshas provided seed grants to researchers to conduct investigations on threatened species aswell as critical ecosystems that have lead to a wealth of new information. However, BDS doesnot have the capacity to sustain such research at a large scale due to limited amount of fundsavailable at its disposal. Therefore, a sustainable funding mechanism to support such researchinitiatives should be established in collaboration with funding agencies such as National ScienceFoundation and National Research Council. Therefore, it is essential that a research agenda isdeveloped to fill these gaps. Further, national expertise on many invertebrate and lower planttaxa is inadequate due to lack of trained personnel. Therefore, investment in capacity buildingin areas where expertise is lacking or weak is also a timely need. BDA have held a series ofworkshops on such lower taxa as well as produced communication tools to popularize studyof such taxa. These activities needs to be continued and expanded to other areas of Sri Lankawith the aim of establishing regional groups using the university network as hubs. Anotherconstraint faced during redlisting is the inability to assess temporal changes for most speciesas data has not been gathered using standard procedures. The following set of activities isproposed to overcome these limitations.350

Area of focusResponsibleInstitution/sTechnical supportTime FrameDevelop a research agenda forbiodiversity related workAward research contracts toimplement the research agendaDevelop guidelines for astandard, methodologicalapproach for conductingbiodiversity-related researchConduct a series of workshops tocreate awareness about researchgaps as well as use of standardmethods for data collectionConduct a series of workshops todevelop capacity for research onlower taxaBDS, NSF, DWC, FD NASCAG June 2013NSF, DWC, FD NASCAG December 2013NSF, BDS NASCAG June 2013NSF, BDS NASCAG August 2013BDS and NSF NASCAG December 2013Initiate baseline biodiversityNSF, DWC, FD NASCAG January 2014surveys in selected sitesBDS - Biodiversity Secretariat, NASCAG - National Species Conservation Advisory Group, DWC - Department ofWildlife Conservation, FD - Forest Department, CEA - Central Environment Agency, NGO - Non GovernmentalAgencies7. Assess status of infra-species variations for useful speciesEven though the species is considered as the unit of conservation, there are number of taxathat show much infra species variation. In such cases, it may be prudent to plan conservationaction at an infra species level in order to ensure conservation of genetic diversity. Therefore,an attempt should be made to document the diversity below the species level, especially foragro-biodiversity, given that that several indigenous crops and livestock varieties and their wildrelatives have lost their genetic variability in the recent past.Area of focusResponsibleInstitution/sTechnical supportTime FramePrepare checklists of cropvarieties and their wild relativesthat should be conservedDepartment ofAgricultureCrop Wild Relatives Project June 2013Prepare checklists of livestockvarieties and their wild relativesthat should be conservedDepartment of Livestock Indigenous Livestock Project June 2013Identify indigenous species thatshow appreciable infra speciesvariabilityBDSIndividual experts on suchtaxaDecember 2013Identify a set of actions neededto conserve such infra speciesvariationBDSIndividual experts on suchtaxaDecember 2013BDS - Biodiversity Secretariat351

These actions are necessary to ensure long term conservation of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity. TheSCU based at the biodiversity secretariat will act as the coordinating body to initiate theseactions. However, as can be seen, successful completion of these tasks will require great dealof inter-agency cooperation without which conservation of the biodiversity of Sri Lanka willindubitably fail.The future of the species diversity of Sri Lanka lies in gathering solid scientific baseline data,analysing these data using the best possible methods, identifying gaps and priorities basedon these scientific foundations and developing conservation action plans from the informationgathered. It is essential that these efforts are buttressed by conservation education thatcreates awareness not only about the threats facing species and their current status, but alsoabout the role each stakeholder can play in the conservation of Sri Lanka’s flora and fauna. Itis only when such a holistic and scientifically-based effort is made that engages and involvesall stakeholders that conservation will move from being rhetoric to effective action. In such aneffort, Redlisting is pivotal as a scientific tool that facilitates conservation.352

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Provisional Checklist of Sea Urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of Sri LankaSevvanadi JayakodyUniversity of WayabaIntroductionOne of the most important groups of phylum Echinodermata is commonly known as Seaurchins which belong to the class Echinoidea. They are exclusively marine and occupyhabitats from the intertidal zones to depths of more than 5000m and also from the equatorto southern and northern poles. All extant Sea urchins are divided into two major groups, theregular echinoides (globose test and pentameral symmetry commonly known as sea urchins)and irregular echinoides (heart urchins and sand dollars).The echinoderms of the Indian Ocean are known since ancient times. This is mainly due tovarious expeditions such as Challenger expedition (1873-1874), Deutchen Tiefsee expedition(1902-1903), Percy Sladen Trust expedition (1904), John Murray expedition (1933-1934),Swedish Deep Sea expedition (1947-1948) and the Danish Deep Sea expedition (1961-1965).But some of the literature available relates to the “Indian Ocean” or in connection with the Gulfof Mannar making it difficult to work out the exact Sri Lankan echinoderm diversity.The echinoderm fauna of island of Sri Lanka was first recorded by Bell (1887) and severalother studies conducted during the early part of the 20th century, notably by Herdman et al.,(1904), Clark (1915) and the monographs compiled by Mortensen (1928, 1935, 1940, 1943).Herdmen (1904) in his report to then Government of Ceylon on the pearl oyster fisheries, hasrecorded 109 echinoids including 30 species of Holothuroidea, 13 species of Crinoidea, 28species of Echinoidea, 24 species of Asteroiedea and 14 species of Ophiuroidea. Clark (1915)has also recorded 14 regular sea urchins.Since then little work has been done on sea urchins for several decades. In recent years,work done by Malik Fernando, Prassana Weerakkody, S. Jayakody and R.M.G.N. Thilakaratnehas resulted in addition of few new species to the list of sea urchins in Sri Lanka as well asre-establishing presence of some species listed in the checklist of Clark and Rowe (1971).Currently, 28 species of sea urchins are recognized from the coast of Sri Lanka. Identificationnow relies on Echinoid Directory, an online key adopted by British Natural History Museum, UKand a monograph by Clark and Rowe (1971).Out of the 28 recognised species in Sri Lanka, only a single species, Heterocentrotusmammillatus (Slate Pencil urchin) is listed as protected in the Flora and Fauna ProtectionOrdinance (2007). The species is commercially exploited and are exported for ornamentaltrade. The lack of population data and also scanty information available for regulatory bodiesto identify them has allowed the unregulated exploitation of sea urchins.As in the case of other marine species, a vast amount of work is pending with regard to SeaUrchins. Therefore, to encourage future research into echinoides the following recommendationsare made:370

1. Establishment of a national echinoide collection and relevant literature2. Studies to determine the role played by echinoides in the coastal ecosystems3. Training young researchers and institutions on species collection and identification4. Strengthening the capacity of relevant institutions working on marine research5. Development of a species identification guide to popularize the study of sea urchins aswell as for the use of regulatory bodies6. Development and implementation of detailed studies that would furnish informationnecessary to conduct conservation status assessment of the sea urchins in the futureReferencesAlvarado, J. J. & Cortes, J., (2009). “Echinoderms.” Monographiae Biologicae, 86, pp.421-433.Clark, H. C., (1915). The Echinoderms of Ceylon other than Holothurians. Spolia Zeylanica, X, pp.83-102.Clark, A. M. & Rowe, F. W. E., (1971). Monograph of shallow-water Indo-West Pacific echinoderms, i-vii. London:Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History).Herdman, W. A., Herdman, J. B. & Bell, F. J., (1904). Report by the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oysterfisheries of the Gulf of Mannar. Supplementary Reports No X on the Echinodermes.Jayakody, S., Thilakaratne, R. M. G. N. & Amerasinghe, M. D., (in press). A study on diversity and population statusof sea urchins in relation to their habitat characteristics and anthropogenic disturbance. (RG/2006/MS/03)Mortensen, T., (1928). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Voloum I. Cidaroidea. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel,.Mortensen, T., (1935). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Volume ii, Bothriocidaroida, Melonechinoida, Lepidocentroidaand Stirodonta. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel.Mortensen, T., (1940). A monograph of the Echinoidea. Volume iii. 1, Aulodonta. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel,.Mortensen, T., (1943). A monograph of the Echinoidea iii2. Camarodonta 1. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzel.Smith, A. B., (1984). Classification of the Echinodermata. Paleontollogy, 2(3), pp.431-439.Thilakaratne, R. M. G. N., Jayakody, S., (2008). A study on identification and distribution of sea urchins (Phylum:Echinodermata, Class; Echinoidea) in coastal zone of Sri Lanka. In: The Student Conference on ConservationScience (SCCS). 9 th Student conference on conservation science. University of Cambridge, UK, March 25 - 27,2008, UK: University of Cambridge, (Proceedings) pp.57.Thilakarathna, R.M.G.N., Jayakody, S. and Amarasinghe M.D. (2010) Fluctuations of sea urchins (Class: Echnoidea)in Hikkaduwa (protected but highly disturbed) and Ahangama (unprotected and less disturbed) in Sri Lanka withmacro algae cover. In: The Student Conference on Conservation Science (SCCS). 11 th Student conference onconservation science. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, 14-16 September 2011, UK: University ofCambridge, (Proceedings).Bambaradeniya, C. N. B. ed., (2006). The fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation.Colombo: The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka.In addition following documents were also usedRecent records by Malik Fernando *, Prasanna Weerakkody** and Gayani Thilakaratne and SevvandiJayakody ***, MA Gayashan and Sevvandi Jayakody****NR = new record$ = exported ornamental speciesP = protectedSummarized from A.M. Clark & F.W.E. Rowe (1971) Monograph of shallow-waterIndo-west Pacific Echinoderms with recent additions to this list and observations.** Recent records by Malik Fernando * Recent records by Prasanna Weerakkody(Ophiuroidea) , ***Recent records by S. Jayakody & RMGN Thilakaratne. NR = new record;$ = exported ornamental species; P = protected371

Provisional checklist of regular and irregular echinoids of Sri Lankan shallow coastal areasThe checklist given below has been compiled using the documented literature of listed publications.Where appropriate information on current density calculations have also been given with the location.Class EchinoideaFamily CidaridaeEucidaris metulariaPhyllacanthus imperialisPrionocidaris baculosa ?**5Prionocidaris bispinosaFamily EchinothuriidaeAsthenosoma variumAsthenosoma intermedium ?**NR$6Family DiadematidaeAstropyga radiata **$Diadema savignyi **Diadema setosum **Echinothrix diadema **Echinothrix calamaris***Family StomopneustidaeStomopneustes variolaris **$Family TemnopleuridaeMicrocyphus ceylanicus **Salmaciella dussumieri***Salmacis bicolor **$Salmacis virgulata **$****Salmacis belli ***Salmacis toreumaticusTemnotrema siamenseFamily ToxopneustidaeGymnechinus robillardiPseudoboletia indianaPseudoboletia maculata **$Toxopneustes pileolus **$***Tripneustes gratilla **Family EchinometridaeColobocentrotus atratusEchinometra mathaei **$ (both brown and ash colourmorphs)Echinostrephus molaris **Heterocentrotus mammillatus **PFamily EchinoneidaeEchinoneus cyclostomus **Echinoneus abnormalis **NRFamily ClypeasteridaeClypeaster fervensClypeaster humilis **Clypeaster rarispinus **Clypeaster reticulatus **Family FibulariidaeFibularia cribellum (?)Fibularia oblonga (?)Fibularia volva (?)Family LaganidaeLaganum depressum **Peronella lesueuriPeronella macroproctes **Peronella oblongaFamily ScutellidaeEchinodiscus auritus **Echinodiscus bisperforatus **Family EchinolampadidaeEchinolampas alexandriEchinolampas ovata **Family SpatangidaeMaretia planulataPseudomaretia altaFamily LoveniidaeLovenia elongata **Family SchizasteridaeParaster gibberulus **Prymnaster ? investigatoris **NRFamily BrissidaeBrissus latecarinatus **Metalia latissimaMetalia sternalis **Metalia dicrana **NRRhynobrissus pyramidalis372

Provisional Checklist of Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea & HolothuroideaMalik FernandoNR= New RecordClass: CrinoideaFamily Comasteridae1. Capillaster macrobrachius NR2. Capillaster multiradiatus3. Capillaster sentosus4. Comanthina schlegeli5. Comanthus parvicirrus6. Comanthus samoanus7. Comatella maculata8. Comatella stelligera9. Comatula pectinata (?)Family Zygometridae10. Zygometra andromeda(?)Family Himerometridae11. Amphimetra ensifera12. Amphimetra tessellata NR13. Heterometra amboninae14. Heterometra bengalensis15. Heterometra reynaudi16. Himerometra persica NR17. Himerometra robustipinnaFamily Mariametridae18. Dichrometra sp. NR19. Lamprometra palmata20. Oxymetra finschi21. Stephanometra echinus (?)22. Stephanometra indica (?)23. Stephanometra spicata24. Stephanometra tenuipinnaFamily Colobometridae25. Cenometra herdmani26. Decametra modica27. Decametra taprobanes28. Oligometra serripinnaFamily Tropiometridae29. Tropiometra carinataFamily Antedonidae30. Mastigometra micropodaClass: OphiuroideaFamily Ophiomixidae1. Ophiomyxa australis2. Ophiomyxa compacta NRFamily Gorgonocephalidae3. Astroboa clavataFamily Ophiacanthidae4. Ophiacantha indicaFamily Amphiuridae5. Amphioplus depressus6. Amphiura luetkeniFamily Ophiactidae7. Ophiactis savignyiFamily Ophiotrichidae8. Gymnolophus obscura9. Macrophiothrix aspidota10. Macrophiothrix hirsuta(?)11. Macrophiothrix longipeda12. Macrophiothrix variabilis13. Ophiocnemis marmorata14. Ophiogymna elegans15. Ophiomaza cacaotica16. Ophiopteron elegans17. Ophiothrix exigua18. Ophiothrix foveolata19. Ophiothrix trilineata20. Ophiothrix proteus21. Ophiothrix purpurea22. Ophiothrix nereidinaFamily Ophiocomidae23. Ophiarthrum elegans24. Ophiocoma brevipes25. Ophiocoma dentata NR26. Ophiocoma erinaceus27. Ophiocoma pica28. Ophiocoma scolopendrina29. Ophiocomella sexradia30. Ophiomastix annulosaFamily Ophionereidae31. Ophionereis dubia32. Ophionereis porrectaFamily Ophiodermatidae33. Cryptopelta grannulifera34. Ophiarachna incrassata35. Ophiarachnella gorgonia36. Ophiarachnella macrantha NR37. Ophiarachnella septemspinosa38. Ophiarachnella sphenisci39. Ophiochaeta hoeschmai NR40. Ophiopeza fallax41. Ophiopeza spinosa NR373

Family Ophiuridae42. Ophiolepis cincta43. Ophiolepis rugosa44. Ophiolepis superba45. Ophioplocus imbricatus46. Ophiura kinbergiClass : HolothuroideaFamily Holothuriidae1. Actinopyga echinites2. Actinopyga lecanora3. Actinopyga maunliana4. Actinopyga miliaris5. Actinopyga serratidens6. Bohadschia argus7. Bohadschia marmorata8. Bohadschia tenuissima9. Bohadschia vitiensis10 Colochirus robustus11. Holothuria (Halodeima) atra12. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis13. Holothuria (Lessonothuria) glandifera14. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea15. Holothuria fuscogilva16. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota17. Holothuria pardalis18. Holothuria (Mertensiothuna) pervicax19. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) scabra20. Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis21. Holothuria (Platyperona) difficilis22. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus23. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii24. Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens25. Holothuria (Semperothuria) imitans26. Holothuna (Theelothuria) kurti27. Holothuria (Theelothuria) spinifera28. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla29. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiensFamily Stichopodidae30. Stichopus chioronotus31. Stichopus naso32. Stichopus variegatus33. Thelenota ananas34. Thelenota anaxFamily Psolidae35. Psolus complanatusFamily Cucumariidae36. Havelockia herdmani37. Havelockia versicolor38. Hemithyone semperi39. Pentacta armatus40. Pentacta quadrangularis41. Pseudocolochirus tricolor42. Pseudocolochirus violaceus43. Staurothyone rosacea44. Stolus buccalis45. Stolus conjugens46. Thyone papuensis47. Trachythyone imbricata48. Trachythyone typicaFamily Phyllophoridae49. Actinocucumis typicus50. Ohshimella ehrenbergi51. Phyllophorus (Phyllophorella) parvipedes52. Phyllophorus (Phyllothuria) cebuensis53. Phyllophorus (Urodemella) brockiFamily Caudinidae54. Acaudina molpadiodesFamily Synaptidae55. Opheodesoma grisea56. Synapta maculata57. Synaptula recta58. Synaptula striataFamily Chirotidae59. Polycheira rufescensClark, A.M. & F.W.E. Rowe. 1971. Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific Echinoderms. British Museum(Natural History). 3-26.Fernando, Malik. 2006. Coral Associated Invertebrates: An Overview of the Current Taxonomic Status. InBambaradeniya, Channa N. B. Ed. The Fauna of Sri Lanka, Section 3: Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka(2006), IUCN – The World Conservation Union. 259-273.Weerakkody, Prasanna. 1998. Observations on some shallow-water Brittlestars (Ophiuroidea) from the south andsouth-western coasts; with notes on field identification of the observed species. Sri Lanka Naturalist II(3): 22-30.Perera, E. N. R. & P. Weerakkody. 2004. A Biodiversity Status Profile of subtidal and intertidal habitats of theRekawa, Ussangoda and Kalametiya area. Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No. 5, March 2004. IUCN -The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka Country Office, Colombo.Blue Zoo Aquatics. 2011.Dissanayake, D.C.T. and Wijayaratne M.J.S. 2007. Studies on the sea cucumber fishery in the North Westerncoastal region of Sri Lanka.Elanganayagam, Padmini. 1983. Study on ecology and some aspects on biology of Sri Lankan holothurians.Fernando, Malik. 2006. Coral Associated Invertebrates: An Overview of the Current Taxonomic Status. InBambaradeniya, Channa N. B. Ed. The Fauna of Sri Lanka, Section 3: Status of Marine Fauna in Sri Lanka(2006), IUCN – The World Conservation Union. 259-273.374

Provisional checklist of soft corals recorded in Sri LankaS. KrishnarajaThe Open University of Sri LankaSpeciesFamily: AlcyoniidaeSinularia brassica May, 1898Sinularia dura (Pratt, 1903)Sinularia erecta Tixier-Durivault, 1945Sinularia firma Tixier-Durivault, 1970Sinularia grandilobata Verseveldt, 19Sinularia granosa Tixier-Durivault, 1970Sinularia leptoclados(Ehrenberg, 1834 )Sinularia lochmodos kolonko, 1926Sinularia macropodia Hickson & Hites, 1900Sinularia microspiculata Tixier-Durivault, 1970Sinularia minima Verseveldt, 1971Sinularia polydactyla Ehrenberg, 1834Sinularia imbrilobata Verseveldt, 1974Cladiella humsi Verseveldt, 1974Cladiella spp.Cladiella subtilis Tixier-Durivault, 1970Lobophytum altum Tixier-Durivault, 1956Lobophytum compactum Tixier-Durivault, 1956Lobophytum crassum Von Marenzeller, 1886Lobophytum crebriplicatum Von Marenzeller, 1886Lobophytum critigalli Von Marenzeller, 1886Lobophytum delectum Tixier-Durivault, 1966Lobophytum michaelae Tixier-Durivault, 1966Lobophytum ransoni Tixier-Durivault, 1959Lobophytum packeli Tixier-Durivault, 1956Sarcophyton acutangulam Tixier-Durivault, 1966Sarcophyton crassoc Moser, 1919Sarcophyton crassum Tixier-Durivault, 1946Sarcophyton ehrenbergi Von Marenzeller, 1886Sarcophyton latum(Dana, 1846)Sarcophyton trocheliophorum Von Marenzeller,1886Family: NephtheidaeDendronephthya gigantia(Verrill, 1864)Sterionephthya costatocyania Burchardt, 1898Tortus pacilloporaformisFamily: XeriidaeXenia spp.ReferenceK. D. Arudpragasam & S. Krishnaraja. 1983. Taxonomy and Distribution of Soft Corals in Sri Lanka, NSF Report.375

Provisional Checklist of Corals in Sri LankaArjan RajasuriyaNational Aquatic Resources & Research Development AgencyHistorical backgroundThe descriptions of hard corals from Sri Lanka dates back to the 19 th century (Dana, 1846;Edwards & Haime. 1860; Ridley. 1883; Ortmann 1889; Rehberg. 1892; Brook, 1892). Bourne(1905) described corals collected by Herdmann from Pearl Banks in the Gulf of Mannar.Thereafter, Pillai (1972) recorded 90 species of hard corals belonging to 39 genera. Thephysiographic zonation and ecological aspects of reefs at Hikkaduwa and Negombo wasdescribed by Mergner and Scheer (1974) and Arudpragasam (1984) respectively. Basedon previous records and collections from Hikkaduwa, Scheer (1984) recorded 40 speciesof hermatypic (zooxanthellate) corals. De Silva and Rajasuriya (1985, 1986 and 1987) andRajasuriya & De Silva (1988) identified 64 species of hermatypic corals in 15 genera thathad not been previously recorded for Sri Lanka and from specimens collected during surveyscarried out by the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. ThereafterRajasuriya (1987, 1994, 2007a and 2007b) has listed 15 new species from Sri Lanka. Veron(2000) described three species of hermatypic corals occurring in the southern coast of SriLanka of which two are new to science. The current checklist of hard coral species for SriLanka contains 208 species in 71 genera divided among 19 families.TaxonomyThe taxonomic status of some hard coral species recorded for Sri Lanka has changed sincethe checklist of hard corals for Sri Lanka was published by Rajasuriya & De Silva (1988). Threegenera; Euphyllia, Catalaphyllia and Plerogyra previously included in the family Caryophyllidaehas been placed in a new Family, Euphyllidae by Veron (2000). Fungiacyathus stephana thatwas previously included in the family Fungiidae is now listed under the family Fungiacyathidae.In a revision of the ‘Staghorn Corals of the World’, Wallace (1999) renamed Acropora formosaas Acropora muricata citing the original description of the species. However, Veron (2000)in ‘Corals of the World’ has retained Acropora formosa as the valid name for this species.However, this species is listed as Acropora muricata in the present checklist of stony coralsfor Sri Lanka.Distribution of Corals and reef habitats in Sri LankaMost Hard Corals exhibit a wide distribution within the Asian region. However, Veron (2000)has described two new species of hard coral from Sri Lanka; Podabacea lankaensis (Family:Fungiidae) and Echinopora robusta (Family: Faviidae) that have not been reported fromelsewhere to date. However, further investigations in the region are necessary to confirmwhether these two species are endemic to Sri Lanka. Reef surveys carried out by the NationalAquatic Resources Research and Development Agency indicate that the rarest speciesrecorded to date is Blastomussa merleti which was collected at Unawatuna in late 1980s. Thisspecies has not been reported from any other location in Sri Lanka.376

Extensive coral growth is limited to a depth of about 12 meters in Sri Lanka due to the turbiditythat exist in coastal waters. The Gulf of Mannar has the most extensive shallow coral reefsin Sri Lanka (Swan 1983; Rajasuriya & De Silva, 1988). Fringing coral reefs are common inthe northern, eastern and southern coastal waters. A few offshore patch reefs are found inthe western coast between Chilaw and Colombo that are located ca. 10 to 20 kilometers fromthe shore line and at an average depth of 20 meters. Sandstone and rock reef habitats arewidespread on the continental shelf. Generally, the hard coral cover is low on these substratescompared to extensive coral habitats (Rajasuriya & De Silva, 1988; Rajasuriya, Ohman &Johnstone, 1998; Rajasuriya, Ohman & Svensson, 1998). However, in some areas the diversityof hard corals is higher on sandstone reef habitats than on extensive coral habitats. Extensivehard coral reefs tend to be dominated by a few species belonging to branching and tabulateAcropora species, Echinopora lamellosa or foliose Montipora species and massive corals ofthe families, Faviidae and Poritidae.ThreatsThe major widespread threat to corals is from climate change. In 1998 large extents of shallowwater corals became bleached and many reefs were damaged extensively. Their recoveryis variable and even within a single reef area such as the Bar Reef individual patch reefshas shown different levels of recovery (Rajasuriya 2005, 2008). Coral bleaching with someregularity has been observed recently, especially on reefs in the east and north. In 2010 therewas severe bleaching of the coral reefs in the Pigeon Island National Park and Dutch Bay inTrincomalee. These reefs are heavily degraded and have not shown good signs of recovery.However such bleaching events appear to be localized as some fringing reefs at Kutchchavelilocated north of Trincomalee was not bleached during the same period. Crown of Thornsstarfish populations dwindled after the 1998 large scale coral bleaching, but an increase intheir numbers has been observed recently in Trincomalee.The 2004 Tsunami caused serious damage to some coral reefs mainly in the eastern andsouthern region. This physical damage still remains and combined with other forms of impactsincluding coral bleaching and human induced damage continue to degrade the quality ofcoral reefs. The use of destructive fishing methods including blast fishing is still widespread,especially in the eastern and northwestern coastal waters. Over harvesting of species suchas herbivorous reef fish, the Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) that feed on juvenileCrown of Thorns starfish and many other species that are important for the maintenance of theecological balance of coral reefs continue to take place. Pollution from coastal developmentand industries has affected all near shore reefs in Colombo and reefs in the vicinity of majorcities in the southern coast. Unplanned development of tourist facilities along the coast hascaused beach pollution and contributed to the damage of near shore reefs due to expansionof tourism related activities beyond the carrying capacity of an area and through direct impactssuch as trampling of corals by visitors. Most of the damage is caused by Sri Lankan visitorswho disregard the advice given to them by local authorities.377

ConservationAll species of hard corals are protected in Sri Lanka through the Fauna and Flora Protection Actby the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Corals and reef habitats are also protected underthe Coast Conservation Act, but are limited to the coastal zone, which is a two kilometer widestrip of coastal water around the country. Four marine protected areas have been establishedto date under the Department of Wildlife Conservation, namely Hikkaduwa Marine NationalPark, Pigeon Island Marine National Park, Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary and Rumassala MarineSanctuary. Due to inadequate implementation of wildlife and fisheries regulations there is littleprotection given to reef habitats, even within the marine protected areas.The creation of special management areas under the Coastal Zone Management Plan hasled to the development of management plans for the Hikkaduwa Marine National Park and theBar Reef Marine Sanctuary. However, most of the recommendations for the protection of coralreefs in these two areas have not been implemented.RecommendationsIndividual species of hard corals can best be protected by protecting entire reef habitats.Species based conservation will only be successful in localities where a rare species is found.Corals release gametes into the water and coral larvae travel widely in ocean currents andsettle on suitable substrates. Therefore, protection of entire reef habitats is the only method toensure the protection of corals in Sri Lanka.Although there are several management plans for coral reef areas and despite the fact thatcorals have been given legal protection under the Fauna and Flora Protection Act, both coralreefs and corals receive little protection in the natural environment.ReferencesArudpragasam, K. D. 1984. Ecology of Rocky Shores and Estuaries of Sri Lanka. In Ecology and Biogeography inSri Lanka (ed C. H. Fernando): Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague.Bourne C. G. 1905. Report on solitary corals collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rept. Govt. CeylonPearl Oyster Fish. Gulf of Mannar (Suppl.) 29: 187 - 242.De Silva M. W. R. N., & Rajasuriya A. 1985. Checklist of stony corals for Sri Lanka with ecological notes on newrecords. 41 st Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science. Colombo.De Silva M. W. R. N., & Rajasuriya A. 1986. Geographical extension of the range of the Fungid coral genusZoopilus Dana, 1846 to the Indian Ocean. 42nd Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for theAdvancement of Science. Colombo.Mergner, H. & Scheer, G. 1974. The physiographic zonation and the ecological conditions of some South Indian andCeylon reefs. pp. 3 - 30 Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp., Brisbane, Australia.NARA, CORDIO/IUCN/GCRMN, & SLSAC. 2005. Rapid assessment of tsunami damage to coral reefs in Sri Lanka.Interim report No. 1.: NARA/CORDIO/IUCN. 9.Ortmann A. 1889. Beobachtungen an Steinkorallen von der Sudkuste Ceylons. Zool. Jahrb. (Syst.) 4: 493 - 590.Pillai C. S. G. 1972. Stony corals of the seas around India. Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs, 191 - 216.Rajasuriya A. & De Silva, M. W. R. N. 1987. Two Genera and five Species of Hermatypic Corals New to Sri Lanka.43rd Scientific Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science,. Colombo: Sri LankaAssociation for the Advancement of Science.Rajasuriya, A. & De Silva, M. W. R. N. 1988. Stony Corals of the Fringing Reefs of the Western, Southwestern andSouthern Coasts of Sri Lanka. In Proc 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, pp. 287-296. Australia.378

Rajasuriya A. 1994. Three genera and twelve species of stony corals new to Sri Lanka. Second Annual ScientificSessions of the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. Colombo, Sri Lanka.Rajasuriya A. 2005. Status of coral reefs in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the 1998 coral bleaching event and 2004tsunami. In: Souter D and Linden O, eds. Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean: Status Report 2005.University of Kalmar, Sweden: CORDIO, Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University ofKalmar, Sweden. 83 - 96.Rajasuriya A. 2007. Coral reefs in the Palk Strait and Palk Bay in 2005. J. Nat. Aquat. Resour. Res. Dev. Agency38 (2007): 77 - 86.Rajasuriya A. 2007a. Leptoseris gardineri (Agariciidae) and Merulina ampliata (Merulinidae): two species ofhermatypic corals, new records for Sri Lanka. (Abs.) Scientific Sessions at the 25th Anniversary of the NationalAquatic Resources Research and Development Agency. Colombo.Rajasuriya A. 2007b. A revised and updated checklist of stony corals which includes eight species new to Sri Lanka.(Abs.) 13th Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.Colombo: Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.Rajasuriya A. 2008. Status of Coral Reefs in the Northern, Western and Southern Coastal Waters of Sri Lanka. In:Obura D, Tamelander J and Linden O, eds. Ten Years after bleaching - facing the consequences of climatechange in the Indian Ocean. CORDIO Status Report 2008. Mombasa: CORDIO/Sida - SAREC. 11 - 22.Rajasuriya A, and De Silva M. W. R. N. 1988. Stony Corals of the Fringing Reefs of the Western, Southwestern andSouthern Coasts of Sri Lanka. Proc 6th International Coral Reef Symposium. Australia, 287-296.Rajasuriya A, Ohman M. C., and Johnstone R. 1998. Coral and sandstone reef habitats in northwestern Sri Lanka:patterns in the distribution of coral communities. Hydrobiologia 362: 31-43.Rajasuriya A, Ohman M. C, and Svensson S. 1998. Coral and Rock Reef Habitats in Southern Sri Lanka: Patternsin the Distribution of Coral Communities. AMBIO 27: 8: 723-728.Ridley S. O. 1883. The coral faunas of Ceylon with descriptions of new species. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 11: 250-262.Scheer G. 1984. The distribution of reef corals in the Indian Ocean with a historical review of its investigation. DeepSea Research 31: 885 - 900.Swan B. 1983. An introduction to the Coastal Geomorphology of Sri Lanka. National Museums of Sri Lanka,Colombo.Veron, J. E. N. 2000. Corals of the World. Townsville, QLD. Australia.: Australian Institute of Marine Science.Wallace, C. 1999. Staghorn Corals of the World: a revision of the coral genus Acropora. Collingwood, Australia:CSIRO379

Checklist of corals recorded for Sri LankaSpeciesFamily: AcroporidaeAcropora aculeus (Dana, 1846)Acropora anthocercis (Brook, 1893)Acropora ceylonica (Ortmann, 1889)Acropora clathrata (Brook, 1891)Acropora cytherea (Dana, 1846)Acropora danai (Edwards & Haime, 1860)Acropora divaricata (Dana, 1846)Acropora elegantula (Ortmann, 1889)Acropora hemprichii (Ehrenberg, 1834)Acropora humilis (Dana, 1846)Acropora hyacinthus (Dana, 1846)Acropora lamarcki Veron, 2000Acropora lianae Nemenzo, 1967Acropora millepora (Ehrenberg, 1834)Acropora microphthalma (Verrill, 1869)Acropora multiformis (Ortmann, 1889)Acropora muricata (Dana, 1846)Acropora natalensis Riegl, 1995Acropora nasuta (Dana, 1846)Acropora nobilis (Dana, 1846)Acropora orbicularis Brook, 1892Acropora pinguis Wells, 1950Acropora robusta (Dana, 1846)Acropora rudis (Rehberg, 1892)Acropora russelli Wallace, 1994Acropora samoensis (Brook, 1891)Acropora scherzeriana (Bruggemann, 1877)Acropora secale (Studer, 1878)Acropora selago (Studer, 1878)Acropora seriata (Ehrenberg, 1834)Acropora solitaryensis Veron & Wallace, 1984Acropora tenuis (Dana, 1846)Acropora valenciennesi (Milne, Edwards & Haime,1860)Acropora verweyi Veron & Wallace, 1984Acropora yongei Veron & Wallace, 1984Montipora aequituberculata Bernard, 1897Montipora danae (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1851)Montipora digitata (Dana, 1846)Montipora exserta (Quelch, 1886)Montipora effusa Dana, 1846Montipora foliosa (Pallas, 1766)Montipora friabilis Bernard, 1897Montipora millepora Crossland, 1952Montipora monasteriata (Forskal, 1775)Montipora undata Bernard, 1897Montipora verrucosa (Lamarck, 1816)Astreopora gracilis Bernard, 1896Anacropora forbesi Ridley, 1884Family: AstrocoeniidaeStylocoeniella guentheri Basset-Smith, 1890Family: AgariciidaeGardineroseris planulata (Dana, 1846)Pavona clavus (Dana, 1846)Pavona decussata (Dana, 1846)Pavona divaricata (Lamarck, 1816)Pavona duerdeni Vaughan, 1907Pavona explanulata (Lamarck, 1816)Pavona minuta Wells, 1954Pavona varians Verrill, 1864Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg, 1834)Pavona maldivensis (Gardiner, 1905)Leptoseris explanata Yabe & Sugiyama, 1941Leptoseris gardineri Horst, 1921Leptoseris hawaiiensis Vaughan, 1907Leptoseris papyracea (Dana, 1846)Leptoseris mycetoseroides Wells, 1954Leptoseris scabra Vaughan, 1907Pachyseris rugosa (Lamarck, 1801)Pachyseris speciosa (Dana, 1846)Family: CaryophyllidaeDeltocyathus rotulus (Alcock, 1898)Paracyathus stokesi (Milne Edwards and Haime,1848)Paracyathus striatus (Philippi, 1842)Heterocyathus aequicostatus Milne Edwards &Haime,1848Tropidocyathus herdmani (Bourne, 1905)Family: DendrophylliidaeBalanophyllia imperialis (Kent, 1871)Balanophyllia affinis (Semper, 1872)Balanophyllia parallela (Semper, 1872)Balanophyllia taprobanae (Bourne, 1905)Balanophyllia cumingii (Milne, Edwards & Haime,1848)Psammoseris sulcata (Verrill, 1866)Heteropsammia cochlea (Spengler, 1781)Tubastrea aurea (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)380

Tubastrea micrantha Ehrenberg, 1834Dendrophyllia gracilis (Milne, Edwards & Haime,1848)Dendrophyllia minuscula (Bourne, 1905)Dendrophyllia robusta (Bourne, 1905)Turbinaria peltata (Esper, 1794)Turbinaria mesenterina Lamarck, 1816Turbinaria quincuncialis (Ortmann, 1889)Family: EuphyllidaeEuphyllia glabrescens (Chamisso & Eysenhardt,1821)Euphyllia divisa Veron & Pichon, 1980Euphyllia ancora Veron & Pichon, 1980Catalaphyllia jardinei (Saville - Kent, 1893)Plerogyra sinuosa (Dana, 1846)Family: FaviidaeFavia danae Verrill, 1872Favia favus (Forskal, 1775)Favia matthaii Vaughan, 1918Favia maxima Veron & Pichon,1977Favia pallida (Dana, 1846)Favia speciosa Dana, 1846Favia veroni Moll & Borel Best,1984Favia rotundata (Veron & Pichon, 1977)Favites abdita (Ellis & Solander, 1786)Favites chinensis (Verrill, 1866)Favites pentagona (Esper, 1794)Favites halicora (Ehrenberg, 1834)Favites melicerum (Ehrenberg, 1834)Favites spinosa (Klunzinger, 1879)Favites flexuosa (Dana, 1846)Montastrea valenciennesi (Milne, Edwards & Haime,1848)Montastrea curta (Dana, 1846)Diploastrea heliopora (Lamarck, 1816)Plesiastrea versipora (Lamarck, 1816)Goniastrea edwardsi Chevalier, 1971Goniastrea pectinata (Ehrenberg, 1834)Goniastrea retiformis (Lamarck, 1816)Goniastrea aspera Verrill, 1865Platygyra carnosus Veron, 2000Platygyra lamellina (Ehrenberg, 1834)Platygyra sinensis (Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1849)Platygyra daedalea (Ellis & Solander, 1786)Platygyra pini Chevalier, 1975Leptoria phrygia (Ellis & Solander, 1786)Leptastrea purpurea (Dana, 1846)Leptastrea transversa Klunzinger, 1879Cyphastrea chalcidicum (Forskal, 1775)Cyphastrea serailia (Forskal, 1775)Echinopora lamellosa (Esper, 1795)Echinopora robusta Veron, 2000Oulophyllia crispa (Lamarck, 1816)Family: FlabellidaeFlabellum stokesi Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848Placotrochus laevis Milne, Edwards & Haime, 1848Family: FungiidaeCycloseris costulata (Ortmann, 1889)Cycloseris cyclolites (Lamarck, 1801)Cycloseris hexagonalis (Milne Edwards & Haime,1848)Cycloseris patelliformis (Boschma, 1923)Diaseris distorta (Michelin, 1843)Diaseris fragilis Alcock, 1893Ctenactis echinata (Pallas, 1766)Fungia danai Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851Fungia fungites (Linnaeus, 1758)Fungia repanda Dana, 1846Fungia moluccensis Horst, 1919Fungia paumotensis Stutchbury, 1833Fungia scutaria Lamarck, 1801Herpolitha limax (Houttuyn, 1772)Podabacia crustacea (Pallas, 1766)Podabacia lankaensis Veron, 2000Polyphyllia talpina (Lamarck, 1801)Sandalolitha robusta Quelch, 1886Zoopilus echinatus Dana, 1846Family: FungiacyathidaeFungiacyathus stephanus (Alcock, 1893)Family: MerulinidaeHydnophora exesa (Pallas, 1766)Hydnophora microconos (Lamarck, 1816)Merulina ampliata (Ellis and Solander, 1786)Merulina speciesFamily: MussidaeAcanthastrea echinata (Dana, 1846)Acanthastrea speciesAustralomussa rowleyensis Veron, 1985Blastomussa merleti Wells, 1961Cynarina lacrymalis (Milne Edwards and Haime,1848)Lobophyllia corymbosa (Forskal, 1775)Lobophyllia hemprichii (Ehrenberg, 1834)Micromussa diminuta Veron, 2000Micromussa minuta (Moll and Borel-Best, 1984)381

Symphyllia agaricia Milne, Edwards and Haime,1849Symphyllia radians Milne Edwards and Haime, 1849Symphyllia recta (Dana, 1846)Symphyllia valenciennesi Milne Edwards & Haime,1849Family: MilleporidaeMillepora exesa (Forskal, 1775)Millepora platyphyllia (Hemprich and Ehrenberg,1834)Millepora tenella (Ortmann, 1892)Family: OculinidaeGalaxea astreata (Lamarck, 1816)Galaxea fascicularis (Linnaeus, 1767)Family: PectiniidaePectinia speciesMycedium elephantosus (Pallas, 1766)Echinophyllia aspera Ellis & Solander, 1788Echinophyllia echinata Saville - Kent, 1871Family: PocilloporidaePocillopora damicornis (Linnaeus, 1758)Pocillopora elegans Dana, 1846Pocillopora eydouxi Milne Edwards and Haime, 1860Pocillopora cf. informis DanaPocillopora molokensis Vaughan, 1907Pocillopora verrucosa (Ellis and Solander, 1786)Stylophora pistillata Esper, 1797Family: PoritidaePorites annae Crossland, 1952Porites cribripora Dana, 1846Porites desilveri Veron 2000Porites echinulata Klunzinger, 1879Porites fragosa Dana, 1846Porites gaimardi Milne Edwards and HaimePorites lutea Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851Porites lobata Dana, 1846Porites rus (Forskal, 1775)Porites solida (Forskal, 1775)Porites sp 1 as recorded by Mergner & Scheer, 1974Porites sp 2 as recorded by Mergner & Scheer, 1974Poritipora paliformis Veron 2000Stylaraea punctata (Linnaeus, 1758)Goniopora bernardi Faustino, 1927Goniopora fruticosa Saville-Kent, 1893Goniopora stokesi Edwards & Haime, 1851Alveopora viridis Quoy & Gaimard, 1833Alveopora verrilliana Dana, 1872Alveopora fenestrata (Lamarck, 1816)Family: SiderastreidaeCoscinaraea columna (Dana, 1846)Pseudosiderastrea tayamai Yabe & Sugiyama, 1935Psammacora contigua (Esper, 1797)Psammacora digitata Milne Edwards & Haime, 1851Family: StylasteridaeDistichopora violacea (Pallas, 1766)382

References For Corals Recorded For Sri LankaBourne, C.G. 1905. Report on solitary corals collected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rept. Govt. CeylonPearl Oyster Fish. Gulf of Mannar (Suppl.) 29: 187 - 242 pp.De Silva, M.W.R.N. and A. Rajasuriya. 1985. Checklist of Stony Corals for Sri Lanka with Ecological Notes onNew Records. 41st Scientific Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, Sri LankaAssociation for the Advancement of Science. Colombo.De Silva, M.W.R.N. and A. Rajasuriya. 1986. Geographical extension of the range of the Fungid coral genusZoopilus Dana, 1846 to the Indian Ocean. 42nd Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for theAdvancement of Science. Colombo.Mergner, H. and G. Scheer. 1974. The physiographic zonation and the ecological conditions of some South Indianand Ceylon reefs. pp. 3 - 30 Proc. Int. Coral Reef Symp., Brisbane, Australia.Pillai, C.S.G. 1972. Stony corals of the seas around India. pp. 191 - 216 Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs.Rajasuriya, A. and De Silva, M.W.R.N. 1987. Two genera and five species of Hermatypic Corals New to Sri Lanka.43rd Scientific Session of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science,, Sri Lanka Associationfor the Advancement of Science., Colombo.Rajasuriya, A. 1994. Three genera and twelve species of stony corals new to Sri Lanka. Second Annual ScientificSessions of the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Colombo, Sri Lanka.Rajasuriya, A. 2007. Leptoseris gardineri (Agariciidae) and Merulina ampliata (Merulinidae): two species ofhermatypic corals, new records for Sri Lanka. Scientific Sessions at the 25th Anniversary of the NationalAquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Colombo.Rajasuriya, A. 2007. A revised and updated checklist of stony corals which includes eight species new to Sri Lanka.(Abs.) proceedings of the 13th Annual Scientific Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and AquaticResources., Sri Lanka Association for Fisheries and Aquatic Resources., Colombo.Veron, J.E.N. 2000. Corals of the World (Vol 1, 2, &3). Australian Institute of Marine Science, Qld. 490 pp.383

Provisional Checklist of Marine Aquatic Shelled Molluscs Of Sri LankaExcluding Freshwater GastropodsMalik FernandoPart 1: Provisional Checklist of Species of Gastropods in Sri LankaPart 2: Provisional Checklist of Species of Bivalves in Sri LankaThe Phylum MOLLUSCA Cuvier, 1795 contains numerous classes that include animals ofnumerous forms, both terrestrial and aquatic. This checklist deals only with aquatic forms,carrying external shells consisting of one or two pieces, in the classes Gastropoda and Bivalviainhabiting marine and brackish waters (see box 01).Box 01Phylum Mollusca Cuvier, 1793Class: Aplacophora von Hering, 1876 – Spiny, shell-lessmolluscsClass: Polyplacophora Blainville, 1816 – chitons; with 8-shellplatesClass: Monoplacophora Odhner, 1940 – cap-shell molluscs;deep seaClass: Gastropoda Cuvier, 1795 – snails; includes shell-lessslugsClass: Bivalvia Linnaeus, 1758 – bivalves; clams, mussels,oystersClass: Scaphopoda Keferstein in Bronn, 1862 – tusk shellsClass: Cephalopoda Cuvier, 1797 – octopuses, squids,cuttlefishes and nautilusesAfter de Bruyne, 2003Box 02CLASSGAS-TROPO-DAORDER 6 10SUPERFAM-ILY30 28FAMILY 60 42BIVAL-VIAGENERA 173 113SPECIES 469 287Terrestrial forms are found only among the Gastropoda (some species in OrdersArchitaenioglossa & Pulmonata) and consist of terrestrial and arboreal species; these areexcluded from this checklist. The great majority of species in this class are wholly marine; aminority occurs in brackish water, some ranging into water that may be fresh in tidal rivers.Others are entirely freshwater inhabitants (some species in Orders Neritopsina, Sorbeoconcha& Pulmonata) and are excluded from this checklist. The Order Opisthobranchia contains mostlyspecies with no shells or greatly reduced shells that are internal; however, a few families ofspecies with external shells are included here.The Bivalvia are wholly aquatic and essentially marine with very few freshwater species. As allthree undoubted species of freshwater bivalves (Family Unionidae) have been collected andphotographed they have been included in the checklist. One record reported by Hadl (1974)from a single specimen is excluded; it was probably a misidentification referring to a brackishwater species (Family Corbiculidae) that is included here.The species in this list have been arranged in natural orders according to de Bruyne (2003)pages 309 to 316. The list is simplified to some extent, the species being listed under Class,Sub-class, Order, Superfamily and Family; the divisions Superorder, Suborder and Subfamilyare not employed except in three instances where the subfamily category has been used.384

Subgenera have generally not been used except where it was considered useful and such adivision was found in the literature. Lack of uniformity in this regard is a shortcoming that needsto be addressed in future versions. This is not going to be an easy task. Box 02 summarisesthe taxa listed.The principal difficulty in compiling this checklist was the non-availability of sufficient primaryliterature of a monographic nature with extensive synonymies to enable harmonisation betweenthe lists of different authors and the lack of access to named collections for confirmation ofidentities by comparison. Reliance on a variety of literature, mostly not recent, has led tonomenclature that may not be uniform. The same species may therefore be represented undermore than one name.The checklist was compiled primarily based on the personal collections of the compiler, mostlycollected by diving. Many specimens were obtained cast ashore on beaches or snagged onfishing nets, presumably in Sri Lankan waters. Some were purchased from itinerant vendorsor from shell shops. The provenance of some of these items not collected personally maybe in doubt. All these specimens have been identified personally using a variety of literatureand two web-based databases; the complete Bibliography is attached to this checklist. All thespecimens have been photographed and these will be available on a DVD in due course. Allthe named specimens are preserved and are available for reference.The checklist contains incompletely identified species, not all specimens having been identifieddown to specific rank; in some even the genus is unknown. There are a number of collectedspecimens still awaiting identification – and many, no doubt, still awaiting collection – so thechecklist will keep growing. All species have been photographed and most include descriptionsas identification often requires examination of shell features not obvious in a photograph. Inaddition to the personal collection, reference has been made to published lists by ParakramaKirtisinghe 1 (1978), Darshani de Silva 2 (2006) and D. H. Fernando 3 (1977). Misidentificationsand identified synonyms in these publications have been excluded and the remainder included.It has not been possible to examine the Kirtisinghe collection; the other two publications arenot backed by specimens.Future work towards a complete checklist includes physical verification of the Kirtisinghecollection and inclusion of specimens in the Rodney Jonklaas and Kalika Perera collectionsin the Colombo National Museum and the Cedric Martenstyn collection. All three are knownto be named. But, however many specimens are examined unless there is access to recentliterature including monographs and facilities of comparing specimens with those in majorcollections, doubts will remain.1 Kirtisinghe, Parakrama. 1978. Sea shells of Sri Lanka. Tuttle, Tokyo.2 de Silva, Darshani. Current Status of Taxonomy and Ecology of Marine Molluscs in SriLanka. In: Bambaradeniya, Channa (Ed), The Fauna of Sri Lanka (2006), IUCN, 274-287.3 Fernando, D. H. Lamellibranchiate Fauna of the Estuarine and Coastal Areas in SriLanka. Bull. Fish. Res. Stn., Sri Lanka, Vol. 27, 1977, 20-54.385

Part 1: Provisional Checklist of Species of Gastropods in Sri LankaFamily: PatellidaeCellana eucosmiaCellana luchuanaCellana rota (Gmelin, 1791) *Patella flexuosa Quoy and Gaimard, 1834 *Family: AcmaeidaeAcmaea saccharina (Linnaeus, 1758) *Patelloida striata Quoy and Gaimard, 1834 *Family: HaliotidaeHaliotis varia Linnaeus, 1758 *Haliotis cf. pustulataNotohaliotis sieboldiSunhaliotis planataFamily: FissurellidaeClypidina notata (Linnaeus, 1758) *Diodora limaDiodora mus (Reeve, 1850) *Diodora sp. *Emarginula fissurata Holten, 1802 *Macroschisma sp.Scutus unguis (Linnaeus, 1758) *Family: TrochidaeCalliostoma sp. *Clanculus cf. atropurpureus (Gould, 1849) *Euchelus asperEuchelus cf. atratus (Gmelin) *Euchelus quadricarinatus (Holten, 1802) *Euchelus sp.1 *Monilea calliferaTectus pyramis Born, 1778 *Trochus callicoccus Reeve *Trochus gibberulusTrochus maculatusTrochus radiatus Gmelin *Trochus sacellumTrochus tentorium Gmelin *Trochus sp.1 *Umbonium vestiarum Linnaeus, 1758 *Family: TurbinidaeAngaria delphinus Linnaeus, 1758*Astralium costatumAstralium heimburgi (Dunker)*Astralium rhodostomaAstralium semicostata (Kiener, 1850) *Astralium sp. 1 *Liotinaria cidarisTurbo intercostalis Menke, 1843*Turbo marmoratusTurbo petholatus Linnaeus, 1758*Turbo stenogyrusFamily: NeritidaeClithon oualaniensis Lesson, 1831Naticarius rufilabrisNerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758Nerita articulata Gould, 1847Nerita chamaeleon Linnaeus, 1758Nerita costata Gmelin, 1791Nerita insculptaNerita plicata Linnaeus, 1758Nerita polita Linnaeus, 1758Neritopsis radulaNerita (Theliostyla) textilis Gmelin, 1791Ritena mauraNeritina (Dostia) siquijorensis (Recluz, 1843)Family: CerithiidaeCerithium citrinum Sowerby, 1855 *Cerithium echinatumCerithium obeliscus Bruguiere *Cerithium sowerbyiClypeomorus batillariaeformis (Habe and Kosuge,1966) *Clypeomorus chemnitzianusClypeomorus sp. 1 *Clypeomorus sp. 2 *Clypeomorus sp. 3 *Clypeomorus sp. 4 *Ochetoclava sp.Rhinoclavis asperaRhinoclavis sinensisFamily: ModulidaeModulus tectum Gmelin, 1791Family: PlanaxidaePlanaxis niger Quoy & Gaimard, 1834 *Planaxis sulcatus (Born, 1778)*Family: PotamididaeCerithidea cingulata (Gmelin, 1791) *Cerithidea quadrataCerithidea sp. 1 *Telescopium telecopium (Linnaeus, 1758)*Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767) *386

Family: SiliquariidaeTenagodus anguina (Linnaeus, 1758) *Tenagodus cumingii Mörch, 1861 *Family: TurritellidaeTurritella columnaris Kiener, 1840 *Turritella duplicata (Linnaeus, 1758) *Turritella terebraFamily: LittorinidaeEchinolittorina millegrana (Philippi, 1848) *Littoraria intermedia (Philippi) *Littoraria scabra (Linnaeus, 1758) *Littoraria undulata (Gray, 1839) *Nodilittorina quadricincta (von Mühlfeldt, 1824) *Nodilittorina trochoides (Gray, 1839) *Family: RostellariidaeRostellariella delicatulaTibia insulaechorab Roding, 1798Family: SeraphidaeTerebellum terebellum (Linnaeus, 1758)Family: StrombidaeGibberulus gibberulusLambis chiragra Linnaeus, 1758 *Lambis crocata Link, 1807 *Lambis lambis (Linnaeus, 1758) *Lambis scorpius (Linnaeus, 1758) *Lambis truncata Humphrey, 1786 *Strombus aurisdianae Linnaeus, 1758 *Strombus canarium Linnaeus, 1758 *Strombus decorus (Roding, 1798) *Strombus dentatusStrombus klineorum Abbott *Strombus listeri T. Gray, 1852 *Strombus luhuanusStrombus marginatus Linnaeus, 1758 *Strombus mutabilis Swainson, 1821 *Strombus plicatus sibbaldi Sowerby, 1842 *Strombus vittatus Linnaeus, 1758 *Strombus sp. 1 *Family: HipponicidaeHipponix conicus (Schumacher, 1817) *Hipponix pilosusFamily: CalyptraeidaeCheilea tectumsinenseCrucibulum extinctorum Lamarck, 1822 *Crucibulum violaceumCrucibulum sp. 1 *Syphopatella walshi (Hermannsen in Reeve, 1859) *Family: XenophoridaeXenophora helvaceaXenophora cf. exuta *?Xenophora pallidula Reeve, 1843 *Xenophora tenuisFamily: VermetidaeSerpulorbis cf. sipho Lamarck,1818 *Vermetus sp.1 *Vermetus sp.2 *Family: CypraeidaeCypraea erronesCypraea scurraCypraea (Bistolida) hirundo Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Blasicura) interrupta Gray, 1824 *Cypraea (Cribraria) cribraria Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Cypraea) tigris Linnaeus *Cypraea (Erosaria) erosa Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Erosaria) helvola Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Erosaria) ocellata Linnaeus *Cypraea (Erronea) caurica LinnaeusCypraea (Erronea) caurica dracaena *Cypraea (Erronea) felina listeri (Gray, 1825) *Cypraea (Leporicypraea) mappa Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Luria) isabella Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Luria) pulchra Gray, 1824 *Cypraea (Lyncina) argus Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Lyncina) carneola Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Lyncina) lynx Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Lyncina) vitellus Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Mauritia) arabica Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Mauritia) histrio Gmelin, 1791 *Cypraea (Mauritia) mauritiana Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Monetaria) moneta Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Nuclearia) nucleus Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Ornamentaria) annulus Linnaeus, 1758Cypraea (Palmadusta) asellus Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Palmadusta) clandestina Linnaeus, 1767 *Cypraea (Purpuradusta) gracilis Gaskoin, 1849 *Cypraea (Pustularia) cicercula Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Ravitrona) caputserpentes Linnaeus,1758*Cypraea (Staphylaea) staphylaea Linnaeus, 1758 *Cypraea (Talparia) talpa Linnaeus, 1758 *Adusta onyxDerstolida stolidaErosaria nebrites ceylonensisErosaria porariaMystaponda nivosaOvatipsa coloba gregoriPalmadusta punctataPeribolus depressusPustularia globulusRavitrona gangrenosaTalostolida teres387

Family: OvulidaeCalpurnus lacteusCalpurnus verrucosus Linnaeus, 1758 *Ovula ovum Linnaeus, 1758 *Volva brevirostrisVolva volvaVolva sp. 1Family: TriviidaeTrivia edgari Shaw *Family: NaticidaeMamilla kurodaiNatica euzonaNatica tigrina (Roding, 1798) *Natica traillii Reeve, 1855 *Natica vitellus Linnaeus, 1758 *Natica (Naticarius) alapapilionis (Röding, 1798) *Naticarius lineataNaticarius rufilabris *?Polinices mamilla (Linnaeus, 1758) *Polinices powisianusPolinices (Neverita) albumen (Linnaeus, 1758) *Polinices (Neverita) didyma (Roding, 1798) *Sinum javanicum (Griffith & Pidgeon, 1834) *Sinum planulatusFamily: BursidaeBufonaria crumena (Lamarck, 1816) *Bufonaria echinata (Link, 1807) *Bufonaria nobilisBursa bufonia (Gmelin, 1791) *Bursa granularis (Röding, 1798) *Bursa granularis (Röding, 1798) [tuberculatedform]*Bursa rana (Linnaeus)Bursa spinosaTutufa bubo Linnaeus, 1758 *Tutufa bufo (Röding, 1798) *Tutufa rubeta (Linnaeus, 1758) *Family: CassidaeCassis cornuta Linnaeus, 1758 *Casmaria erinaceaCasmaria ponderosaCypraecassis rufa (Linnaeus, 1758) *Phalium areolaPhalium canaliculatumPhalium fimbria (Gmelin, 1791) *Phalium glaucum Linnaeus, 1758 *Family: RanellidaeApollon gyrinum (Linnaeus, 1758) *Charonia tritonis Linnaeus, 1758 *Cymatium cingulatumCymatium kleineriCymatium lotoriumCymatium muricinumCymatium perryi Emmerson & Old, 1963 *Cymatium rubeculumCymatium spengleriCymatium (Cymatriton) nicobaricum Roding, 1798 *Cymatium (Gelagna) clandestinaCymatium (Ranularia) pyrumCymatium (Ranularia) retusum Lamarck, 1822 *Cymatium (Septa) aquatile Reeve, 1844 *Cymatium (Septa) pileare Linnaeus, 1758 *Distorsio anus Linnaeus, 1758 *Distorsio reticulata Roding, 1798 *Family: TonnidaeMalea pomumTonna canaliculata (Linnaeus, 1758) *Tonna dolium (Linnaeus, 1758) *Tonna galea Linnaeus, 1758Tonna perdixTonna sulcosaTonna tessalataFamily: FicidaeFicus ficusFicus subintermedius (d’Orbigny, 1852) *Ficus variegatus Röding, 1798 *Family: EpitoniidaeEpitonium (Gyroscala) perplexum Deshayes *Family: JanthinidaeJanthina globosa Swainson, 1822 *Janthina janthina Linnaeus, 1758 *Family: EulimidaeEulima sp. 1 *Thyca crystallina (Gould, 1846) *Family: CoralliophilidaeCoralliophila neritoidea Lamarck, 1816 *Coralliophila pyriformis Kira *Magilus sp.Rapa bulbiformisFamily: MuricidaeChicoreus brunneus Link, 1807 *Chicoreus palmarosae Lamarck, 1822 *Chicoreus ramosus (Linnaeus, 1758) *Chicoreus saulii Soweby, 1841 *Chicoreus torrefactus (Sowerby, 1841) *Chicoreus virgineus Röding *388

Haustellum haustellum (Linnaeus, 1758) *Haustellum kiiensis (Kuroda in Kira, 1959 *Murex pecten Lightfoot, 1786 *Murex racemosaMurex ternispina Lamarck, 1822 *Murex tribulus Linnaeus, 1758 *Subfamily: RapaninaeCymia lacera (Born, 1778) *Drupa morumDrupa ricina Linnaeus, 1758 *Drupella fusconigraDrupella ochrostoma var. spectrum (Blainville) /(Reeve) *Drupella rugosa (Born, 1778) *Mancinella mancinella (Linnaeus, 1758) *Morula granulata (Duclos, 1832) *Morula serrialis (Laborde?) *Morula (Cronia) margariticola Broderip, 1832 *Morula sp. 1 *Morula sp. 2 *Purpurea persica (Linnaeus, 1758) *Rapana rapiformis (Born, 1778) *Thais tissoti Petit, 1852 *Thais (Mancinella) bufo (Lamarck, 1822) *Thais mutabilis *Family: BuccinidaeBabylonia spirata Linnaeus, 1758 *Babylonia zeylanica Bruguiere, 1789 *Cantharus (Pollia) fumosus Dillwyn, 1817 *Cantharus tranquebaricusCantharus (Pollia) undosus Linnaeus, 1758 *Cantharus sp. 1 *Engina melanozona Tomlin *Engina pulchraEngina zonataEngina sp. 1 *Engina sp. 2 *Phos senticosus (Linnaeus, 1758)Phos textum *Family: ColumbellidaePyrene flava Bruguiere, 1789 *Pyrene flavidaPyrene terpsichore Lamarck*Pyrene testudinaria (Link, 1807) *Pyrene turturinaPyrene versicolor (Sowerby, 1832) *Family: FasciolariidaeFusinus longicaudatus (Lamarck, 1822) *Fusinus nicobaricus Röding, 1798 *Hemipolygona amaliae (Kuster & Kobelt, 1874) *Latirus gibbulus (Gmelin, 1791) *Latirus polygonus Gmelin, 1791 *Latirolagena smaragdulaPeristernia nassatulaPleuroploca filamentosa Röding, 1798 *Pleuroploca persica (Reeve, 1847) *Pleuroploca trapezium Linnaeus, 1758 *Turrilatirus craticulatus (Linnaeus, 1758) *Turrilatirus turritus (Gmelin, 1791) *Family: MelongenidaePugilina cochlidium Linnaeus, 1758 *Family: NassariidaeAlectrion suturalisBullia vittata Linnaeus *Bullia sp. 1 *Nassa francolinusNassarius albescens (Dunker, 1846) *Nassarius bicolor Dunker *Nassarius gaudiosus (Hinds, 1844) *Nassarius hepaticus (Montagu) *Nassarius cf. livescens Philippi *Nassarius pallidulus (Adams) *Nassarius pullus (Linnaeus, 1758) *Nassarius sp. 1 *Nassarius (Zeuxis) dorsatus (Röding, 1798) *Zeuxis olivaceusZeuxis (Telasco) reeveanus f. velatus (Gould) *Zeuxis sp. 1 *Zeuxis sp. 2 *Family: HarpidaeHarpa armourettaHarpa davidis Röding, 1798 *Harpa harpa (Linnaeus, 1758) *Harpa major Röding, 1798 *Family: MarginellidaeMarginella angustataMarginella strigataMarginella sp. 1Volvarina angustata Sowerby, 1846 *Family: MitridaeChrysame anbiguaChrysame chrysalisChrysame eremitarumChrysame ferrugineaMitra (Strigatella) litterata Lamarck, 1811 *Mitra mitraMitra (Mitra) papalis Linnaeus, 1758 *Mitra cf. pellisserpentes Reeve, 1844 *Mitra sp. *Mitropifex crebrillirata389

Tiara floccataTiara isabellaTiara morchiFamily: OlividaeAgaronia cinnamomeaAgaronia nebulosa (Lamarck, 1811) *Agaronia (?) sp. 1 *Ancilla (?) sp. 1 *Oliva annulata Gmelin, 1791 *Oliva bulbosa Röding, 1798 *Oliva erythrostomaOliva miniaceaOliva oliva Linnaeus, 1758 *Oliva ornataOliva paxillus Reeve, 1850 *Oliva reticulata Röding, 1798 *Oliva sericeaOliva sidelia Duclos, 1835 *Oliva textilina Lamarck, 1811 *Oliva tremulina Lamarck, 1811 *Oliva vidua Röding, 1798 *Olivancillaria gibbosa Born *Olivancillaria hiatulaOlivancillaria steeriaeFamily: TurbinellidaeTurbinella pyrum (Linnaeus, 1758) *Turbinella pyrum f. napus Lamarck,1822 *Family: VolutidaeMelo melo Lightfoot, 1786 *Voluta (Harpulina) arausiaca Lightfoot, 1876 *Voluta (Harpulina) lapponica (Linnaeus, 1767) *Voluta (Lyria) cloveriana Weaver, 1963 *Voluta magnificaFamily: CancellariidaeCancellaria scalarinaTrigonostoma trigonostomaFamily: ConidaeConus (?) sp. 1 *Conus (?) sp. 2 *Conus (Asprella?) sp. 3 *Conus (Chelyconus) achatinus Gmelin, 1791Conus (Chelyconus) catus Hwass, 1792Conus (Conusprella) sowerbyiConus (Cleobula)betulinus Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Cleobula) figulinus Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Cleobula) figulinus loroisii Kiener *Conus (Cleobula) suratensis Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Conus) nicobaricus Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Cylinder) abbas Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Cylinder) natalis SowerbyConus (Cylinder) textile Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Darioconus) episcopus Hwass, 1793Conus (Darioconus) omaria Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Darioconus) pennaceus Born, 1758Conus (Dauciconus) augur Lightfoot, 1786 *Conus (Dauciconus) litoglyphus Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Dauciconus) vitulinus Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Gastridium) geographus Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Gastridium) obscurus Sowerby, 1833Conus (Hermes) nussatella Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Hermes) terebra Born, 1780 *Conus (Leptoconus) amadis Gmelin 1791 *Conus (Leptoconus) generalis Linnaeus, 1767 *Conus (Leptoconus) monile Hwass, 1792Conus (Lithoconus) eburneus Hwass, 1792Conus (Lithoconus) leopardus Roding, 1798 *Conus (Lithoconus) litteratus Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Lithoconus) tessulatus Born, 1778 *Conus (Pionoconus) pertusus Hwass, 1792Conus (Puncticulis) arenatus Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Puncticulis) pulicarius Hwass, 1792Conus (Puncticulis) zeylanicus Gmelin, 1791 *Conus (Regiconus) aulicus Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Rhizoconus) capitaneus Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Rhizoconus) miles Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Rhizoconus) mustelinus Hwass, 1792Conus (Rhizoconus) rattus Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Rhizoconus) vexillum Gmelin, 1791Conus (Rhombus) zonatus Hwass, 1782Conus (Stephanoconus) varius Linnaeus, 1758Conus (Strioconus) striatus Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Textilia) nimbus Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Virgiconus) flavidus Lamarck, 1810Conus (Virgiconus) virgo Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Virroconus) ceylanensis Bruguiere, 1792 *Conus (Virroconus) coronatus Gmelin 1791 *Conus (Virroconus) chaldaeus Röding, 1798Conus (Virroconus) distans Hwass, 1792Conus (Virroconus) ebraeus Linnaeus, 1758 *Conus (Virroconus) lividus Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Virroconus) musicus Hwass, 1792 *Conus (Virroconus) piperatus Dilwyn, 1817Family: TerebridaeAbretiella cerithinaCinguloterebra serotinaImpages hectica Linnaeus, 1758 *Myurella pretiosaTerebra commaculataTerebra crenulata Linnaeus, 1758 *Terebra dimidiata Linnaeus, 1758 *Terebra (Duplicaria) duplicata Linnaeus *Terebra guttata Roding, 1798 *Terebra maculata Linnaeus, 1758 *Terebra stylata Hinds, 1844 *390

Terebra subulata Linnaeus, 1767 *Terebra sp. 1Triplostephanus limaFamily: TurridaeBrachytoma crenularisLophiotoma acuta Perry, 1811 *Lophiotoma indica Röding, 1798 *Turris undosaTurricula javana (Linnaeus, 1767) *Unedogemmula unedoXenoturris cingulifera (Lamarck, 1822) *Family: ArchitectonicidaeArchitectonica laevigatum Lamarck, 1861 *Architectonica perspectiva (Linnaeus, 1758) *Haliacus variagatusPhilippia hybridaFamily: AmathinidaeAmathina tricarinata (Linnaeus, 1758) *Family: PyramidellidaeOtopleura auriscati Holten, 1802 *Family: ActeonidaeMaxacteon fabreanus (Crosse, 1874) *Solidula solidula Linnaeus, 1758 *Family: HydatinidaeHydatina physis Linnaeus, 1758 *Hydatina velumFamily: BullidaeBulla ampulla Linnaeus, 1758 *Family: HaminoeidaeHaminoea crocata Pease, 1860 *Haminoea cymbalum *Family: SiphonariidaeSiphonaria cf. acmaeoides Pilsbury *Siphonaria alternata Say, 1826 *Siphonaria atraSiphonaria javanica (Lamarck, 1819) *Family: EllobiidaeCassidula nucleus (Gmelin, 1791) *Ellobium gangeticum (Pfeiffer, 1855) *Melampus fasciatus (Deshayes, 1830) *Melampus sp. 1 *Pythia plicata (Ferrusac) Gray, 1825 *391

Part 2: Provisional Checklist of Species of Bivalves in Sri LankaFamily: ArcidaeAnadara antiquata (LinnaeusAnadara complanata (Chemnitz)Anadara clathrata (Reeve)Anadara granosa (Linnaeus, 1758)*Anadara lateralis (Reeve)*Anadara maculosa (Reeve)Anadara nodifera (Martens, 1860)*Anadara pilula ReeveAnadara satowi Dunker*Anadara sp. ‘Wellawatte’*Anadara cf. troscheli *Arca arabica PhilippiArca bistrigata DunkerArca lienosaArca navicularis Bruguiere, 1789*Arca sp. 1*Arca sp. 2*Arca sp. 3*Arca sp. 4*Arca sp. 5*Arca sp. 6*Arca ventricosa Lamarck, 1819*Arca (Trisodos) tortuosa (Linnaeus, 1758)*Barbatia foliata (Forsskal,1775)*Barbatia fusca (Bruguiere, 1789)*Barbatia sp. 1*Barbatia sp. 2*Barbatia sp. 3*Barbatia sp. 4*Barbatia virescens (Reeve)*Barbatia virescens obtusoides (Nyst)*Scapharca inaequivalvis (Bruguière, 1789)*Family: CucullaeidaeCucullaea labiata (Lightfoot, 1786)Family: GlycymerididaeGlycymeris oblingus (Reeve)*Glycymeris rotunda (Dunker)Glycymeris sp. 1*Family: MytilidaeBrachiodontes sp. 1*Brachiodontes sp. 2*Brachiodontes sp. 3*Lithophaga cinnamomea (Lamarck)Lithophaga cf. lima (Lamy)*Lithophaga nigra (d’Orbigny)Lithophaga teres (Philippi, 1846)*Modiolus auriculatus (Krauss, 1848)*Modiolus philippinarum Hanley, 1843*Modiolus metcalfei (Hanley)Modiolus tulipa (Lamarck)Modiolus cf. micropterus (Deshayes, 1836)*Modiolus sp. 1*Musculus (Reynella) cupreus (Gould)*Mytilus sp. 1 *Perna perna (Linnaeus, 1758) *Perna viridis (Linnaeus, 1758)*Septifer bilocularis Linnaeus, 1758*Septifer virgatus (Wiegmann)*Septifer (?) sp. 1 (Wellawatte 5.9.2010)*Family: IsognomonidaeIsognomon ephippium (Linnaeus)Isognomon isognomum (Linnaeus, 1758)*Isognomon perna Linnaeus, 1767*Family: MalleidaeMalleus albus Lamarck, 1819*Malleus malleus Linnaeus, 1758*Malleus sp.*Vulsella vulsella (Linnaeus, 1758)*Family: PteriidaeElectroma (Pterelectroma) zebra (Reeve, 1857)*Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758)*Pinctada radiata (Leach, 1814)*Pteria brevialata (Dunker, 1872)*Pteria inquinata (Reeve)*Pteria penguin (Roding, 1758)*“Pteria” sp.*Family: PinnidaeAtrina pectinata (Linnaeus)Atrina vexillum (Born, 1778)*Pinna bicolor Gmelin*Pinna muricata LinnaeusStreptopinna saccata (Linnaeus)Family: LimidaeCtenoides ales (Finley, 1927)*Ctenoides annulata Lamarck*Lima vulgaris (Link, 1807)*Limaria basilanica (Adams & Reeve, 1950)*Limaria fragilis (Gmelin, 1791)*Family: GryphaeidaeHyotissa hyotis (Linnaeus, 1758)*Family: OstreidaeCrassostrea belcheri (Sowerby)*392

Crassostrea cf. madrasensis (Preston)?*Crassostrea sp. 1*Crassostrea cf. gryphoides (Scholtheim,1813)*Dendostrea folium (Linnaeus, 1758)*Lopha cristagalli Linnaeus, 1578*Ostrea sp. 1*Ostrea sp. 2*Ostrea sp. 3*Saccostrea cucullata (Born, 1778)*Saccostrea mordax (Gould, 1850)*Family: PectinidaeAmusium pleuronectes (Linnaeus)Chlamys irregularis SowerbyChlamys senatorius Gmelin, 1791*Chlamys (Excellichlamys) spectabilis Reeve,1853*Chlamys (Mimachlamys) nobilis Reeve*Chlamys gloriosus ReeveChalmys pelseneeri Dautzenberg & BavayChlamys pyxidata (Born)Chlamys tranquebarica (Gmelin)Chlamys sp. 1*Decatopecten striatus (Schumacher, 1817)*Pecten (Cryptopecten) pallium Linnaeus, 1758*Pecten nodosus LinnaeusPecten townsendi Sowerby? Pecten sp. 1*? Plicatula sp. 2*Family: SpondylidaeSpondylus imperialis*Spondylus layardi ReeveSpondylus nicobaricus SchreibersSpondylus versicolor Schreibers,1793*Spondylus cf. barbatus*Spondylus cf. cruentus Lishke*Spondylus cf. marisrubri Roding*Spondylus sp. 1*Spondylus sp. 2*Spondylus sp. 3*Spondylus sp. 4*Spondylus sp. 5*Family: AnomiidaeAnomia achaeus GrayFamily: PlacunidaePlacuna placenta (Linnaeus)*Family: UnionidaeLamellidens lamellatus (Lea, 1838)*Lamellidens testudinarius (Spengler, 1793)*Parreysia corrugata (Müller, 1774)*Family: ChamidaeChama dunkeri Lischke*Chama fragum Reeve*Chama lazarus Linnaeus, 1758*Chama pulchella Reeve, 1846*Chama reflexa Reeve, 1846*Family: LucinidaeCodakia punctata (Linnaeus)Family: UngulinidaeDiplodonta rotundata (Montagu, 1803)*Diplodonta semiasperatoides NomuraFamily: CarditidaeCardita bicolor Lamarck*Cardita crassicosta (Lamarck, 1819)*Cardita variegata Bruguiere, 1792*Cardita sp.Family: Crassatellidae? Eucrassatella sp. 1*Family: CardiidaeAfrocardium latum (Born)*Afrocardium setosum (Redfern)*Fragum hemicardium (Linnaeus, 1758)*Fulvia australis I(Sowerby)Fulvia asiatica (Bruguière)Laevicardium biradiatum (Bruguiere, 1789)*Laevicardium sp. 2*Laevicardium sp. 3*Laevicardium sp. 4*Nemocardium lyratum (Soweby, 1841)*Trachycardium angulatum (Lamarck, 1822)*Trachycardium elongatum Bruguière, 1789*Trachycardium enode (Sowerby), 1841*Trachycardium flavum (Linnaeus, 1758)*Trachycardium sp. 1*Vasticardium lacunosum (Reeve)*Vasticardium rubicundum (Reeve)Vasticardium arenicola (Reeve)Vasticardium flavum (Linnaeus)Vasticardium assimile (Reeve)Vepricardium asiaticum (Bruguière, 1792)*Undetermined genus*Sub-family TridacninaeTridacna maxima (Röding)*Family: MactridaeLutraria arcuata Reeve*Mactra complanata Deshayes393

Mactra cuneata ChemnitzMactra mera Reeve*Mactra ornata Gray, 1836*Mactra lurida (Philippi) *Mactra turgida GmelinMactra sp. 1*Mactra sp. 2*Mactra sp. 3*Mactrinula laevis (Chemnitz)Oxyperas bernardi (Pilsbury)*Oxyperas triangularis (Lamarck)*Spisula sp.Family: PharidaeEnsis sp. 1*Ensis sp. 2Ensiculus philippinus (Dunker)Siliqua radiata Linnaeus, 1758*Family: SolenidaeSolen brevis Gray, in Hanley,1842*Solen exiguus DunkerSolen lamarckii Deshayes, 1839*Solen roseomaculatus Pilsbury, 1901*Solen strictus GouldFamily: DonacidaeDonax cuneatus Linnaeus. 1758*Donax deltoides Lamarck, 1818*Donax faba Gmelin, 1791 *Donax scortum Linnaeus*Donax variabilis Say. 1822*Family: PsammobiidaeAsaphis dichotoma (Anton)Gari elongata (Lamarck, 1818)*Gari maculosa (Lamarck, 1818)*Gari cf. sibogai Prashad*Gari sp. 1*Scutarcophagia linguafelis (Linnaeus)Soletellina diphos (Linnaeus, 1771)*Family: SemelidaeSemele cordiformis (Holten, 1803)*Semele jukesi A. Adams, 1853*Semele radiata RuppelSemele sp. 1*Semele (?) Sp. 2*Family: SolecurtidaeSolecurtus exaratus PhilippiFamily: TellinidaeGastrana polygona (Hanley)Macoma bruguierei Hanley*Tellina angulata GmelinTellina coarctata PhilippiTellina palatan (Iredale, 1929)*Tellina remies Linnaeus, 1758*Tellina timorensis (Lamarck, 1818)*Tellina cf. virgata Linnaeus, 1758*Tellinimactra sp. 1*Family: TrapeziidaeTrapezium rostrata Lamarck*Trapezium sp. 1*Family: CorbiculidaeGeloina coaxans (Gmelin, 1791)*Superfamily: VeneroideaFamily 33: PetricolidaePetricola (?) sp. 1*Family: VeneridaeAntigona lamellaris SchumacherAnodontia edentula (Lin.)Anodontia ovum (Reeve)Anomalocardia donacina (Lamarck)Anomalocardia producta Kuroda & HabeCallanaitis disjecta PerryCallista erycina Linnaeus*Callista chinensis (Holten)Circe scripta Linnaeus*Dosinia biscocta (Reeve)*Dosinia cretacea (Reeve)Dosinia histrio (Gmelin, 1791)*Dosinia juvenilis ChemnitzDosinia puella AngasDosinia trigona (Reeve)Dosinia variegata (Gray)Ctene divergens (Philippi)Gafrarium dispar (Dillwyn)*Gafrarium divaricatum (Gmelin, 1791)*Gafrarium tumidum Roding, 1798*Lioconcha castrensis Linnaeus, 1758*Lioconcha dautzenbergi PrashadLioconcha fastigiata Sowerby, 1851*Marcia hiantina (Lamarck, 1818)*Marcia opima (Gmelin, 1791)*Meretrix casta Gmelin*Meretrix meretrix (Linnaeus, 1758)*Meretrix sp. ‘Rekawa’ ?casta*Mesodesma glabratum (Lamarck)Paphia alapapilionis Röding, 1798*Paphia amabilis PhilippiPaphia exarata (Philippi)*Paphia gallus f. lentiginosa (Reeve, 1864)*Paphia textilis (Gmelin, 1791)*394

Paphia sp. 1*Paphia sp. 2*Paphia sp. 3*Paphia sp. 4*Paphia sp. 5*Paphia sp. 6*Periglypta reticulata (Linnaeus, 1758)*Pitar ceylonensis (Sowerby)Pitar sulfureum (Pilsbury)Pitar striata (Gray)Sunetta effossa (Reeve, 1843)*Sunetta meröe (Schumacher)Sunetta scripta (Linnaeus)*Sunetta truncata (Deshayes, 1853)*Sunetta sp. 1*Sunetta sp. 2*Sunettina cf. solanderii (Gray, 1825)*Tapes deshayesi (Hanley)Tapes literatus (Linnaeus, 1758)Tapes radiata (Chemnitz)*Tapes sp. 1*Timoclea arakana (Nevill, 1871) *Timoclea marica Linnaeus*Venus toreuma Gould, 1851*Undetermined Gen. 1*Family: CorbulidaeCorbula sulcata Lamarck, 1801*Corbula sp. 1*Family: GastrochaenidaeGastrochaena sp. 1 *Gastrochaena sp. 2 *Gastrochaena sp. 3 *Family: HiatellidaeHiatella arctica (Linnaeus, 1767)*Family: PholadidaeMartesia striata (Linnaeus, 1758)*Pholas orientalis (Gmelin, 1791)*Undetermined genus sp. 1*Family: Teredinidae“Teredo” sp. 1 +Family: ClavagellidaeBrechites penis (Linnaeus, 1758)*Family: PeriplomatidaePeriploma (?) sp. 1*Family: CuspidariidaeCuspidaria sp. 1*395

Provisional Check List of the Marine Crustaceans(Arthropoda; Crustacea) in Sri LankaPrasanna WeerakkodyIntroductionSri Lanka is surrounded by the Indian Ocean. The shallow seas in the continental shelf regiongently slope from sub-littoral zone to depths of around 30-50m, where it will begin to drop at asteep incline to depths of 600m to over 1000m. The width of the shelf from the shore line canvary from 5-15 km and connects with the Indian continental shelf in the Palk bay area. Beyondthe Territorial seas, the Exclusive Economic Zone of the country claims a sea area of 200nautical miles in extent except at the boundary it shares with India. The extent of the Territorialsea and the Exclusive Economic Zone of Sri Lanka stands at 21,500 Km 2 and 517,000 Km 2respectively, the latter amounting to nearly 8 times the total land area of the country.Sri Lankan marine environment contain a diverse array of habitats that range from coastalshallows to deep oceanic and pelagic regions, on soft and hard bottoms as well. These habitatshouse a diverse assemblage of marine crustacean fauna. The marine crustaceans are a highlydiverse group of invertebrates classified under the Phyllum Arthropoda, and consists primarilyof Marine and Aquatic forms. Indian shores contain about 3500 species of crustaceans andchecklist published for the State of Tamil-nadu contains about 419 species.This paper aims to cover the marine crustacean fauna of the shallow seas and the oceanicepi-pelagic zones and does not cover the deep sea fauna of the region. The list is compiled bycollecting available records specified for Sri Lanka. The regional records were not consideredduring the compilation of this list. However, some species recorded in the Indian shores of thePalk Strait and Mannar basin were selectively included based on personal observations madeby the author while diving in reef habitats or inspecting of incidental and fishing by-catch. Sincethe boundary of the estuarine species is not clearly defined, transitional zone fauna are alsoincluded in this list. The provisional checklist of marine crustaceans of Sri Lanka presented inthis paper includes 742 species. Based on the probabilities of occurrence it is estimated thatthe total Sri Lankan Crustacean fauna would comprise of approximately 1500 species.TaxonomyProbably the most extensive collection of records on marine invertebrates of Sri Lanka is givenin “Report to the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar”by W. A. Herdman (1903-06). This list however needs to be revised and verified based on thecurrent information available on crustacean taxonomy and distribution that has resulted due tosignificant amount of work that has been carried out by regional scientists and Indian OceanExplorations. Further, the commercially important crustacean species have been well studiedacross the region and information regarding this species can be found in the FAO speciescatalogues for the region. This paper is a preliminary effort at updating the list of Crustacea inSri Lanka based on available information and should not be considered as a complete list asit may contain inadequacies.396

DistributionMany Marine species including the Crustacea reproduce through release of eggs and larvaeinto the water column. The duration of time the larvae spend drifting in the ocean as plankton,existing pattern of currents and the ability to find a suitable substrate for settlement will dictatethe rate of dispersal of the species. Under favourable conditions sedentary species may crossdeep oceans to settle on distant shores regularly. In addition to the demersal species, theCrustacea contain a large group of taxa that inhabit the Pelagic or open seas as part of thePlankton or Nekton throughout their lives and may inhabit and traverse large expanses ofOceanic waters and shores. Therefore, many marine species display wide distribution patternsoccupying similar habitats across the region. Further, dispersal strategies of most marinespecies and the lack of hard ecological barriers prevent the establishment of endemic speciesin the marine environment.The Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar represent a shallow and narrow stretch of sea betweenthe shores of Southern India and Sri Lanka. The general homogeneity of habitats across theshores of the two countries and their close proximity would make it highly probable that bothshores would harbour a similar species assemblage.ThreatsCrustacea include species of commercial interest both as local food species and exploited forthe export trade both as food and Ornamental species. While harvesting of Shrimps, Prawnsand Crabs for local consumption is high, the most severe exploitation of Crustaceans occurdue to the export industry. The spiny lobster fisheries take place around the shores of SriLanka and have a significant impact on the wild populations. The population densities onexploited reefs have depleted significantly and on occasion they have reached near-extinctionlevels on certain reefs. Though regulations are in place for some species the populationsare on the decline due to inadequate enforcement. The collection of high value ornamentalspecies is causing significant reduction of reef Shrimps, Crabs, Hermit crabs Mantis shripmsand Lobster species. The excessive collection of reef shrimp species that play an importantrole on the reef as cleaners of other species can result in a reduction of health of reef faunaand abandonment of sections of the reef by other animal species affecting the balance ofthe eco-system. However, habitat loss, including the degradation of coral reef environments,probably pose a greater threat to Marine Crustacean Diversity than that of direct extraction.ConservationSeveral species of Marine crustaceans are currently listed as Protected under the Fauna andFlora Protection Ordinance. These include the Painted/Harlequin/Orchid Shrimp (Hymenoceraelegans), Scarlet/Reef Lobsters in the genus Enoplometopus (E.ocedentalis ,E. debelliusand E.holthuisi) and the Hairy-red/ White-spotted Orange Hermit-Crab (Dardanus megistos).However, providing legal protection to many species has not had a significant impact as onsite enforcement is ineffective. Therefore, the unregulated harvest/extraction of many speciesof crustaceans tends to have significant impacts on their populations.397

Most species of crustaceans still survive in the reefs located in the Northern and Eastern coastthat were spared of human impacts for 3 decades due to the war. However, these reefs arealso being subject to the same fate at present with the opening up of these areas after theend of the war. Therefore, study and conservation of these reefs and their diversity is of primeimportance to ensure survival of these species and the crustacean bio-diversity of Sri Lanka.Conclusions and recommendationsThe Current level of knowledge on marine Crustacea is far from complete with significantgaps in the knowledge on many groups of taxa as well as the status of their populations. It isimportant to carry out detailed studies on the Sri Lankan Marine Crustacean fauna as early aspossible as the populations are under threat both from excessive extraction as well as majorhabitat loss.Only a few studies have focussed on marine Crustacea of Sri Lanka. Further, most of the workcarried out by local scientists to date focused mainly on commercially important food species.During the last 3 decades the diving scientists contributed significantly for the furthering ofknowledge on marine natural habitats including marine crustacea. The extensive extraction ofcrustaceans as an export resource both as food and for the ornamental marine aquarium tradehave also indirectly added to the knowledge of species in our waters. As in the case of mostmarine invertebrate fauna, a significant amount of work needs to be carried out to gain a betterunderstanding of the true diversity of marine Crustaceans of Sri Lanka as well as their biologyand conservation status.An effort has to be taken to effectively enforce the existing fishing regulations with a bettermechanism for monitoring the efficiency of enforcement. Further, steps must be taken to phaseout tightly regulate all wild collection of Marine ornamental species. The financial benefitsachieved through exploitation of ornamental species for export can be nullified by the benefitsthat can be accrued from tourism and the ecosystem services that can be obtained by retaininghealthy reefs. The greatest need however, is to conserve the critical marine habitats to ensurelong term survival of our rich marine biodiversity.398

Provisional Check List of the Marine CrustaceansScientific NameOrder: Pedunculata(Stalked barnacles)Family: ArtemiidaeArtrmia parthegenetica 22Family: LepadidaeLepas anserifera 1Lepas anatifera 1Lepas tenuivulvata 1Common NameGoose BarnacleGoose BarnacleGoose BarnacleScientific NameFamily: AsteropidaeAsterope oculata 1Asterope quadrata 1Asterope arthuri 1Cyclasterope similis 1Family: VypridinidaeCypridina faveolata 1Common NameDichelaspis equina 1Dichelaspis pellucida 1Paecilasma kempferi 1Sculpellum grurelli 1Sculpellum alcockianum 1Sculpellum squamiferum 1Sculpellum truncatum 1Sculpellum tenue 1Pyrocypris chiechiae 1Codonocera crenulata 1Family: SarsiellidaeSarsiella ornithoides 1Sarsiella carinata 1Sarsiella gracilis 1Sarsiella similis 1Sculpellum subflavum 1Sarsiella crispata 1Conchoderma sp. 41Order: Sessilia (Barnacles)Family: ChthamalidaeChthamalus challengeri 10Chthamalus stellatus 1Family: TetraclitidaeTetraclita squamosa 10Tetraclita serrata 1Family: BalanidaeBalanus tintinabulum 1,10Balanus amphitrite 1,10Balanus amaryllis 1,10Balanus longirostrum 10Armatobalanus allium 1Armatobalanus terebratus 1Solidobalanus socialis 1Solidobalanus cilliatus 1Pyrgoma conjugtum 1,10Family: CornulidaeChelonibia testudinaria 42Stephanolepas muricata 42Chelolepas cheloniae 42Family: PygomatidaeCreusia spinulosa 1Family ArchaeobalanidaeAcasta cyathus 1Acasta funiculorum 1Whale BarnacleStar BarnaclesPoli’s StellatebarnacleAcorn BarnacleVolcano BarnacleAcorn BarnacleAcorn BarnacleAcorn BarnacleAcorn BarnacleAcorn BarnacleCoral BarnacleSponge barnacleSarsiella tumida 1Family: HalocyprididaeConchoecia magna 1Conchoecia clausii 1Conchoecia acuminata 1Halocypris concha 1Family: CypridaeMacrocypris decora 1Macrocypris orientalis 1Macrocypris similis 1Macrocypris maculata 1Pontocypris robusta 1Pontocypris elegans 1Pontocypris rostrata 1Pontocypris tumida 1Eurythorocypris herdmani 1Bairdia villosa 1Bairdia attenata 1Bairdia woodwardiana 1Bairdia amygdaloides 1Bairdia faveolata 1Bairdia hirsuta 1Bairdia inornata 1Bairdia robusta 1Anchistrocheles bradyi 1Pseudocythere minuta 1Paradoxostoma cingalense 1Paradoxostoma attenuatum 1399

Paradoxostoma stebbingi 1Xestolebris margaritea 1Xestolebris tumefacta 1Xestolebris aurentia 1Xestolebris variegata 1Xestolebris squamigera 1Xestolebris irrasa 1Xestolebris tumida 1Paracytheridea perplexa 1Cytherura concinna 1Loxoconcha anomala 1Loxoconcha alata 1Loxoconcha papillosa 1Loxoconcha sculpta 1Loxoconcha australis 1Cythere bimammillata 1Cythere darwini 1Cythere inconspicua 1Cythere ovalis 1Cythere polytrema 1Cythere rectangularis 1Cythere ruperti 1Cythere stimpsoni 1Cythere subcuneata 1Cythere knoxi 1Cythere chalmersi 1Cythere imthurni 1Cythere thompsoni 1Cythere donnani 1Cythere willeyi 1Cythere hornelli 1Cythere halyi 1Cythere kelaarti 1Cythere willisi 1Cythere coletti 1Cythere holdsworthi 1Family: CytherellidaeCytherella ondaatjei 1Cytherella vraspillaii 1Order: LeptostracaFamily: NebalidaeNebalia bipes 1Order: Stromatopoda (mantisshrimps)Family :LysiosquillidaeLysiosquilla maculata 30,31Spearing / ZebraMantis-ShrimpFamily: OdontodactylidaeOdontodactylus scyllarus 30,31Odontodactylus brevirostris 1Odontodactylus japonicusFamily: GonodactylidaeGonodactylus chiragra 1Gonodactylus smithii 33Gonodactylaceus glabrous 1Gonodactylopsis herdmani 1Hoplosquilla acanthurus 1Family: SquillidaeHarpiosquilla indica 41Harpiosquilla raphidea 1Oratosquilla sp. 41Family: ProtosquillidaePseudosquilla cillata 1Haptosquilla trispinosa 1Chrlorisquilla spinosissima 1Order:Mysida (Mysidshrimps)Family: MysidaeSiriella paulsoni 1Haplostylus erythraeus 1Order: Amphipoda (Amphipods)Family: AmaryllidaeVijaya tenuipes 11,12Family: LysianassidaeSocarnella bonide 12Lysianassa cinghalens 12Lysianassa coelochir 12Orehomenella nana 12Tryphosa eucullata 12Anonyx schmardae 12Family: AmpeliscidaeAmpelisca tridens 12Ampelisca scabries 12Ampelisca brevicornis 12Ampelisca cyclops 12Ampelisca zamboangae 12Family: HaustoriidaePhtyischnopus herdmani 12Urothoe spinidigitus 12Peacock Mantis-ShrimpShort-nose Mantis-ShrimpSmasher ShrimpPurple-spotSmasher-ShrimpSmasher ShrimpSmasher ShrimpSmasher ShrimpSpearer Mantis-ShrimpSpearer Mantis-ShrimpMantis-ShrimpRainbow MantisShrimpMysid shrimpMysid shrimpAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipod400

Family: ArgissidaeArgissa hamatipes 12Family: PhoxocephalidaeParaphoxus unicirostrata 12Family: AmphilochidaeCyproidea ornata 12Family: LeucothoidaeLeucothoe spinicarpa 12Leucothoe funima 12Family: AnamyxidaeStenothoe gallensis 12Stenothoe monoculoides 12Family: ColomastigidaeColomastix pusilla 12Family: LiljborgidaeLiljborgia pallida 12Family: OedicerotidaePericulodes serra 12Family: TironidaeTiron Thompsoni 12Family: EusiridaeEusiroides diplinyx 12Eusiroides orchomenipes 12Family: AtylidaeAtylus grannulosa 12Family: GammaridaeMelita fresnelli 12Melita obtusata 12Maera othonidea 12Maera subcarinata 12Maera tenella 12Maera inaequipes 12Ceradocus rubromaculatus 12Elasmopus spinimanus 12Elasmopus pectinicrus 12Elasmopus dubius 12Parelasmopus suluensis 12Family: DexamanidaeDexamine serraticrusPolycheria atolli 12Family: MelphidippidaeHornella incerta 12Family: AoridaeLembos podoceroides 12Lembos chelatus 12Family: PhotidaeEurytheus atlanticus 12Photis longicaudata 12AmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodPhotis longimanus 12Photis nana 12Cheriphotis megacheles 12Chevaria avriculae 12Family: AmpithoidaeAmpithoe ramondi 12Family: CorophidaeCarapus abditus 12Erichthonius macrodactylus 12Erichthonius brasillensis 12Siphonocaetes orientalis 12Corophium triaenonyx 12Family: PodoceridaePodocerus laevis 12Podocerus zeylanicus 12Podocerus brasillensis 12Order: Isopoda (Isopods)Family: CirolanidaeCirolana willeyi 11Family: TaneidaeTanais gracilis 1Heterotanais crassicornis 1Leptochelia mirabilis 1Leptochelia lifuensis 1Family: AnthuridaeCalathura sp. 1Family: GnathiidaeGnathia insolita 1Family: EurydicidaeCirolana sulcaticaudata 1Cirolana parva 1Conilopheus herdmani 1Hansenolana sphaeromiformis1Family: AgarthonidaeAgarthona normani 1Lanochira gardineri 1Lanochira zeylanica 1Family: AegidaeAega ommatophylax 1Rocinela orientalis 1Family: CymothoidaeAnilocra dimidiata 1Rhiothra callipia 1Irona nanaoides 1Nerocila sigani 18Family: SphyromidaeSphyroma walkeri 1AmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodAmphipodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopod401

Cilicaea latreillii 1Cilicaea whiteleggei 1Cilicaea beddardi 1Cymodoce bicarinata 1Cymodoce inornata 1Family: AmesopodidaeAmesopous richardsonae 1Family: IdoteidaeIdotea sp. 1Family: AstacillidaeAstacilla amblyurna 1Family: JaniridaeJanira nana 1Jaeropsis curvicornis 1Faamily: StenetriidaeStenetrium chiltoni 1Family: MunnidaePleurocope dasyura 1Family: LigiidaeLigia exotica 1Order: Euphausiacea (Krill)Family: EuphausiidaeEuphausia sibogae 24Euphausia paragibba 11Euphausia mutica 1Euphausia latifrons 1Nematoscelis microps 1Order: Decapoda (Prawns,shrimps)Family: PenaeidaeAtypopeneus stenodactylus 3Metapenaeops hilarula 3Metapenaeops mogiensis 3Metapenaeops stridulans 3Metapenaeops toloensis 3Metapenaeus affinis 3Metapenaeus dobsoni 3Metapenaeus elegans 3Metapenaeus ensis 3Metapenaeus lysianassa 3Metapenaeus monoceros 3Metapenaeus moyebi 3Parapenaeopsis acclivirostris 3Parapenaeopsis cornuta 3Parapenaeopsis coromandelica3Parapenaeopsis maxillipedo 3IsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodIsopodSea Slater /SearoachKrillKrillKrillKrillKrillPeriscope ShrimpMinstrel ShrimpVelvet ShrimpFiddler ShrimpTolo Velvet ShrimpJinga ShrimpKadal ShrimpFine ShrimpGreasybackShrimpBird ShrimpSpeckled ShrimpMoyebi ShrimpHawknose ShrimpCoral ShrimpCoromandelShrimpTorpedo ShrimpParapenaeopsis nana 3Parapenaeopsis sculptilis 3Parapenaeopsis stylifera 3Parapenaeopsis tenella 3Parapenaeopsis uncta 3Parapenaeus longipes 3Peneus indicus 3Peneus merguiensis 3Penaeus canaliculatus 3Penaeus latisulcatus 3Penaeus monodon 3Penaeus semisulcatus 3Penaeus japonicus 43Trachypenaeus cavirostris 3Trachypenaeus granulosus 3Trachypenaeus sedili 3Family: SolenoceridaeSolenocera choprai 4Solenocera crassicornis 4Solenocera hexii 4Family: SergastidaeAcetes indicus 4Acetes eurythaeus 4Acetes japonicus 4Acetes sibogei 4Acetes johni 4Leucifer typus 4Family: StenopodidaeStenopus hispidus 41Stenopus cyanoscelis 41Stenopus zanzibaricus 41Stenopus goyi 41Stenopus sp. 41Family: PalaemoninaeMacrobrachium rosenbergii 3Macrobrachium equidens 3Macrobrachium rude 3Macrobrachium latimanus 4Dwarf ShrimpRainbow ShrimpKiddi ShrimpSmoothshellShrimpUncta SnrimpFlamingo ShrimpIndian WhiteShrimpBanana PrawnWitch PrawnWestern KingprawnGiant Tiger PrawnGreen Tiger PrawnCocktail ShrimpCoarse ShrimpMalayan RoughShrimpRidgeback ShrimpCoastal MudShrimpDeep Sea MudShrimpJawla pasteShrimpTsivakihini pasteShrimpBanded BoxingShrimpBlue-legged BoxingshrimpZanzibar BoxingShrimpKalpitiya boxingshrimpGiant River PrawnRough RiverPrawnHairy River Prawn402

Macrobrachium malcomsoni 4Expalaemon stylifer 3Nematopalaemon tenuipes 4Monsoon RiverPrawnRushna ShrimpSpider PrawnAlpheus malleodigitatus 1Alpheus spongiarum 1Alpheus paralcyone 1Bristle SnappingShrimpBrachycarpus biunguiculatus 18Alpheus miersi 1Urocaridella antonbruunii 32Family: PontoininaePericlimenes imperator 32Periclimenes brevicarpalis 32Periclimenes magnificus 32Periclimenes holthuisi 32Periclimenes soror 32Emperor ShrimpPeacock-tailAnemone ShrimpAnemone shrimpPurple spottedcleaner ShrimpSea star ShrimpAlpheus pareuchirus 1Alpheus bi-incisus 1Alpheus edwardsii 1Alpheus malabaricus 1Alpheus lottini 1Synalpheus laticeps 1Synalpheus biunguiculatus 1Flathead SnappingShrimpCauliflower coralsnapping shrimpPericlimenes tenuipes 32Synalpheus comatulorum 1Periclimenes psamathe 32Synalpheus neomeris 1Periclimenes incertus 18Synalpheus carinatus 1Periclimenes spp. 41Stegopontonia commensalis 32Vir phillippinus 32Coralliocaris viridis 18Coralliocaris sp. 41Jocuste lucina 18Harpiliopsis beaupresii 18Harpiliopsis depressa 18Kamponia elegans 18Kamponia grandis 18Kamponia tenuipes 18Family: PandalidaeHeterocarpus woodmasoni 3Family: AtyidaeAtyopsis moluccensisCaradina vitiensis 1Family: RhynchocinetidaeRhynchocinetus durbanensis 41Cinetorhynchus concolor 41hendersoniFamily: AlphaedaeAlpheus soror 23Alpheus fasqueli 23Alpheus tricolor 23Alpheus bellulus 41Alpheus ideocheles 1White StripedUrchin ShrimpCoral shrimpIndian NylonShrimpCamel / HingebeakshrimpUniform-hingebeakShrimpHenderson’sHingebeak ShrimpFasquel’s snappingshrimp.Three-coloredsnapping shrimp.Tiger Pistol ShrimpAthanas nitescens 1Athanas orientalis 1Potamalpheops galle 23Family: CrangonidaeAegaeon cataphractus 1Family: HippolytidaeExhippolysmata ensirostris 3Lysmata amboinensis 41Lysmata debellius 41Lysmata vittata 41,1Saron marmorata 41,1Saron neglectus 41Saron spp. 41Thor amboinensis 41Heptacarpus futilirostris 1Latreutes ceylonensis 1Family: GnathophyllidaeGnathophyllum americanum 41Family: HymnoceridaeHymenocera elegans 41Family: ThalasssinideaThalassina anomala 8Family: PalinuridaePanulirus ornatus 3Panulirus versicolor 3Panulirus longipes 3Hunter ShrimpPeppermintCleaner ShrimpScarlet CleanerShrimpPepermint CleanerShrimpMarbled ShrimpSpotted MarbledShrimpMarbled ShrimpAmbon ShrimpBumblebee ShrimpPainted/ Orchid/Harlequin ShrimpMub LobsterOrnate SpinyLobsterPainted SpinyLobsterLonglegged Spinylobster403

Panulirus homarus 3Panulirus penicilliatus 3Panulirus polyphagus 3Puerulus sewelli 3Family: ScyllaridaeParribacus antarcticus 3Scyllarus batei 3Scyllarus martensii 3Thenus orientalis 3Family: NephropidaeEnoplometopus occidentalis 41Enoplometopus holthuisi 41Enoplometopus debellius 41Family: GalatheidaeUroptchas bacillimanus 9Uroptchas indicus 9Uroptchas nonophrys 9Agononida prolixa 9Allogalethea elegans 9Galacantha bellis 9Galathea australensis 9Galathea corallicola 9Munida japonica 9Munida microps 9Munidopsis antonil 9Munidopsis bairdii 9Munidopsis edwardsii 9Munidopsis sinclari 9Munidopsis spissata 9Munidopsis wardeni 9Raymunida elegantissima 9Family: PorcellanidaeAncylocheles gravelei 7Petrolisthes ornatus 7Neopetrolisthes maculatus 41Family: HippidaeEmerita asiatica 41Emerita rathbunae ? 41Family: CenobitidaeCenobita rugosa 41Cenobita c.f. perlates 41Scalloped SpinylobsterPronghorn SpinyLobsterMud Spiny LobsterArabian WhiplobsterSculptured MittenLobsterSoft locust LobsterStriated locustLobsterFlathead LobsterRed Reef lobsterHolthuis’s ReefLobsterDebellius’s reefLobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterSquat lobsterPorcellaine crabPorcellaine crabPorcellaine crabMole CrabMole CrabStridulating LandHermit CrabStrawberry Landhermit crabFamily: DiogenidaeAniculus aniculus (?) 41Aniculus maximus 41Dardanus magistos 41Dardanus logopodes 41Dardanus pedunculatus 41Dardanus guttatus 41Dardanus gemmatus 41Dardanus setifer 41Dardanus deformis 5Dardanus aspar 5Diogenes diogenes 5Diogenes miles 5Diogenes custos 5Diogenes costatus 5Trizopagurus kremfi 5Calcinus herbsti 5Calcinus gaimardi 41Calcinus laevimanus 41Calcinus seurati 41Calcinus taeniatus 41Calcinus virescens 41Calcinus latens 41Calcinus morgani 41Paguristes incomitatus 41clibanarius pedavensis 5clibanarius bimaculatus 41clibanarius longitarsus 5clibanarius striolatus 5clibanarius merguiensis 5clibanarius cruentatus 41clibanarius aequabilis 7Family: PaguridaePagurus sp. 41Paguritta spp. 41Family: DromiidaeDromia dromia 6Dromia Intermedia 1Red Hermit CrabHairy red HermitCrabHare Hermit CrabBlue-knee HermitCrabJewelled hermitcrabPale hermit CrabYellow antennaehermit CrabLeft-handed HermitCrabSeurat’s hermitCrabGreenish HermitCrabHidden HermitCrabWhite finger HermitCrabLong-legged HermitCrabRibbed HermitCrabSpotted BlackHermit crabHermit crabCoral boring hermits”404

Dromia dehanni 14Sponge crabDromiopsis australensis 1Cryptodromia canaliculata 1Cryptodromia bullifera 1Cryptodromia demani 1Cryptodromia hilgendorfi 1Cryptodromia gilesi 1Conchaecetus artificiosus 1Conchaecetus andamanicus 1Family: RaninnidaeRannina ranina 14Spanner CrabNotosceles serratifrons 1Family: DorippidaeNotopus dorsipes 1 =Dorippe dorsipesDorippoides facchino 1 =Dorippe facchinoFamily: CalappidaeCalappa calappa 41Giant Box CrabCalappa lophos 2Box CrabCalappa gallus 2Lumpy Box CrabCalappa hepatica 2Reef Box CrabCalappa capellonis 2Box CrabCalappa japonica 41Box CrabCalappa phillargius 2Box CrabMursia bicristimana 1Cyloes marisrubri 1Family: MatutidaeMatuta planipes 41moon CrabMatuta victor 2moon CrabAshtoret lunaris 41moon CrabAshtoret miersii 2moon CrabAshtoret picta 2moon CrabFamily: LeucosidaeLeucosia pubescens 6Pebble CrabLeucosia anatum 1Pebble CrabMyra affinis 15Pebble CrabMyra brevimanna 15Pebble CrabMyra fugax 15Pebble CrabMyrine kesslerii 15Pebble CrabCryptocnemus holdsworthi 1Oreotlos havelocki 1Nursia plicata 1Nursia lar 1Ebalia diadumenna 1Nut CrabEbalia maldiviensis 1Nut CrabEuclosiana obtusifrons 1Coleusia urania 1Urnalena cumingi 1Urnalena haematosticta 1Hiplyra platycheir 1Hiplyra adamsi 1Hiplyra elegans 19Philyra globus 1Pseudophilyra tridentata 1Pseudophilyra melita 1Heterolithadia fallax 1Arcania gracilis 1Arcania erinaceus 1Arcania tuberculata 1Ixa pulcherrima 1Ixa cylindrus 1Family: MajidaeSunipea indicus 1Menaethius monoceros 41Schizophrys aspera 6Paramithrax aculeatus 6Hyastenus plannasius 6Maja proteus 1Micippa philyra 1Micippa thalia 1Micippa margaritifera 1Micippa parca 1Schizophrys aspera 1Cyclax suborbicularis 1Phalangipus arachnoides 1Pseudomicippe nodosa 1Rochinia sp. 14Hyas araneus 14Family: InachidaeAchaeus lacertosus 1Achaeus dubia 1Oncinopus aranea 1Paratymolus hastatus 1Camposcia retusa 1Family: EpialtidaeXenocarcinus tuberculatus 1Simocarcinus simplex 1Menaethius monoceros 1Acanthonyx scutellatus 1Hyastenus pleione 1Hyastenus hilgendorfi 1Hyastenus convexus 1Hyastenus brockii 1Naxioides hirtas 1Naxiodes investigatoris 1Doclea rissoni 1Spider crabSpider crabDecorator crab405

Doclea alcocki 1Tylocarcinus styx 1Family: HymenosomatidaeElamena cristatipes 6Elamena sindens 13Elamena truncata 1Elamenopsis woodmasoni 13Elamenopsis tuberculata 13Family: AethridaeAethera scruposa 2,16Drachiella sculpta 1Family: ParthinopidaeCryptopodia angulata 20Lambrus carinatus 1Rhinolambrus pelagicus 1,2Aulacolambrus hoplodontus 1Stone CrabBat CrabFamily: AtelecyclidaeTrachycarcinus ovalis 2Family: CorystidaeGomeza bicornis 1Family: ThiidaePalapedia integraFamily: PortunidaeCatoptrus nitidus 1,2Lissocarcinus laevis 1,2Lissocarcinus orbicularis 1,2Lissocarcinus polybioides 1,2Portunus pelagicus 3Portunus sanguinolentus 3Twin horn HelmutCrabTwin-Horn HelmutCrabBlue swimmingCrab/ Flower CrabThree-spot SwimmingcrabLambrus calappoides 1,2Portunus argentatis 2Pseudolambrus beaumonti 1,2Portunus gracillimanus 1,2Pseudolambrus harpax 1Portunus grannulatus 1Aulacolambrus curvispinis 1Portunus haani 1Rhinolambrus contrarius 1,2Portunus longispinus 1Rhinolambrus longispinis 1Portunus hastatoides 1Parthenope longimanus 2Portunus convexus 1Parthenope echinatus 2Portunus petreus 1Parthenope cybelis 2Portunus euglyphus 1Parthenope lamellifrons 2Portunus spinipes 1Parthenope longimanus 2,1Portunus longispinosus 1Parthenope petalophorus 2Macropipus tuberculatus 1Doldorfia horrida 2Cryptopodia fornicata 1,2Cryptopodia pan 1Rubble CrabCommon BucklerCrabNeptunus argentatus 1Neptunus hastatoides 1Neptunus tenuipes(de Haan1835) 1Furtipodia petrosa 1Cavoportunus dubius 1Family: ScalopidiidaeLupocyclus rotundatus 1,2Scalopidia spinosipes 1Family: PilumnidaeZebrida adamsi 1Lupocyclus philippinensis 1Charybdis cruciata 41Charybdis miles 41Cross CrabSoldier CrabHarrovia albolineata 1Charybdis ferriata 41Pilumnus cursor 1Charybdis annulatus 2,6Pilumnus longicornis 1,2Charybdis helleri 2Pilumnus minutus 2Charybdis lucifera 2,6Pilumnus vespertillio 1,2Charybdis natator 1,2Actumnus setifer 1Charybdis orientalis 1,2Actumnus asper 1Charybdis ornata 1Actumnus calypso 1Actumnus fissifrons 1Mertonia lanka 1Thalamita chaptali 1,2Thalamita crenata 1,2Thalamita ocules 2Mangrove SwimmingCrabSwimming Crabs406

Thalamita picta 2Thalamita prymna 1,2Thalamita chaptali 1Thalamita sexlobata 2Thalamita sima 2Thalamita poissoni 1Thalamita admete 1Thalamita exetastica 1Thalamita integra 1Thalamita investigatoris 1Thalamita sexlobata 1Thalamita woodmasoni 1Thalamita oculea 1Swimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsSwimming CrabsAtergatis integerrimus 2Atergatopsis alcocki 2,1Actumnus setifer 1,2Actumnus squamosus 2Carpilius maculatus 41Carpilius convexus 41Cymo andreossyi 1,2Cymo melanodactylus 2Calmania prima 1Calvactaea tumida 2Chlorodiella nigra 1Chlorodiella laevissima 25Chlorodopsis areolata 1Bashful CrabActaea alcockiSpotted reef CrabRed Egg CrabPodophthalmus sp. 41Scylla cirrata 3Scylla olivaceaScylla tranquebaricaGiant Mud CrabOrange Mud CrabPurple Mud CrabChlorodopsis pilumnoides 1Calamania prima 2Demania buccalipes 2Demania splendida 1Macropipus tuberculatus 1Family: GoneplacidaeEpixanthus frontalis 2Euxanthus exsculptus 2Mertonia lankae 2Family: TrapeziidaeTrapezia wardi 41Trapezia cymodoce 1,2Trapezia digitalis 2Trapezia ferruginea 1,2Trapezia lutea 2Trapezia rufopunctata 1,2Trapezia septata 2Cymodoce GuardCrabCrimson-spottedGuard CrabHoney-combedGuard CrabEuxanthus herdmani 1Etisus analglypticus 2Etisus splendidus 41Etisus laevimanus 25,41Eriphia scabricula 2Eriphia sebana ? 41Eriphia smithi ?? 41Eumedonus zebra 2Forestia depressa 2Splendid SpoonerSmooth SpoonerRed-eyed RockCrabRed-eyed RockCrabRed-eyed RockCrabTrapezia tigrina 2Gaillardius rupelliae 2Trapezia maculata 1Gorgonariana sodalis 2Tetralia glaberrima 1,2Harrovia albilineata 2Tetralia rubridactyla 2Harrovia elegans 2Quadrellia coronata 1,2Hypocolpus rugulosus 1Quadrellia maculosa 2Halimede ochtodes 1Quadrellia reticulata 2Family: XanthiidaeActaea calculosa 1,2Lybia caestifera 2Liomera bella 2Liomera cinctimana 2Colourful reef crabActaeaperonii 1Liomera tristis 1Actaea granulata 1Liomera laevis 41Actaea savignii 2,6Liomera monticulosa 2Actaea speciosa 25Actaea rupelliae 1Liomera rugata 2Liomera venosa 2Ruby Reef CrabActaeodes tomentosum 2Lophozosymus incisus 1,2Atergatis diladatus 2Atergatis floridus 2Flowery CrabLophozosymus dodone 1Lophozosymus pulchellus 1,2407

Leptodius exaratus 1,2Family: PalicidaeMacromadaeus crassimanus 2Macromadaeus distinguendus1Menippe rumphii 2Neoxanthops lineatus 1,2Nanopilumnus rouxi 2Ozius rugulosus 2,6Ozius tuberculosus 1Palapedia nitida 1Pseudoliomera speciosa 1,2Pseudoliomera variolosa 1Psaumis cavipes 2Pseudoactaea corallina 2Platypodia anaglypta 1,2Platypodia ceylonica 41Pilodius aereolatus 2Pilodius pugil 1,2Phymodius nitidens 2Phymodius ungulatus 2Phymodius sculptus 25Paraxanthias notatus 1,2Serenius ceylonicus 1,2Xantho scabrerrimus 6Xanthias lamarcki 1,2Xanthias punctatus 2Zebrida adamsi 2Zosymus anaeus 25,41Zosymodus cavipes 2Family: CryptochiridaeHepalocarcinus marsupialis 2Family: PinnotheridaePinnotheres margaritiferae 1Family: OcypodidaeOcypode saratan 41Ocypode ceratophthalma 1Ocypode cordimana 2Ocypode platytasus 1,14Uca annulipes 1,2Uca vocans 2Uca lactea 8Uca dussumieri 8Dotilla myctiroides 17Scopimera pilula 41Lamarck’s CrabKiller CrabCoral gall crabsPea crabGhost CrabHorn-eyed GhostcrabSmooth-handedGhost CrabStalk eyed ghostcrabFiddler CrabFiddler CrabFiddler CrabFiddler CrabSoldier CrabSand-bubbler CrabPseudopalicus serripes 1,2Family: GecarcinidaeCardiosoma carnifex 41Family: GrapsidaeGrapsus tenuicrustatus 41Grapsus albolineatus 2Grapsus strigosus 14Varuna literata 41Geograpsus stormii 41Geograpsus crinipes 1Percnon planissimum 1,2Percnon guinotae 41Plagussia depressa 1Metopograpsus latifrons 2Metopograpsus messor 1,8,14Metopograpsus thukhar 21Parasesarma plicatum 2Family: MacrophthalmidaeMacrophthalmus latreillei 2Macrophthalmus depressus 8Pseudoserarma edwardsii 1Neosermatium malabaricum 8Venitus latreillei 1Family: SesarmidaePerisesarma indiarum 8Perisesarma bidens 2,8Perisesarma darwinensis 8Perisesarma bengalensisPerisesarma guttatum 21Episesarma versicolor 21Neosermatium smithii 21Family: ?Lahaina agassizi 1Thysaenys pehlevi 1Naxia spinosa 1Thusaenys irami 1Paramithrax longispinosus 1Stenocionops cervicornis 1Neopalicus jukesii 1Brown land CrabCommon Sallylight-foot CrabMottled Sally lightfootCrabSwift footed rockcrabPaddler CrabRed-brick ShoreCrabBrown Land CrabGreen-lined FlatCrabRed-eyed FlatCrabRafting CrabRock crabRock crabSentinel CrabFace-banded SesarmineCrabRed Clawed Crab408

References1 W. A. Herdman, 1903-6. Report To The Government Of Ceylon On The Pearl Oyster Fisheries Of The Gulf OfMannar. The Royal Society Vol. I-V2 Dr. Tsune Sakai. 1976. Crabs Of Japan And The Adjacent Seas revised and extended by: Dr. Michael Türkay,.Dr. Danièle Guinot, Dr. Peter Davie3 George H.P. De Bruin, Barry Russell, Andre Bogusch. 1994. FAO Species Identification Field Guide for FisheryPurposes. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations4 W. Fischer, G. Bianchi (eds). 1984. FAO Species Identification Sheets For Fishery Purposes: Western IndianOcean- Fishing Area 51. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations. Volume I-V5 M, M. Thomas. On A Collection Of Hermitcrabs From The Indian Waters Central Marine Fisheries ResearchInstitute, Cochin-6S2 0316 Chaapgar, B.F. 1957. Marine Crabs Of Bombay State. Theraporevala Marine Biological Station7 Feroz A. Siddiqui And Quddusi B. Kazmi1986 A Checklist Of Marine Anomurans (Crustacea: Decapoda) OfPakistan, Northern Arabian Sea8 Leonard Pinto. Mangroves Of Sri Lanka. Naresa9. Patricia Cabezas, Chia-Wei Lin, Martha Nizinski, Celso Rodrigues & Kareen E. Schnabel. 2008. Catalogue OfSquat Lobsters Of The World. J. Zootaxa10 A.Daniel. Marine Inter-Tidal Barnacles Of The Indian Ocean. Marine survey division Zoological surveys of India11 World Register Of Marine Species (Website)12 K. Nagappan Nayar. On The Gammaridean Amphipoda Of The Gulf Of Mannar, With Special Reference ToThose Of The Pearl And Chank Beds*13 Lucas, J. S., 1980. Spider Crabs Of The Family Hymenosomatidae Records of the Australian Museum 33(4):148–247.14 Kuganathan, S.,2008. A Monograph On Marine Crabs Of Point- Pedro Coast Sri Lanka15 B.S. Galil. 1817. A Revision Of Myra Leach, (Crustacea: Decapoda: Leucosioidea)16 Peter K. L. Ng. A Synopsis Of The Genus Aethra Latreille17 Christopher John Allen Ecology Of The Intertidal Crab Dotilla Intermedia From Tsunami-Impacted Beaches InThailand18 Xinzheng LI, Alexander Bruce. 2006. Further Indo-West Pacific palaemonoid shrimps. Journal of NaturalHistory,; 40(11–12): 611–73819 Reza Naderloo & M. Apel. 2009. Leucosiid Crabs of the Genus Hiplyra Galil, (Crustacea: Brachyura:Leucosiidae) from the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, with Description of a New Species20 S. Ravichandran*, Ramasamy Anbuchezhian, K. Sivasubramaniyan & G. Rameshkumar . Southeast Coastof India21 S.H.R.Priyadarshini, S.C. Jayamanna & Y.N. Hirimuthugoda. 2008. Diversity Of Crabs In Kadolkele, NegomboEstuary, NARA SRI Lanka. S.L. J. Aquatic sci. 1322 M.M. Kuruppu & S.U.K.Ekarathne.1995. Characterization Of Brine Shrimp Artemia From Sri Lanka. J. Natn.Sci. Coun. Sri Lanka 23(4)23 Arthur Anker. 2005. Presence of the alpheid shrimp genus potamalpheops powell. The raffles bulletin ofzoology Supplement No. 12: 31–3724 K. J. Jayalakshmi, P. Jasmine, K. R.Muraleedharan, M. P. Prabhakaran, H. Habeebrehman, Josia Jacob, andC. T. Achuthankutty. 2011. Aggregation of Euphausia sibogae during Summer Monsoon along the SouthwestCoast of India. Journal of marine biology25 C. SANKARANKUTTY. 1962. On Decapoda Brachyura From The Andaman And Nicobar Islands, FamilyXanthidae**. J. Mar. biol Ass. India26 Notes on Crustacea Decapoda in the Indian Museum. XII. Secpimerinae Stanley Kemp Records of the IndianMuseum 16:305-348 (1919)27 Christian Schmidt & Andreas Leistikow. Catalogue of genera of the terrestrial Isopoda (Crustacea: Isopoda:Oniscidea)28 Shane T. Ahyong. 2001. Revision Of The Australian Stomatopod Crustacea. Records of the Australian Museum409

29 Stephenson, W., and Frank A. McNeill, 1955. The Australian Stomatopoda,(Crustacea) In The Collections OfThe Australian Museum, with a check list and key to the known Australian species. Records of the AustralianMuseum 23(5): 239–265.30 Prasanna Weerakkody and Laksiri Kaurnarathne. 1993. Status And Bio-Diversity Of The Buona-Vista CoralReef, Rumassala, Galle. Natcog 1993-431 Prasanna Weerakkody, Nishan Perera. 2005. A Biodiversity Status Profile Of Sub-Tidal And Inter Tidal HabitatsOf The Rekawa, Ussangoda And Kalametiya Area. Occasional papers of IUCN Sri Lanka, No.5, March32 Ranjith De Silva, Prasanna Weerakkody. 2010. Study 18, A Review Of Coral Reefs On The East Coast Of SriLanka: Distribution, Ecology, Status And Threats. Green tech Consultants/NECCDEP.33 Stanley Kemp. 1919. Notes on crustacea decapoda in the indian museum. Xii. Scopimerinae Records of theIndian Museum 16:305-34834 Mathew D. Richmond. 1997. A guide to the seashores of eastern africa. Sida35 Patrick Collins & Charles Arneson. 1991. Tropical Pacific Invertebrates. CRRF36 Terrance Gosliner, David Behrens & Gary Williams. 1996. Coral Reef Animals Of The Indo-Pacific. SeaChallengers37 Gerald Allen, Roger Steene. 1994. Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Field Guide. Tropical Reef Research38 Holthuis, L.B. 1980. Shrimps And Prawns Of The World. An annotated catalogue of species of interest tofisheries: FAO species catalogue. Vol.1. Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations40 Xinzheng Li & Alexander J. Bruce. Further Indo-West Pacific Palaemonoid Shrimps41 Authors personal recods- Prasanna Weerakkody42 Deraniyagala, 193943 S. Kuganathan personal records*In addition to personal observations and records; species with specific records from Sri Lanka or Gulf of Mannarfor mud/sand living species were included in the list from published sources. Where published data was available Ihave given precedence to the record it over my own records.**Records from Herdman need updating- this has been carried out in some sections. Not all taxa from Herdmanhave been added where more aiuthoratative recent lists were available and due to in sufficient time to verify allrecords.410

Provisional Checklist of Marine fish of Sri LankaTerney P. Kumara P.B. and Kasun R. DalpathaduDepartment of Oceanography and Marine Geology, University of Ruhuna, MataraIntroductionConsisting of more than 32,000 species, marine fish are the most diverse group of organismsamong the chordates (Froese & Pauly, 2012). They are found in most bodies of water andfound in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and evenhadal depths of the deepest oceans. Depending on the oceanic zone they occupy, fish canbe divided into three main categories, pelagic, demersal and reef fishes. Pelagic fish live nearthe surface or in the water column of coastal, ocean and lake waters. Demersal fish, live on ornear the bottom of the water body while reef fish are associated with coral reefs (Lal & Fortune,2000). Marine pelagic fish can be divided into coastal (inshore) fish and oceanic (offshore)fish (McLintock, 2007). Coastal fish inhabit the relatively shallow and sunlit waters above thecontinental shelf, while oceanic fish (which may well also swim inshore) inhabit the vast anddeep waters beyond the continental shelf (Walrond, 2007).Fish are an important resource worldwide, especially as a source of protein. Commercial andsubsistence fishery depend on wild stocks or more intensive culture of selected fish speciesunder captive conditions. Marine fish are also caught by recreational fishers, kept as pets,raised by fish keepers, and exhibited in public aquaria. Therefore, depending on the use, fishcan be divided mainly into major categories, food fish and recreational fish. Sri Lanka enjoysan eight time larger maritime zone than its land area. A variety of habitats such as sea grassbeds, lagoons, estuaries, coral reefs and fertile coastal waters around the country. Thesediverse array of habitats support a rich marine fish fauna.TaxonomyA complete systematic study of Sri Lankan marine fish is still lacking. However, the literatureon Sri Lankan fishes dates back to the early 19th century (De Bruin, et al., 1994). Most of theearly records of Sri Lankan marine fish have appeared in ‘Ceylon Journal of Science’ and invarious reports by marine biologists appointed by the Sri Lankan government (Munro, 1955; DeBruin, et al., 1994). Among them Dr. P. E. P. Deraniyagala, the former Director of the nationalMuseum in Colombo and Ian S. R. Munro (1955) has made remarkable contribution to furtherour knowledge on marine fish (De Bruin, et al., 1994). Munro (1955) has listed 856 marine,brackish water and fresh water fish species for Sri Lanka. However, at present most of theseearly taxonomic works have been largely revisited and eclipsed by more modern taxonomictreatments. De Bruin, et al. (1994) lists about 800 marine and brackish water fishes in SriLankan waters. The FAO “Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles of Sri Lanka” (FAO, 2004)indicates that there are about 975 marine and brackish water fish (610 species of coastal fish,60 species of sharks, 90 species of oceanic pelagic species of fish and 215 demersal species).In addition, Öhman, Rajasuriya, & Linden (1993) have listed over 300 species of reef and reefassociated fish belonging to 62 families. Thus, the actual number of marine and brackish waterfishes living in Sri Lankan Waters could be in excess of 1800 species (The Government of SriLanka, 2006; Weerakkody, 2012).411

ThreatsIn addition to the excess fishing pressure, marine fish are facing number of problems includingenvironmental degradation, e.g., discharge of contaminated waters by domestic and foreignvessels, heated water from land based industries, pollutants and other nonbiodegradablematerials (such as oil spills). Higher amounts of nutrients and toxic pollutants in the coastal watersalso cause stress conditions and physiological changes that leads to reduced reproductiverates, shorter life spans, behavioural changes, rapid expansion or total disappearance ofsome species. In addition, climate change, ocean acidification and sea level rise could furtheraggravate these conditions.Overfishing, fishing in proscribed areas and use of unauthorized gears and methods all havemajor impacts on the marine fish resource, which require immediate attention. Blast fishing,bottom set nets, moxy nets, trammel nets, trawl nets and push nets are banded in Sri Lanka.Though it is banned, moxy nets are frequently used as a fishing gear by ornamental fishcatchers. The use of trawl nets, especially by Indian fishermen in Sri Lankan territorial watershas become a major threat not only to marine fish fauna, but also to the complete ecosystemin the North and North western parts of the country.ConservationSri Lanka has ratified and signed several international treaties in order to conserve andmanage marine fish resources in a sustainable manner. Further, there are number of state levellegislations available to conserve and effectively manage marine and coastal fish resources.Some of them directly control the management of marine fish resources while others can beused indirectly to regulate the exploitation of marine fish.Sri Lanka has also established four Marine Protected areas, The Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary,Rumassala Marine Sanctuary, Pigeon Island National Park and Hikkaduwa National Park andtwo fisheries management areas, Great and Little Basses fisheries management area andPolhena fisheries management area. Although several MPAs exist in Sri Lanka, most are notmanaged, and resource extraction and habitat degradation continue unabated (Perera & DeVos, 2007). In 1998, the Export and Import of Live Fish Regulations were introduced. Theseregulations define which species of fish are prohibited from being exported or imported anddenote that permits are required to export certain fish species and/or live fish eggs, roe orspawn.Marine fish resources are over exploited in most part of the country and the fishing stress isunimaginable. However still there are rarely exploited resources in deep sea environmentswhere the possibility for undescribed species is still very high. Further, the expansion of EEZinto the high seas may add new species to the marine fish list of Sri Lanka. Thus the actualnumber of marine fish spices in Sri Lankan waters may be higher than the recorded number inthis provisional check list.All the species and family names were checked for the synonyms using the online resources(World Register of Marine Species and Fish Base). Thus the currently accepted name is listedwith its synonym and its source for easy verification.412

ReferencesDe Bruin, G. H. P., Russell, B. C. & Bogusch, A., (1994). FAO Species Identification Field Guide for Fishery Purpose:The Marine Fishery Resources in Sri Lanka. Rome: FAO.Froese, R. & Pauly, D. eds., (2012). FishBase [Online] (Updated October 2012)Available at: [Accessed 22 November 2012].Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), (2004-2012). Fishery and Aquaculture Countryprofiles: Sri Lanka. In: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department [online] (Updated 5 August 2004).Available at: [Accessed 22 November 2012].Lal, B. V. & Fortune, K. eds., (2000). The Pacific Islands: An encyclopedia. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu.McLintock, A. H. ed., (1966). An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand: FISH, MARINE. [Online] (Updated 23 April 2009)Available at: [Accessed 22 November 2012].Munro, I. S. R., 1955. The marine and freshwater fishes of Ceylon. Dept. of External Affairs. Colombo.Öhman, M.C., Rajasuriya, A. & Linden, O., (1993). Coral reefs in north-western Sri Lanka; biology and humandisturbances. Proc. Coll. Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Miami: Rosential Schoolof Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, pp.404-409.Perera, N. & De Vos, A., (2007). Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka: A Review. Environ Manage, 40, pp.727–738.The Government of Sri Lanka., (2006). The Gazette Extraordinary of the Democratic Socialist Republic of SriLanka-: No. 1429/11, 2006 January 24th Tuesday. (Part I: Sec. I). Sri Lanka.Walrond, C., (2007). Oceanic fish - New Zealand’s oceanic species, Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand.[Online] (Updated 02 March 2009).Available at: [Accessed 22 November 2012].Weerakkody, P., (2012). Personal Records. [e-mail] (Personal communication, 12 November, 2012).413

Provisional Check List of Marine and Brackish water fish in Sri Lankan waters.Kasun Randika Dalpathadu.Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences & Technology, University of Ruhuna.Boney FishesFamily: AcanthuridaeAcanthurus dussumieri Valenciennes, 1835 11, 5, 7Acanthurus leucosternon Bennett, 18321, 5, 7, 23Acanthurus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758)Acanthurus mata (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 5Acanthurus nigricauda Dunker and Mohr, 1926 1, 5Acanthurus nigrofuscus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Acanthurus tennentii Gunther, 1861 1, 51, 5, 7, 23Acanthurus triostegus (Linnaeus, 1758)Acanthurus tristis Tickell, 1888 1, 5Acanthurus xanthopterus Valenciennes, 1835 1, 5Acanthurus pyroferus Kittlitz, 1834 5Acanthurus bariene Lesson, 1831 2Acanthurus nigricans (Linnaeus, 1758) 7Ctenochaetus striatus Quoy and Gaimard, 1824Ctenochaetus strigosus (Bennett, 1828) 1, 5Ctenochaetus binotatus Randall, 1955 5Naso annulatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1825) 11, 5, 7Naso brevirostris (Valenciennes, 1835)Naso lituratus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5Naso thynnoides (Valenciennes, 1835) 1Naso tuberosus Lacepede, 1802 1Naso unicornis (Forsskal, 1775) 1Naso vlamingi (Valenciennes, 1835) 2Paracanthurus hepatus (Linnaeus, 1766) 5Zebrasoma scopas (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 51, 20, 21Zebrasoma veliferum (Bloch, 1795)Zebrasoma xanthurum (Blyth, 1852) 15, 20Zebrasoma desjardeinii (Bennett, 1836)Family: AcropomidaeAcropoma japonicum Gunther, 1859 18Family: AlbulidaeAlbula glossodonta (Forsskal, 1775) 1Albula neoguinaica Valenciennes, 1846 1Family: AlepocephalidaeAlepocephalus blanfordii Alcock, 1892 1Family: AmbassidaeAmbassis gymnocephalus (Lacepede, 1802) 1Family: AnguillidaeAnguilla bengalensis bengalensis (Gray, 1831) 1Anguilla bicolor bicolor McClelland, 1844 11, 5, 23Family: AntennariidaeAntennarius indicus Schultz, 1964 5Antennarius maculatus (Desjardins, 1840) 519, 21Antennarius pictus (Shaw, 1794)19, 21Antennarius striatus (Shaw, 1794)Antennatus tuberosus (Cuvier, 1817) 21Antennarius hispidus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 19Antennarius commerson (Lacepède, 1798) 19Antennarius nummifer (Cuvier, 1817) 195, 19Histrio histrio (Linnaeus, 1758)Family: AploactinidaeCocotropus monacanthus (Gilchrist, 1906)Paraploactis taprobanensis (Whitley, 1933)18, 211, 21Family: Apogonidae18, 20Acropoma japonicum Günther, 1859Apogon spp. 2Apogon aureus (Lacepede, 1802) 5Apogon fraenatus Valenciennes, 1832 5Apogon nigrofasciatus (Lachner, 1953) 5Apogon cookii Macleay, 1881 22Apogon taeniophorus Regan, 1908 22Apogon cyanosoma Bleeker, 1853 22Apogon apogonides (Bleeker, 1856) 22Apogon kallopterus Bleeker, 1856 2220, 22Archamia fucata (Cantor, 1849)Archaemia spp. 2Cheilodipterus spp. 2Cheilodipterus quinquelineatus Cuvier, 1828 5Cheilodipterus macrodon (Lacepede, 1802) 22Cheilodipterus artus Smith, 1961 22Sphaeramia nematoptera (Bleeker, 1856) 5Synagrops malayanus Weber, 1913 18Family: AriidaeArius jella Day, 1877 11, 20Arius maculatus (Thunberg, 1792)Arius subrostratus Valenciennes, 1840 1Arius sumatranus Bennett, 1840 1Batrachocephalus mino (Hamilton – Buchanan, 1822) 11, 20Nemapteryx caelata (Valenciennes, 1840)1, 20Netuma bilineata (Valenciennes, 1840)1, 21Netuma thalassina (Rüppell, 1837)Osteogeneiosus milittaris (Linnaeus, 1758) 11, 20Plicofollis dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1840)1, 21Plicofollis platystomus (Day, 1877)1, 20Sciades sona (Hamilton, 1822)414

Family: AriommatidaeEcsenius bicolor (Day, 1888) 518, 20, 21Ariomma indica (Day, 1871) Ecsenius midas Starck, 1969 5Ecsenius nalolo Smith, 1959 2221, 22Family: AtherinidaeEcsenius yaeyamaensis (Aoyagi, 1954)Atherinomorus lacunosus (Forster, 1801) 121, 22Ecsenius gravieri (Pellegrin, 1906)21, 22Ecsenius lineatus Klausewitz, 1962Hypoatherina temminckii (Bleeker, 1853) 119, 21Ecsenius frontalis (Valenciennes, 1836)Entomacrodus striatus (Valenciennes, 1836) 19Family: AulostomidaeEntomacrodus spp. 2Aulostomus chinensis (Linnaeus, 1766) 1Escanius spp. 219, 21Exallias brevis (Kner, 1868)Family: BalistidaeHelcogramma striata Hansen, 1986 22Abalistes stellatus (Lacepede, 1798) 1, 5Helcogramma spp. 22Balistapus undulatus (Park, 1797) 1, 5Istiblenius edentulous Forster & Schneider, 1801 21, 5, 9Balistoides conspicillum (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Istiblennius andersoni (Day, 1870) 19Balistoides viridescens (Bloch, 1801) 1, 5Istiblennius lineatus (Valenciennes, 1836) 191, 21Canthidermis maculata (Bloch, 1786)19, 21lstiblennius edentulus (Forster & Schneider, 1801)Melichthys indicus Randall and Klausewitz, 1973 1, 5 Istiblennius unicolor (Rupell, 1838) 1920, 21, 225, 22Melichthys vidua (Richardson, 1845) Meiacanthus smithi Klausewitz, 1962Melichthys niger (Bloch, 1786) 2220, 22Petroscirtes variabilis Cantor, 1849Odonus niger (Ruppell, 1840) 120, 21, 22Petroscirtes mitratus Rüppell, 183019, 201, 5, 9Pseudobalistes fuscus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)Petroscirtes breviceps (Valenciennes, 1836)Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus (Rupell, 1829) 22 Plagiotremus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1857) 22Plagiotremus rhinorhynchos (Bleeker, 1852) 221, 5, 7Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linnaeus, 1758)Plagiotremus phenax Smith-Vaniz, 1976 22Rhinecanthus rectangulus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5Salarias fasciatus (Bloch, 1786) 2Rhinecanthus verrucosus (Linnaeus, 1758) 22Salarias alboguttatus Kner, 1867 19Sufflamen chrysopterus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5Sufflamen fraenatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5Family: BothidaeSufflamen bursa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 521, 22Arnoglossus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1866)Sufflamen albicaudatum (Rüppell, 1829) 1Bothus pantherinus (Ruppell, 1830) 1Bothus myriaster (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846)Family: Bathyclupeidae1Bothus mancus (Broussonet, 1782) 5Bathclupea hoskynii (Alcock) 18Chascanopsetta lugubris Alcock, 1894 1Crossorhombus azureus (Alcock, 1889)Family: Batrachoididae1Crossorhombus valderostratus (Alcock, 1890) 11, 21Allenbatrachus grunniens (Linnaeus, 1758)Engyprosopon grandisquama (Temminck & Schlegel,1, 211846)Family: BelonidaeGrammatobothus polyophthalmus (Bleeker, 1866) 1Ablennes hians (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Laeops kitaharai (Smith & Pope) 18Strongylura leiura (Bleeker, 1850) 1Parabothus polylepis (Alcock, 1889) 1Strongylura strongylura (van Hasselt, 1823) 1Tylosurus acus melanotus (Bleeker, 1850) 1Family: CaesionidaeTylosurus crocodilus crocodilus (Peron and Le Seur,Caesio caerulaurea Lacepede, 1802 11821) 1Caesio cuning (Bloch, 1791) 1Caesio lunaris Cuvier, 1830 1Family: BlenniidaeCaesio teres Seale, 1906 1Alticus saliens (Forster, 1788) 19Caesio varilineata Carpenter, 1987 121, 22Aspidontus taeniatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1834Caesio xanthonota Bleeker, 185319, 21, 22Aspidontus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1836) 119, 21 Dipterygonotus balteatus (Valenciennes, 1830)Blenniella periophthalmus (Valenciennes, 1836) 120, 22Cirripectes stigmaticus Strasburg & Schultz, 1953Gymnocaesio gymnoptera (Bleeker, 1856) 1Cirripectes auritus Carlson, 1981 22 Pterocaesio chrysozona (Cuvier, 1830) 1Pterocaesio pisang (Bleeker, 1853) 1415

Pterocaesio tessellata Carpenter, 1987 1Selaroides leptolepis (Cuvier, 1833) 1Pterocaesio tile (Cuvier, 1830) 1Seriola rivoliana (Valenciennes, 1833) 1Seriolina nigrofasciata (Ruppell, 1829) 1Family: CallionymidaeTrachinotus baillonii (Lacepede, 1801) 1Synchiropus stellatus Smith, 1963 5Trachinotus blochii (Lacepede, 1801) 1Trachinotus mookalee (Cuvier, 1832) 11, 21Family: CaproidaeTrachinotus botla (Shaw, 1803)Ulua mentalis (Cuvier, 1833)Antigonia rubescens (Gunther, 1860) 11Uraspis helvola (Forster, 1801) 1Antigonia malayana Weber, 1913 18Family: CarapidaeFamily: CaracanthidaeCarapus mourlani (Petit, 1934) 1Caracanthus zeylonicus (Day, 1869) 1Family: CentriscidaeFamily: CarangidaeAeoliscus strigatus (Günther, 1861) 22Alectis ciliaris (Bloch, 1788) 1Centriscus scutatus Linnaeus, 1758 1Alectis indicus (Ruppell, 1830) 1Alepes djedaba (Forsskal, 1775) 1Family: CentropomidaeAlepes melanoptera (Swainson, 1839) 1Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1796) 1Alepes vari (Cuvier, 1833) 1Psammoperca waigiensis (Cuvier, 1828) 11, 21Alepes kleinii (Bloch, 1793)Atropus atropos (Schneider, 1801) 1Family: Cepolidae1, 21Atule mate (Cuvier, 1833)18, 21Owstonia weberi (Gilchrist, 1922)Carangoides armatus (Ruppell, 1830) 11, 21Carangoides coeruleopinnatus (Rüppell, 1830)Carangoides chrysophrys (Cuvier, 1833) 1Family: Chaetodontidae1, 202, 5, 7Carangoides ferdau (Forsskål, 1775) Chaetodon vagabundus Linnaeus, 17581, 14Carangoides fulvoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) Chaetodon decussatus Cuvier, 1829 2, 51, 14Carangoides gymnostethus (Cuvier, 1833) Chaetodon cittrinellus Cuvier, 1831 2Carangoides hedlandensis (Whitley, 1933) 1Chaetodon trifascialis Quoy and Gaimard, 1825 2, 5Carangoides malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 12, 5, 7Chaetodon trifasciatus Park, 1797Carangoides oblongus (Cuvier, 1833) 12, 5, 9Chaetodon meyeri Bloch and Schneider, 1801Carangoides plagiotaenia (Bleeker, 1851) 12, 5, 7Chaetodon lunula (Lacepede, 1802)Carangoides praeustus (Bennett, 1830) 1Chaetodon collare Bloch, 1787 2, 5Carangoides talamparoides (Bleeker, 1852) 12, 5, 7Chaetodon auriga Forsskal, 17751, 21Carangoides coeruleopinnatus (Rüppell, 1830)2, 5, 12Chaetodon plebeius Cuvier, 18311, 14Caranx heberi (Bennett, 1830)2, 5, 91, 14Chaetodon xanthocephalus Bennett, 1832Caranx ignobilis (Forsskal, 1775)2, 5, 91, 20Chaetodon unimaculatus Bloch, 1787Caranx melampygus Cuvier, 1833Caranx papuensis (Alleyne and Macleay, 1877) 1 Chaetodon kleinii Bloch, 1790 2, 5Caranx sexfasciatus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 13, 5, 9Chaetodon madagascariensis Ahl, 1923Caranx tille (Cuvier, 1833) 1Chaetodon gardneri Norman, 1939 3, 5Decapterus macarellus (Cuvier, 1833) 1Chaetodon semeion (Bleeker, 1855) 5, 9Decapterus macrosoma (Bleeker, 1852) 1Chaetodon octofasciatus Bloch, 1787 5, 9Decapterus russelli (Ruppell, 1830) 1Chaetodon ornatissimus Cuvier, 1831 5, 9Elagatis bipinnulata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1 Chaetodon ephippium Cuvier, 1831 5, 9Gnathanodon speciosus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5Chaetodon bennetti Cuvier, 1831 5, 9Megalaspis cordyla (Linnaeus, 1758) 1Chaetodon triangulum Cuvier, 1831 5, 9Naucrates ductor (Linnaeus, 1758) 1Chaetodon citrinellus Cuvier, 1831 5, 7Parastromateus niger (Bloch, 1795) 15, 7, 9Chaetodon falcula Bloch, 1795Scomberoides commersonianus (Lacepede, 1802) 1 Chaetodon guttatissimus Bennett, 1833 5Scomberoides lysan (Forsskal, 1775) 1Chaetodon interruptus Ahl, 1923 5Scomberoides tala (Cuvier, 1832) 1Chaetodon lineolatus Cuvier, 1831 5Scomberoides tol (Cuvier, 1832) 1Chaetodon oxycephalus Bleeker, 1853 22Selar crumenophthalmus (Bloch, 1793) 1 Chaetodon melannotus Bloch & Schneider, 1801 5416

Chaetodon mertensii Cuvier, 1831 5Nematalosa galatheae Nelson and Rothman, 1973 1Chaetodon rafflesi Anonymous [Bennett], 1830 5, 91, 14Nematalosa nasus (Bloch, 1795)Forcipiger flavissimus Jordan & Evermann, 1898 3, 51, 14Sardinella albella (Valenciennes, 1847)Forcipiger longirostris Broussonet, 1782 3, 51, 21Sardinella fimbriata (Valenciennes, 1847)Hemitaurichthys zoster (Bennett, 1831) 3, 51, 14Sardinella gibbosa (Bleeker, 1849)Heniochus singularis Smith & Radcliffe, 1911 3, 51, 20Sardinella jussieu (Lacepède, 1803)3, 5, 9Heniochus monoceros Cuvier, 183 Sardinella longiceps (Valenciennes, 1847) 13, 5, 7Heniochus acuminatus (Linnaeus, 1758) Spratelloides delicatulus (Bennett, 1831) 1Heniochus pleurotaenia (Cuvier, 1831) 5, 9Spratelloides gracilis (Temminck and Schlegel, 1846) 1Heniochus diphreutes Jordan, 1903 22Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1Parachaetodon ocellatus (Cuvier, 1831) 22Tenualosa toli (Valenciennes, 1847) 1Prognathodes guyotensis (Yamamoto & Tameka, 1982) 22Family: CongridaeFamily: ChanidaeAriosoma anago (Schlegel, 1849) 1Chanos chanos (Forsskal, 1775) 1Conger cinereus (Ruppell, 1828) 1Uroconger lepturus (Richardson, 1848) 1Family: ChauliodontidaeChauliodus sloani Bloch and Schneider, 1801 1Family: CoryphaenidaeCoryphaena hippurus Linneaus, 1758 1Family: ChaunacidaeChaunax pictus Lowe, 1846 1Family: CynoglossidaeCynoglossus arel (Schneider, 1801) 1Family: ChirocentridaeCynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskal, 1775) 11, 21Cynoglossus kopsii (Bleeker, 1851)Chirocentrus nudus (Swainson, 1839) 1Cynoglossus lingua Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 1Cynoglossus puncticeps (Richardson, 1846) 1Family: ChlorophthalmidaeCynoglossus semifasciatus Day, 1877 1Chlorophthalmus agassizi (Bonaparte, 1850) 1Cynoglossus marleyi Regan, 1921 18Chlorophthalmus bicornis (Norman, 1939) 1Paraplagusia bilineata (Bloch, 1784) 1Symphurus septemstriatus (Alcock, 1891) 1Family: CirrhitidaeSymphurus trifasciatus (Alcock, 1894) 1Cirrhitus pinnulatus (Forster, 1801) 2Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker, 1855) 5Family: DactylopteridaeCirrhitichthys bleekeri Day, 1874 5Dactyloptena orientalis (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 5Cirrhitichthys aprinus (Cuvier, 1829) 7Oxycirrhites typus Bleeker, 1857 5Family: DiodontidaeParacirrhites forsteri (Schneider, 1801) 2, 51, 21Cyclichthys orbicularis (Bloch, 1785)Paracirrhites arcatus (Cuvier, 1829) 5Diodon holocanthus Linneaus, 1758 11, 5, 7, 23Diodon hystrix (Linneaus, 1758)Family: ClinidaeDiodon liturosus Shaw, 1804 51, 20Springeratus xanthosoma (Bleeker, 1857)Family: DrepanidaeFamily: ClupeidaeDrepane punctata (Linneaus, 1758) 11, 14Amblygaster clupeoides Bleeker, 1849Amblygaster leiogaster (Valenciennes, 1847) 1Family: Echeneidae1, 14Amblygaster sirm (Walaum, 1792) Echeneis naucrates Linneaus, 1758 1, 51, 20Anodontostoma chacunda (Hamilton, 1822) Remora australis (Bennett, 1840) 1Dayella malabarica (Day, 1873) 1Remora remora (Linneaus, 1758 11, 14Dussumieria acuta (Valenciennes, 1847) Remora albescens (Temminck and Schlegel, 1843) 11, 21Dussumieria elopsoides Bleeker, 1849Ehirava fluviatilis Deraniyagala, 1929 1Family: Elopidae1, 14Escualosa thoracata (Valenciennes, 1847) Elops machnata (Forsskal, 1775) 1Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus (Ruppell, 1837) 1Hilsa kelee (Cuvier, 1829) 1417

Family: EmmelichthyidaeParexocoetus mento (Valenciennes, 1846) 11, 21Plagiogeneion rubiginosum (Hutton, 1875) Prognichthys brevipinnis (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Family: EngraulididaeFamily: FistulariidaeCoilia dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1847) 11, 23Fistularia commersonii (Ruppell, 1835)Coilia neglecta (Whitehead, 1968) 1Fistularia petimba (Lacepede, 1803) 1Encrasicholina devisi (Whitly) 1Encrasicholina heteroloba (Ruppell, 1873) 1Family: GadidaeEncrasicholina punctifer Fowler, 1938 1Physiculus peregrinus (Gunther, 1872) 18Setipinna taty (Valenciennes, 1848) 1Stolephorus commersonnii Lacepede, 1803 1Family: GempylidaeStolephorus indicus (van Hasselt, 1823) 1Gempylus serpens (Cuvier, 1829) 1Stolephorus insularis Hardenberg, 1933 1Lepidocybium flavobrunneum (Smith, 1849) 1Stolephorus waitei Jordan and Seale, 1926 1Neoepinnula orientalis (Gilchrist and von Bond, 1924) 1Thryssa baelama (Forsskal, 1775) 1Rexea prometheoides (Bleeker, 1856) 1Thryssa dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1848) 1Ruvettus pretiosus Cocco, 1829 1Thryssa encrasicholoides (Bleeker, 1852) 1Thryssa gautamiensis Babu Rao, 1971 1Family: GerreidaeThryssa hamiltonii (Gray, 1835) 11, 21Gerres erythrourus (Bloch, 1791)Thryssa malabarica (Bloch, 1795) 11, 21Gerres longirostris (Lacepède, 1801)Thryssa mystax (Schneider, 1801) 1Gerres filamentosus (Cuvier, 1829) 1Thryssa polybranchialis Wongratana, 1983 11, 21Gerres limbatus Cuvier, 1830Thryssa purava (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1Gerres oblongus (Cuvier, 1830) 1Thryssa setirostris (Broussonet, 1782) 1Gerres oyena (Forsskal, 1775) 11, 21Thryssa vitrirostris (Gilchrist & Thompson, 1908) Pentaprion longimanus (Cantor, 1850) 1Family: EphippidaeFamily: GobiidaeEphippus orbis (Bloch, 1787) 1Acentrogobius caninus (Valennciennes, 1837) 191, 5, 7Platax orbicularis (Forsskal, 1775)Acentrogobius masoni (Day, 1873) 19Platax teira (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5Acentrogobius viridipunctatus (Valennciennes, 1837) 19Platax pinnatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5, 919, 20Alburnus arborella (Bonaparte 1841)Amblyeleotris spp. 2Family: EpigonidaeAmblyeleotris diagonalis Polunin & Lubbock, 1979 518, 21Epigonus robustus (Barnard, 1927) Amblyeleotris steinitzi (Klausewitz, 1974) 5Epigonus telescopus (Risso, 1810) 1821, 22Amblyeleotris periophthalma (Bleeker, 1853)Amblyeleotris wheeleri (Polunin & Lubbock, 1977) 22Family: ExocoetidaeAmblygobius hectori (Smith, 1957) 5Cheilopogon atrisignis (Jenkins, 1904) 1Amblygobius nocturnus (Herre, 1945) 22Cheilopogon cyanopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Amblygobius semicinctus (Bennett, 1833) 22Cheilopogon furcatus (Mitchill, 1815) 1Asterropteryx semipunctatus Rüppell, 1830 22Cheilopogon nigricans (Bennett, 1846) 1Asterropteryx spp.Cheilopogon spilopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 21Bathygobius fuscus (Rupell, 1830)Cheilopogon suttoni (Whitley and Colefax, 1938) 19119, 201, 21Bostrychus sinensis Lacepède, 1801Cheilopogon katoptron (Bleeker, 1865)Cypselurus naresii (Gunther, 1889) 1Bryaniops spp. 2Cypselurus oligolepis (Bleeker, 1866) 119, 21Butis butis (Hamilton, 1822)Cypselurus opisthopus (Bleeker, 1866) 119, 20Butis koilomatodon (Bleeker, 1849)Cypselurus poecilopterus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1 Callogobius mannarensis Rangarajan 1968 22Exocoetus monocirrhus Richardson, 1846 1Callogobius hasselti (Bleeker, 1851) 22Exocoetus volitans (Linnaeus, 1758) 1Callogobius spp. 2Hirundichthys coromandelensis (Hornell, 1923) 12, 22Cryptocentrus cryptocentrus (Valenciennes, 1837)Hirundichthys oxycephalus (Bleeker, 1857) 1Cryptocentrus caeruleomaculatus (Herre, 1933) 22Hirundichthys speculiger (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Cryptocentrus cinctus (Herre, 1936) 22Parexocoetus brachypterus (Richardson, 1846) 1 Ctenogobius aurocingulus (Herre, 1935) 22418

Ctenogobiops spp. 2Pomadasys commersonnii (Lacepede, 1802) 119, 20Eleotris fusca (Forster, 1801) Pomadasys furcatus (Schneider, 1801) 120, 21, 22Exyrias belissimus (Smith, 1959) Pomadasys kaakan (Cuvier, 1830) 11, 2119, 21Eviota zonura Jordan & Seale, 1906 Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch, 1797)Fusigobius sp. 5Pomadasys multimaculatum (Playfair, 1866) 11, 2119, 20Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton, 1822)Pomadasys olivaceus (Day, 1875)Gnatholepis spp. 221, 22Pomadasys guoraca (Cuvier, 1829)Gobiodon citrinus (Rüppell, 1838) 520, 21, 22Gobiodon quinquestrigatus (Valenciennes, 1837)Family: HalosauridaeGobiodon atrangulatus Garman, 1903 221, 21Aldrovandia affinis (Günther, 1877)19, 21Gobiodon rivulatus (Rüppell, 1830)Family: HemiramphidaeIstigobius spp. 2Euleptorhamphus viridis (van Hasselt, 1823)Istigobius decoratus (Herre, 1927) 18519, 21, 22Hemiramphus archipelagicus Collette and Parin, 1978lstigobius ornatus (Rüppell, 1830) 1Hemiramphus far (Forsskal, 1775)Oligolepis acutipennis (Valenciennes, 1837) 119Hemiramphus lutkei (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Ophiocara porocephala (Valenciennes, 1837) 19Hyporhamphus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Oplopomus oplopomus (Valenciennes, 1837) 22Hyporhamphus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Oxyurichthys microlepis (Bleeker, 1849) 19Hyporhamphus quoyi (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Oxyurichthys tentacularis (Valenciennes, 1837) 19Rhynchorhamphus georgii (Valenciennes, 1846) 1Paragobiodon echinocephalus (Rüppell, 1830) 22Rhynchorhamphus malabaricus Collette, 1976 1Paragobiodon lacunicolus (Kendall & Goldsborough,20, 221911)Family: Holocentridae19, 21Periophthalmus barbarus (Linnaeus, 1766)19, 21 Myripristis kuntee (Cuvier, 1831)Periophthalmus argentilineatus Valenciennes 1837 11, 2119, 21Pleurosicya bilobata (Koumans, 1941)Myripristis botche Cuvier, 18292, 5, 1019, 21Priolepis semidoliata (Valenciennes, 1837)Myripristis adusta (Bleeker, 1853)19, 20Psammogobius biocellatus (Valenciennes, 1837) Myripristis berndti Jordan & Evermann, 1903 519, 21Pseudogobius javanicus (Bleeker, 1856) Myripristis murdjan (Forsskål, 1775) 519, 21Sicyopterus lagocephalus (Pallas, 1770) Myripristis chryseres Jordan & Evermann, 1903 1019, 21Stenogobius gymnopomus (Bleeker, 1853) Myripristis botche Cuvier, 1829 1019, 21Stigmatogobius sadanundio (Hamilton, 1822) Myripristis pralinia Cuvier, 1829 10Valenciennea helsdingenii (Bleeker, 1858) 5Myripristis violacea Bleeker, 1851 10Valenciennea puellaris (Tomiyama, 1956) 5Neoniphon samara (Forsskal, 1775) 2, 5Valenciennea sexguttata (Valenciennes, 1837) 5 Neoniphon opercularis (Valenciennes, 1831) 22Valenciennea strigata (Broussonet, 1782) 5Sargocentron diadema (Lacepede, 1803) 1, 520, 22Valenciennea longipinnis (Lay & Bennett, 1839) Sargocentron punctatissimum (Cuvier, 1829) 1Valenciennea muralis (Valenciennes, 1837) 22Sargocentron rubrum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 520, 22Valenciennea helsdingenii (Bleeker, 1858) Sargocentron spiniferum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5Sargocentron caudimaculatum (Rüppell, 1838) 2, 5Family: Gonostomidae18, 21Phosichthys argenteus Hutton, 1872 Family: Istiophoridae18, 201, 6, 13, 14Polymetme corythaeola (Alcock, 1898) Istiophorus platypterus (Shaw and Nodder, 1792)1, 13, 14Makaira indica (Cuvier, 1832)13, 14Family: HaemulidaeMakaira mazara (Jordan & Snyder, 1901)1, 5, 211, 21Diagramma pictum (Thunberg, 1792) Tetrapturus angustirostris Tanaka, 19151, 141, 13, 14Plectorhinchus ceylonensis (Smith, 1956) Tetrapturus audax (Philippi, 1889)Plectorhinchus gibbosus (Lacepede, 1802) 11, 21Plectorhinchus schotaf (Forsskål, 1775) Family: KuhliidaePlectorhinchus lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 7Kuhlia mugil (Forste, 1801) 1Plectorhinchus vittatus (Linnaeus, 1758) 1, 5Kuhlia rupestris (Lacepede, 1802) 1Plectorhinchus albovittatus (Ruppel, 1838) 5, 9Plectorhinchus orientalis (Linnaeus, 1758) 7Family: KurtidaePomadasys argenteus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Kurtus indicus Bloch, 1786 1Pomadasys argyreus (Valenciennes, 1833) 1419

Family: KyphosidaePseudocheilinus hexataenia (Bleeker, 1857) 5Kyphosus cinerascens (Forsskal, 1775) 120, 22Pseudocheilinus octotaenia Jenkins, 1901Pseudojuloides erythrops Randall & Randall, 1981 22Family: LabridaeStethojulis spp. 2Anampses meleagrides Valenciennes, 1840 1Stethojulis bandanensis (Bleeker, 1851) 5Anampses caeruleopunctatus Rüppell, 1829 5Stethojulis trilineata (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 5Anampses lineatus Randall, 1972 5Stethojulis interrupta (Bleeker, 1851) 22Anampses melanurus Bleeker, 1857 22Stethojulis albovittata (Bonnaterre, 1788) 22Bodianus bilunulatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5Stethojulis strigiventer (Bennett, 1833) 22Bodianus diana Lacepede, 1802 1, 5Thalassoma hebraicum (Lacepede, 1801) 2Bodianus axillaris (Bennett, 1832) 2, 5Thalassoma janseni (Bleeker, 1856) 2, 5Bodianus neilli (Day, 1867) 5Thalassoma hardwickii (Bennett, 1830) 2, 5Bodianus macrourus (Lacepède, 1801) 22Thalassoma quinquevittatum (Lay & Bennett, 1839) 2, 51, 20Cheilinus chlorourus (Bloch, 1791)1, 5, 7Thalassoma lunare (Linnaeus, 1758)Cheilinus fasciatus Bloch, 1791 1Thalassoma purpureum (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5Cheilinus trilobatus Lacepede, 1801 1Thalassoma trilobatum (Lacepede, 1801) 1Cheilinus undulatus Ruppell, 1828 1Thalassoma amblycephalum (Bleeker, 1856)Cheilio inermis (Forsskal, 1775) 221Xyrichtys pavo (Valenciennes, 1839)Choerodon anchorago (Bloch, 1791) 1, 51Xyrichtys pentadactylus (Linnaeus, 1758)Choerodon robustus Gunther, 1862 11Cirrhilabrus rubrisquamis Randall & Emery, 1983 5Family: Lactariidae1, 21Coris cuvieri (Bennett, 1831)1, 5, 9Coris aygula Lacepede, 1802Lactarius lactarius (Schneider, 1801) 1Coris frerei Gunther, 1866 1, 5Coris cuvieri (Bennett, 1831) 5Family: LeiognathidaeCoris batuensis (Bleeker, 1856-57) 221, 21Equulites elongatus (Günther, 1874)Diproctacanthus xanthurus (Bleeker, 1856) 22Equulites rivulatus (Temminki & Schlegel, 1845) 181, 201, 21Epibulus insidiator Pallas, 1770 Equulites leuciscus (Günther, 1860)Gomphosus caeruleus Lacepede, 1801 1, 51, 21Eubleekeria splendens (Cuvier, 1829)1, 2, 5Halichoeres hortulanus (Lacepede, 1801) Gazza achlamys Jordan and Starks, 1917 1Halichoeres dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1839) 1, 2 Gazza minuta (Bloch, 1797) 11, 2, 5Halichoeres marginatus (Ruppell, 1835) Leiognathus berbis (Valenciennes, 1835) 11, 2, 5Halichoeres scapularis (Bennett, 1831) Leiognathus brevirostris (Valenciennes, 1835) 1Halichoeres zeylonicus (Bennett, 1832) 1Leiognathus daura (Cuvier, 1829) 1Halichoeres nebulosus (Valenciennes, 1839) 2Leiognathus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1835) 1Halichoeres timorensis (Bleeker, 1852) 2Leiognathus equulus (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 8Leiognathus fasciatus (Lacepede, 1803)Halichoeres leucoxanthus Randall & Smith, 1982 2, 5120, 22Leiognathus lineolatus (Valenciennes, 1835)Halichoeres margaritaceus (Valenciennes, 1839) 11, 21Leiognathus longispinis (Valenciennes, 1835)20, 22Halichoeres notospilus (Günther, 1864)1, 21Nuchequula blochii (Valenciennes, 1835)20, 22Halichoeres biocellatus Schultz, 19601, 21Photopectoralis bindus (Valenciennes, 1835)Halichoerus spp. 2Secutor insidiator (Bloch, 1797) 1Hemigymnus fasciatus (Bloch, 1792) 1, 5Secutor ruconius (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1Hemigymnus melapterus (Bloch, 1791) 1, 5Hologymnosus annulatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1Family: LethrinidaeHologymnosus doliatus (Lacepede, 1801) 11, 20Gnathodentex aureolineatus (Lacepede, 1802)1, 5, 7Labroides dimidiatus (Lacepede, 1839)Gymnocranius elongatus Senta, 1973Labroides bicolor (Fowler and Bean, 1928) 15, 9Gymnocranius grandoculis (Valenciennes, 1830)Macropharyngodon ornatus Randall, 1978 15Gymnocranius griseus (Schlegel, 1844) 1Macropharyngodon meleagris (Valenciennes, 1839) 22Lethrinus conchyliatus (Smith, 1959) 1Novaculichthys taeniourus Lacepede, 1801 1, 5Lethrinus crocineus Smith, 1959 11, 21Oxycheilinus digramma (Lacepède, 1801)Lethrinus harak (Forsskal, 1775) 1Paracheilinus mccoskeri Randall & Harmelin-Vivien,1977 5Lethrinus lentjan (Lacepede, 1802) 1Pseudodax moluccanus (Valenciennes, 1839) 1 Lethrinus mahsena (Forsskal, 1775) 1Lethrinus microdon Valenciennes, 1830 1420

1, 14Lethrinus nebulosus (Forsskal, 1775) Pinjalo pinjalo (Bleeker, 1850) 1Lethrinus obsoletus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Pinjalo lewisi (Randall, Allen and Anderson, 1987) 11, 14Lethrinus olivaceus Valenciennes, 1830 Pristipomoides filamentosus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1Lethrinus ornatus Valenciennes, 1830 1Pristipomoides multidens (Day, 1870) 1Lethrinus rubrioperculatus Sato, 1978 1Pristipomoides sieboldii (Bleeker, 1857) 1Lethrinus semicintus Valenciennes, 1830 11, 14Pristipomoides typus Bleeker, 1852Lethrinus variegates Valenciennes, 1830 1Pristipomoides zonatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1Lethrinus spp. 1Monotaxis grandoculis (Forsskal, 1775) 1Family: MacrouridaeWattsia mossambica (Smith, 1975) 1Caelorinchus flabellispinnis (Alcock 1894) 18Coryphaenoides woodmasoni (Alcock, 1890) 1Family: LobotidaeHymenocephalus heterolepis (Alcock, 1889) 1Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch, 1790) 1Family: MalacanthidaeFamily: LophiidaeMalacanthus brevirostris Guichenot, 1848 5Lophiodes mutilus (Alcock, 1893) 1Malacanthus latovittatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 5Lophiomus setigerus (Vahl, 1797) 1Family: MegalopidaeFamily: LutjanidaeMegalops cyprinoides (Broussonet, 1782) 1Aphareus furca (Lacepede, 1802) 1Aphareus rutilans Cuvier, 1830 1Family: MenidaeAprion virescens Valenciennes, 1830 1Mene maculata (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1Etelis carbunculus Cuvier, 1828 1Etelis coruscans Valenciennes, 1862 1Family: PtereleotridaeEtelis radiosus Anderson, 1981 1Nemateleotris decora Randall & Allen, 1973 5Lipocheilus carnolabrum (Chan, 1970) 1Nemateleotris magnifica Fowler, 1938 51, 14Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskal, 1775)Ptereleotris evides (Jordan & Hubbs, 1925) 5Lutjanus bengalensis (Bloch, 1790) 1Ptereleotris hanae (Jordan & Snyder, 1901) 5Lutjanus biguttatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1Ptereleotris heteroptera (Bleeker, 1855) 5Lutjanus bohar (Forsskal, 1775) 1Ptereleotris microlepis (Bleeker, 1856) 5Lutjanus guilcheri Fourmanoir, 1959 1Ptereleotris zebra (Fowler, 1938) 5Lutjanus johnii (Bloch, 1792) 1Ptereleotris monoptera Randall & Hoese, 1985 22Lutjanus kasmira (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5Lutjanus lemniscatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 1Family: MolidaeLutjanus lunulatus (Park, 1797) 1Mola mola (Linneaus, 1841)Lutjanus lutjanus Bloch, 1790 11Ranzania laevis (Pennant, 1776)Lutjanus madras (Valenciennes, 1831) 11Lutjanus malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1Lutjanus monostigma (Cuvier, 1828) 1Family: MonacanthidaeLutjanus quinquelineatus (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5Acreichthys tomentosus (Linneaus, 1758) 11, 14Lutjanus rivulatus (Cuvier, 1828) Aluterus monoceros (Linneaus, 1758) 11, 21Lutjanus russellii (Bleeker, 1849) Aluterus scriptus (Osbeck, 1765) 1Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier, 1828) 1Amanses scopas (Cuvier, 1829) 2, 5Lutjanus sebae (Cuvier, 1828) 1, 5Anacanthus barbatus (Linneaus, 1758) 11, 20Lutjanus vitta (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) Cantherhines pardalis (Ruppell, 1835) 1Lutjanus decussatus (Cuvier, 1828) 1, 5Oxymonacanthus longirostris (Bloch & Schneider,Lutjanus ehrenbergii (Peters, 1869)1801) 15Lutjanus erythropterus Bloch, 1790Paramonacanthus choirocephalus (Bleeker, 1852) 111, 14Lutjanus fulviflamma (Forsskal, 1775)Paramonacanthus nipponensis (Kamohara, 1939) 1Lutjanus fulvus (Schneider, 1801)Pervagor janthinosoma (Bleeker, 1854) 1, 25Lutjanus gibbus (Forsskal, 1775)Stephanolepis diaspros Fraser-Brunner, 1940 11Macolor niger (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 51, 21Paracaesio sordida Abe and Shinohara, 1962 Family: MonocentridaeParacaesio xanthura Bleeker, 1869 1, 20 1, 21Monocentris japonica (Houttuyn, 1782)421

1, 5, 21, 23Family: MonodactylidaeEchidna nebulosa (Ahl, 1789)Monodactylus argenteus (Linneaus, 1758) 1, 51, 21Echidna xanthospilos (Bleeker, 1859)Monodactylus falciformis Lacepede, 1801 1Echidna polyzona (Richardson, 1845) 22Monodactylus kottelati Pethiyagoda, 1991 1Enchelycore bayeri (Schultz, 1953) 22Gymnomuraena zebra (Shaw, 1797) 5Family: MoridaeGymnothorax favagineus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 5Physiculus argyropastus Alcock, 1893 1Gymnothorax fimbriatus (Bennett, 1831) 1Gymnothorax meleagris (Shaw and Nodder, 1795) 1Family: MoringuidaeGymnothorax pseudothyrsoidea (Bleeker, 1852) 1Moringua bicolor Kaup, 1856 11, 22Gymnothorax punctatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)1, 21Gymnothorax rueppellii (McClelland, 1844)1, 23Gymnothorax undulatus (Lacepede, 1803)Family: Mugilidae2, 23Gymnothorax javanicus (Bleeker, 1859)Liza macrolepis (Smith, 1849) 1Gymnothorax breedeni McCosker & Randall, 1977Liza melinoptera (Valenciennes, 1836) 221Gymnothorax buroensis (Bleeker, 1857)Liza parsia (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 122Liza subviridis (Valenciennes, 1836) 1Gymnothorax chilospilus (Bleeker, 1856) 221, 21Liza tade (Forsskal, 1775) Gymnothorax enigmaticus McCosker & Randall, 1982 22Liza vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1Gymnothorax flavimarginatus (Rüppell, 1830) 22Mugil cephalus Linneaus, 1758 1Gymnothorax herrei Beebe & Tee-Van, 1933 22Oedalechilus labiosus (Valenciennes, 1836) 1Gymnothorax melanospilus (Bennett,) 221, 20Sicamugil cascasia (Hamilton, 1822) Gymnothorax permistus (Smith, 1962) 22Valamugil buchanani (Bleeker, 1853) 1Gymnothorax pindae Smith, 1962 22Valamugil cunnesius (Valenciennes, 1836) 1Gymnothorax polyuranodon (Bleeker, 1853) 22Valamugil seheli (Forsskal, 1775) 1Gymnothorax zonipectis Seale, 1906 22Valamugil speigleri (Bleeker, 1858) 11, 21Gymnothorax pictus (Ahl, 1789)1, 20Gymnothorax thyrsoideus (Richardson, 1845)Family: Mullidae21, 22Gymnothorax griseus (Lacepède, 1803)Mulloidichthys flavolineatus (Lacepede, 1802) 1, 51, 21Pseudechidna brummeri (Bleeker, 1859)Mulloidichthys vanicolensis (Valenciennes, 1831) 1Rhinomuraena quaesita Garman, 1888 5Mulloidichthys mimicus Randall & Gueze, 1980 221, 21Strophidon sathete (Hamilton, 1822)Parupeneus barberinus (Lacepede, 1801) 1Uropterygius concolor (Ruppell, 1835) 1Parupeneus bifasciatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5Uropterygius marmoratus (Lacepede, 1803) 11, 21Parupeneus heptacanthus (Lacepède, 1802)Parupeneus cyclostomus (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5Family: MyctophidaeParupeneus indicus (Shaw, 1803) 1, 518, 21Diaphus knappi Nafpaktitis, 1978Parupeneus macronema (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 51, 21Diaphus splendidus (Brauer, 1904)Parupeneus rubescens (Lacepede, 1801) 1Lampanyctus macropterus (Brauer, 1904) 181, 21Upeneus japonicus (Houttuyn, 1782)Upeneus moluccensis (Bleeker, 1855) 1Family: NemipteridaeUpeneus sulphureus Cuvier, 1829 1Nemipterus bipunctatus (Ehrenberg, 1830) 1Upeneus sundaicus (Bleeker, 1855) 1Nemipterus furcosus (Valenciennes, 1831) 1Upeneus taeniopterus Cuvier, 1829 1Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch, 1791) 1Upeneus tragula Richardson, 1845 1Nemipterus nematophorus (Bleeker, 1853) 1Upeneus vittatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Nemipterus peronii (Valenciennes, 1830) 1Nemipterus randalli Russell, 1986 1Family: MuraenesocidaeNemipterus zysron (Bleeker, 1856-57) 1Congresox talabon (Cuvier, 1829) 1Nemipterus hexodon (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) 18Congresox talabonoides (Bleeker, 1853) 1Parascolopsis aspinosa (Rao and Rao, 1981) 1Muraenesox bagio (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1Parascolopsis eriomma (Jordan and Richardson, 1909) 1Muraenesox cinereus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Parascolopsis inermis (Schlegel, 1843) 11, 21Serrivomer beanii Gill & Ryder, 1883 1, 20Scolopsis bilineata (Bloch, 1793)1, 21Scolopsis bimaculatus Ruppell, 1828Family: Muraenidae1, 21Scolopsis taeniatus (Ehrenberg, 1830)Echidna delicatula (Kaup, 1856) 1 1, 21Scolopsis vosmeri (Bloch, 1792)422

Family: NeoscopelidaeNeoscopelus macrolepidotus Johnson, 1863 18Family: Percophidae1, 18, 21Bembrops caudimacula Steindachner, 1876Family: NomeidaeCubiceps whiteleggii (Waite, 1894)Family: OgcocephalidaeCoelophrys micropa (Alcock, 1891)Halieutaea stellata (Vahl, 1797) 118, 211, 21Family: Ophichthidae19, 21Bascanichthys kirkii (Günther, 1870)19, 21Callechelys marmorata (Bleeker, 1853)19, 21Leiuranus semicinctus (Lay & Bennett, 1839)Muraenichthys gymnopterus (Bleeker, 1853) 19Myrichthys colubrinus (Boddaert, 1781) 5Myrichthys maculosus (Cuvier, 1816) 519, 21Ophichthus rutidoderma (Bleeker, 1853)19, 20Ophichthus apicalis (Anonymous [Bennett], 1830)19, 20Ophichthus altipennis (Kaup, 1856)19, 21Ophichthus polyophthalmus Bleeker, 186419, 20Pisodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson, 1848)Family: OphidiidaeHephthocara simum (Alcock, 1892) 1Monomitopus conjugator (Alcock, 1896) 1Hypopleuron caninum Smith & Radcliffe, 1913Family: OstraciidaeLactoria cornuta (Linnaeus, 1758) 5Lactoria fornasini (Biancorni, 1846) 19Ostracion cubicus Linnaeus, 1758 55, 7, 19Ostracion meleagris Shaw, 1796Ostracion tuberculatum Linnaeus, 1758 7Tetrosomus gibbosus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5Family: ParalepididaeLestidium nudum Gilbert, 1905 1818, 20Family: ParalichthyidaePseudorhombus arsius (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) 1Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogiby, 1912 1Pseudorhombus javanicus (Bleeker, 1853) 1Pseudorhombus malayanus Bleeker, 1866 1Pseudorhombus triocellatus (Schneider, 1801) 1Family: PeristediidaePeristedion riversandersoni Alcoclk, 1894 19Peristedion halyi (Day, 1888) 1919, 21Satyrichthys adeni (Lloyd, 1907)Family: PinguipedidaeParapercis clathrata Ogilby, 1910 5Parapercis cylindrical (Bloch, 1792) 5Parapercis hexophthalma (Ehrenberg, 1829) 1, 5Parapercis millepunctata (Gunther, 1860) 1, 5Parapercis pulchella (Schlegel, 1843) 1Parapercis punctata (Cuvier, 1829) 1Parapercis robinsoni (Fowler, 1932) 1Parapercis signata Randall, 1984 5Family: PlatycephalidaeCociella crocodile (Tilesius, 1812) 1Grammoplites scaber (Linneaus, 1758) 1Grammoplites suppositus (Troschel, 1840) 1Inegocia japonica (Tilesius, 1812) 1Platycephalus indicus (Linneaus, 1758) 1Rogadius pristiger (Cuvier, 1829) 1Rogadius serratus (Cuvier, 1829) 1Sorsogona tuberculata (Cuvier, 1829) 1Suggrundus macracanthus (Bleeker, 1869) 1Family: PlesiopidaePlesiops nigricans (Ruppell, 1828) 1Family: PleuronectidaePoecilopsetta colorata Gunther, 1880 1Poecilopsetta praelonga Alcock, 1894 1Samaris cristatus Gray, 1831 1Samariscus longimanus Norman, 1927 1Family: PlotosidaePlotosus canius Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 1Plotosus limbatus Valenciennes, 1840 1Plotosus lineatus (Thunberg, 1787) 1, 5Family: PolymyxiidaePolymixia japonica Günther, 187718, 21Family: PempheridaePempheris oualensis Cuvier, 1831 2Pempheris schwenkii Bleeker, 1855 2Pempheris vanicolensis Cuvier, 1831 22Parapriacanthus spp. 2Family: PolynemidaeEleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw, 1804) 1Filimanus similis Feltes, 1991 1Filimanus xanthonema (Valenciennes, 1831) 11, 21Leptomelanosoma indicum (Shaw, 1804)1, 21Polydactylus sexfilis (Valenciennes, 1831)1, 21Polydactylus sextarius (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)423

Polynemus plebeius Broussonet, 1782 1Pomacentrus proteus Allen, 1991 2Polynemus paradiseus (Linneaus, 1758) 15, 12Pomacentrus similis Allen, 1991Pomacentrus melanochir Bleeker, 1877 7Family: PomacentridaePomacentrus caeruleus Quoy & Gaimard, 1825 22Abudefduf septemfasciatus (Cuvier, 1830) 2Pomacentrus coelestis Jordan & Starks, 1901 22Abudefduf sordidus (Forsskål, 1775) 2Pomacentrus pavo (Bloch, 1787) 22Abudefduf vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 2, 5 Pomacentrus phillippinus Evermann & Seale, 1907 22Abudefduf saxatilis (Linnaeus, 1758) 7Pomacentrus tripunctatus Cuvier, 1830 22Abudefduf notatus (Day, 1870) 22Pygoplites diacanthus (Boddaert, 1772) 5, 922, 23Abudefduf sexfasciatus (Lacepede, 1801) Stegastes albifasciatus (Schlegel & Müller, 1839) 22Abudefduf bengalensis (Bloch, 1787) 2222, 23Stegastes fasciolatus (Ogilby, 1889)Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster (Bleeker, 1847) 22 Stegastes lividus (Forster, 1801) 225, 12Amphiprion clarkii (Bennett, 1830) Stegastes nigricans (Lacepède, 1802) 22Amphiprion nigripes Regan, 1908 5Stegastes obreptus (Whitley, 1948) 22Amphiprion sebae Bleeker, 1853 5Amphiprion akallopisos Bleeker, 1853 22Family: PomacanthidaeAmphiprion chrysogaster Cuvier, 1830 22Apolemichthys xanthurus (Bennett, 1833) 3, 5Centropyge bispinosus (Gunther, 1860) 5, 9Apolemichthys trimaculatus (Cuvier, 1831) 9Chromis atripectoralis Welander & Schultz, 1951 5 Centropyge flavipectoralis (Randall and Klausewitz,3, 5, 91977)Chromis dimidiata (Klunzinger, 1871) 5Centropyge eibli Klausewitz, 1963Chromis viridis (Cuvier, 1830) 3, 55Centropyge multispinis (Playfair, 1867) 3Chromis caeruleus (Cuvier, 1830) 7Centropyge bispinosus (Gunther, 1860) 5, 9Chromis lepidolepis Bleeker, 1877 22Pomacanthus imperator (Bloch, 1787) 3, 5Chromis nigrura Smith, 1960 223, 5, 7, 23Pomacanthus annularis (Bloch, 1787)Chromis ternatensis (Bleeker, 1856) 223, 5, 7Pomacanthus semicirculatus (Cuvier, 1831)Chromis opercularis (Günther, 1867) 22Pygoplites diacanthus (Boddaert, 1772) 5, 9Chromis weberi Fowler & Bean, 1928 22Chrysiptera brownriggii (Bennett, 1828) 2, 5Family: PriacanthidaeChrysiptera glauca (Cuvier, 1830) 2Cookeolus japonicus (Cuvier, 1829) 1Chrysiptera biocellata (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 2, 5Heteropriacanthus cruentatus (Lacepede, 1801) 1Chrysiptera spp. 2Priacanthus hamrur (Forsskal, 1775) 1Chrysiptera kuiteri (Allan and Rajasuriya, 1995) 5Priacanthus tayenus Richardson, 1846 1Chrysiptera unimaculata (Cuvier, 1830) 22Dascyllus aruanus (Linnaeus, 1758) 5Family: PristigasteridaeDascyllus carneus Fischer, 1885 5Ilisha elongata (Bennett, 1830) 12, 5, 7Dascyllus trimaculatus (Rüppell, 1829)Ilisha filigera (Valenciennes, 1847) 1Lepidozygus tapeinosoma (Bleeker, 1856) 22Ilisha kampeni (Weber and de Beaufort, 1913) 1Neoglyphidodon bonang (Bleeker, 1852) 2Ilisha megaloptera (Swainson, 1839) 1Neoglyphidodon melas (Cuvier, 1830) 22Ilisha melastoma (Schneider, 1801) 1Neopomacentrus azysron (Bleeker, 1877) 2, 5Ilisha obfuscate Wongratana, 1983 1Neopomacentrus cyanomos (Bleeker, 1856) 5Ilisha sirishai Seshagiri Rao, 1975 1Neopomacentrus taeniurus (Bleeker, 1856) 5Ilisha striatula Wongratana, 1983 12, 23Plectroglyphidodon dickii (Liénard, 1839)Opisthopterus tardoore (Cuvier, 1829) 1Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus (Quoy & Gaimard,2, 23Pellona dayi Wongratana, 19831825) 1Pellona ditchela (Valenciennes, 1847)Plectroglyphidodon johnstonianus Fowler & Ball, 1924 122Raconda russeliana Gray, 1831Plectroglyphidodon imparipennis (Vaillant & Sauvage,11875) 22Plectroglyphidodon leucozonus (Bleeker, 1859) 22 Family: PsettodidaePomacentrus chrysurus Cuvier, 1830 2Psettodes erumei (Schneider, 1801) 1Pomacentrus indicus Allen, 1991 2Pomacentrus trilineatus Cuvier, 1830 2424

Family: PseudochromidaeProtonibea diacanthus (Lacepede, 1802) 1Chlidichthys inornatus Lubbock, 1976 5Pterotolithus maculates (Kuhl and Van Hassel, 1830) 1Pseudochromis dilectus Lubbock, 1976 5Pseudochromis fuscus Müller & Troschel, 1849 5 Family: Scombridae1, 6, 13Acanthocybium solandri (Cuvier, 1831)1, 6, 13, 14Family: RachycentridaeAuxis rochei (Risso, 1810)1, 6, 13, 14Auxis thazard (Lacepede, 1800)Rachycentron canadum (Linneaus, 1766) 11, 6, 13, 14Euthynnus affinis (Cantor, 1849)Gymnosarda unicolor (Ruppell, 1838) 1Family: Scaridae1, 6, 13, 14Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1758)Calotomus carolinus (Valenciennes, 1840) 11, 20Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier, 1817)Calotomus spinidens (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1Sarda orientalis (Temminck and Schlegel, 1844) 1Cetoscarus bicolor (Rüppell, 1829) 51, 6, 13, 14Scomberomorus commersoni (Lacepede, 1801)Chlorurus rhakoura Randall & Anderson, 1997 21, 13Scomberomorus guttatus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)Chlorurus atrilunula (Randall & Bruce, 1983) 5Scomberomorus koreanus (Kishinouye, 1915) 11, 21Chlorurus oedema (Snyder, 1909) 1, 13Scomberomorus lineolatus (Cuvier, 1831)1, 21Chlorurus sordidus (Forsskål, 1775) 1, 6, 13, 14Thunnus albacares (Bonnaterre, 1788)21, 22Chlorurus strongylocephalus (Bleeker, 1854)1, 6, 13, 14Thunnus abesus (Lowe, 1839)Hipposcarus harid (Forsskal, 1775) 11, 13Thunnus tonggol (Bleeker, 1851)Leptoscarus vaigiensis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) 1Scarus ghobban Forsskal, 1775 1Family: HowellidaeScarus niger Forsskal, 1775 1Howella sherborni (Norman, 1930) 18Scarus psittacus Forsskal, 1775 1Scarus quoyi Valenciennes, 1840 1Family: ScorpaenidaeScarus rivulatus Valenciennes, 1840 1Scarus rubroviolaceus Bleeker, 1847 121, 22Apistus carinatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)Scarus russelii Valenciennes, 1840 1Choridactylus multibarbus Richardson, 1848 22Scarus frenatus Lacepède, 1802 22Dendrochirus biocellatus (Fowler, 1938) 5Scarus caudofasciatus (Günther, 1862) 22Dendrochirus brachypterus (Cuvier, 1829) 5Dendrochirus zebra (Cuvier, 1829) 5Family: ScatophagidaeInimicus filamentosus (Cuvier, 1829) 22Scatophagus argus (Bloch, 1758) 1Minous monodactylus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 22Pterois antennata (Bloch, 1787) 5Family: SciaenidaePterois russelli Bennett, 1831 5Argyrosomus amoyensis (Bleeker, 1863) 12, 5, 7, 23Pterois volitans (Linnaeus, 1758)Chrysochir aureus (Richardson, 1846) 1Pterois radiata (Cuvier, 1829) 5, 91, 20, 21Daysciaena albida (Cuvier, 1830) Pterois miles (Bennett, 1828) 71, 21Dendrophysa russellii (Cuvier, 1830) Pterois mombasae (Smith, 1957) 22Johnius amblycephalus (Bleeker, 1855) 1Parascorpaena picta (Cuvier, 1829) 2Johnius belangerii (Cuvier, 1830) 1Parascorpaena bleekeri (Day, 1878) 22Johnius carouna (Cuvier, 1830) 120, 22Pseudovespicula dracaena (Cuvier, 1829)Johnius carutta (Bloch, 1793) 1Rhinopias frondosa (Gunther, 1891) 221, 20Johnius elongatus Mohan, 1976Rhinopias eschmeyeri Condé, 1977 22Johnius macropterus (Bleeker, 1853) 1Scorpaenodes parvipinnis (Garrett, 1864) 5Johnius macrorhynus (Mohan, 1976) 1Scorpaenodes guamensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824) 22Johnius mannarensis (Mohan, 1969) 121, 221, 20Scorpaenodes parvipinnis (Garrett, 1864)Johnius trewavasae Sasaki, 19921, 20, 21Scorpaenopsis diabolus (Cuvier, 1829)Johnius borneensis (Bleeker, 1851) 22Kathala axillaris (Cuvier, 1830) 1Scorpaenopsis gibbosa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 22Nibea maculata (Schneider, 1801) 1Scorpaenopsis venosa (Cuvier, 1829) 22Nibea soldado (Lacepede, 1802) 1Scorpaenopsis oxycephala (Bleeker, 1849) 22Otolithes cuvieri Trewavas, 1947 1Setarchus longiceps (Gunther) 22Otolithes ruber (Schneider, 1801) 1Sebastapistes cyanostigma (Bleeker, 1856) 22Otolithoides biauritus (Cantor, 1850) 1Sebastapistes erostris (Alcock, 1896) 22Panna microdon (Bleeker, 1849) 1Sebastapistes strongia (Cuvier, 1829 22Pennahia anea (Bloch, 1793) 1 Synanceia verrucosa Bloch & Schneider, 1801 22425

Synanceia horrida (Linnaeus, 1766) 22Taenianotus triacanthus Lacepede, 1802 22Tetraroge niger (Cuvier, 1829)20, 22Family: Serranidae1, 21Aethaloperca rogaa (Forsskal, 1775)1, 5, 7, 23Cephalopholis argus (Schneider, 1801)Cephalopholis aurantia (Schneider, 1801) 11, 5, 7Cephalopholis boenack (Bloch, 1790)Cephalopholis formosa (Shaw, 1804) 1, 5Cephalopholis leopardus (Lacepede, 1801) 11, 5, 14Cephalopholis minata (Forsskal, 1775)Cephalopholis sexmaculata (Ruppell, 1828) 1, 5Cephalopholis sonnerati (Valenciennes, 1825) 1, 2Cephalopholis urodeta (Forster, 1801) 1Cromileptes altivelis (Valenciennes, 1828) 1Diploprion bifasciatum Cuvier, 1828 1Epinephelus areolatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Epinephelus bleekeri (Vaillant, 1877) 1Epinephelus caeruleopunctatus (Bloch, 1790) 1, 5Epinephelus chlorostigma (Valenciennes, 1828) 1Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton, 1822) 1Epinephelus diacanthus (Valenciennes, 1828) 1Epinephelus erythrurus (Valenciennes, 1828) 1Epinephelus fasciatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Epinephelus faveatus (Valenciennes, 1828) 11, 5, 9Epinephelus flavocaeruleus (Lacepede, 1802)Epinephelus fuscoguttatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Epinephelus hexagonatus (Schneider, 1801) 11, 5, 9Epinephelus lanceolatus (Bloch, 1790)Epinephelus latifasciatus (Temminck and Schlegel,1842) 1Epinephelus longispinis (Kner, 1865) 11, 14Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)1, 23Epinephelus merra Bloch, 1793Epinephelus poecilonotus (Temminck andSchlegel, 1842) 11, 20Epinephelus radiatus (Day, 1867)Epinephelus tauvina (Forsskal, 1775) 1Epinephelus tukula Morgans, 1959 11, 14Epinephelus undulosus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824)Epinephelus rivulatus (Valenciennes, 1830) 22Epinephelus spilotoceps Schultz, 1953 22Grammistes sexlineatus (Thunberg, 1792) 1, 5Plectropomus laevis (Lacepede, 1801) 1, 5Plectropomus pessuliferus (Fowler, 1904) 1Pogonoperca punctata (Valenciennes, 1830) 5Pseudanthias cooperi (Regan, 1902) 5Pseudanthias evansi (Smith, 1954) 5Pseudanthias hypselosoma Bleeker, 1878 5Pseudanthias ignites (Randall & Lubbock, 1981) 5Pseudanthias squamipinnis (Peters, 1855) 5Rabaulichthys stigmaticus Randall & Pyle, 1989 5Variola albimarginata (Baissac, 1952) 1, 5Variola louti (Forsskal, 1775) 1, 5Family SiganidaeSiganus canaliculatus (Park, 1797) 1Siganus javus (Linneaus, 1766) 1Siganus lineatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1Siganus spinus (Linneaus, 1758) 1Siganus stellatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Siganus vermiculatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1Siganus virgatus (Valenciennes, 1835) 1Siganus argenteus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 22Siganus guttatus (Bloch, 1787) 22Family SillaginidaeSillago aeolus Jordan and Evermann, 1902 1Sillago ingenuua McKay, 1985 1Sillago lutea McKay, 1985 1Sillago sihama (Forsskal, 1775) 1Sillago vincenti McKay, 1980 1Family SoleidaeBrachirus orientalis (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)Heteromycteris oculus (Alcock, 1889) 1Solea elongata Day, 1877 11, 21Synaptura commersonnii (Lacepède, 1802)Zebrias quagga Kaup, 1858 1Zebrias synapturoides (Jenkins, 1910) 1Family: SolenostomidaeSolenostomus paradoxus (Pallas, 1770) 1, 5Solenostomus cyanopterus Bleeker, 1854 22Solenostomus spp. 2Family: SparidaeAcanthopagrus berda (Forsskal, 1775) 1Acanthopagrus bifasciatus (Forsskal, 1775) 1Acanthopagrus latus (Houttuyn, 1758) 1Argyrops spinifer (Forsskal, 1775) 1Rhabdosargus sarba (Forsskal, 1775) 1Family: SphyraenidaeSphyraena acutipinnis Day, 1876 1Sphyraena barracuda (Walbaum, 1792) 1Sphyraena forsteri Cuvier, 1829 1Sphyraena jello Cuvier, 1829 1Sphyraena obtusata Cuvier, 1829 1Family: SternoptychidaePolyipnus spinosus Gunther, 1887 18Family: StomiidaeAstronesthes richardsoni (Poey, 1852) 18Stomias nebulosus (Alcock, 1889) 11, 21426

Family StromateidaePampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788) 1Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen, 1788) 1Family: SyngnathidaeCorythoichthys amplexus Dawson & Randall, 1975 519, 21Corythoichthys flavofasciatus (Rüppell, 1838)21, 22Doryrhamphus excisus Kaup, 185620, 22Doryrhamphus janssi (Herald & Randall, 1972)Doryrhamphus spp. 219, 21Halicampus grayi Kaup, 1856Hippocampus kuda Bleeker, 1852 5Hippocampus fuscus Ruppell 1838 22Hippocampus spinosissimus Weber 1913 2219, 20Ichthyocampus carce (Hamilton, 1822)Microphis brachyurus (Bleeker, 1854) 1919, 20Microphis cuncalus (Hamilton, 1822)19, 21Siokunichthys southwelli (Duncker, 1910)Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Bloch, 1785) 1919, 20Trachyrhampus serratus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1850)Trachyrhampus longirostris Kaup, 1856 19Family: ToxotidaeToxotes chatareus (Hamilton – Buchanan, 1822) 1Family: TrachichthyidaeGephyroberyx darwinii (Johnson, 1866) 1Hoplostethus mediterraneus Cuvier, 1829 1Family: TriacanthidaeHalimochirurgus centriscoides Alcock, 1899 18Pseudotriacanthus striglifer (Cantor, 1849) 11, 19Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch, 1786)Family: TrichiuridaeEupleurogrammus glossodon (Bleeker, 1866) 1Eupleurogrammus muticus (Gray, 1831) 1Lepturacanthus pantului (Gupta, 1966) 1Lepturacanthus savala (Cuvier, 1829) 1Trichiurus gangeticus Gupta, 1966 1Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758 1Family: TrichonotidaeTrichonotus setiger Bloch and Schneider, 18011, 20Family: SynodontidaeSaurida nebulosa (Valenciennes, 1849) 1Saurida tumbil (Bloch, 1795) 1Saurida undosquamis Richardson, 1848 1Synodus binotatus Schultz, 1953 1Synodus dermatogenys Fowler, 1912 1Synodus indicus (Day, 1873) 1Synodus jaculum Russell and Cressey, 1979 1Synodus sageneus Waite, 1905 11, 22Synodus variegatus (Lacepede, 1803)Trachinocephalus myops (Forster, 1801) 1Family: TerapontidaePelates quadrilineatus (Bloch, 1790) 1Terapon jarbua (Forsskal, 1775) 1Terapon puta (Cuvier, 1829) 1Terapon theraps (Cuvier, 1829) 1Family: Triglidae1, 21Lepidotrigla longipinnis Alcock, 1890Lepidotrigla faurei (Gilchirst & Thompson, 1914) 1818, 20Pterygotrigla leptacanthus (Günther, 1880)Family: TripterygiidaeTripterigion spp. 2Family: UranoscopidaeIchthyscopus lebeck Bloch and Schneider, 1801Family: VeliferidaeVelifer hypselopterus Bleeker, 1879Family: XiphidaeXiphias gladius Linnaeus, 175818, 211, 6, 13, 141, 21Family: TetraodontidaeArothron nigropunctatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 2, 52, 5, 23Arothron meleagris (Anonymous, 1798)Arothron mappa (Lesson, 1831) 5Arothron hispidus (Linnaeus, 1758) 520, 22Arothron stellatus (Anonymous, 1798)Arothron immaculatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 222, 5, 23Canthigaster solandri (Richardson, 1845)Canthigaster janthinoptera (Bleeker, 1855) 5Canthigaster valentine (Bleeker, 1853) 5Canthigaster coronata (Vaillant & Sauvage, 1875) 7Family: ZanclidaeZanclus cornutus (Linnaeus, 1758)1, 5, 7, 23Family: ZenionidaeZenion leptolepis (Gilchrist & von Bonde, 1924)Cartilaginous Fishes.Sharks.Family: AlopiidaeAlopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788)Alopias superciliosus (Lowe, 1839) 17Alopias pelagicus (Nakamura, 1935) 171, 16, 1718, 21427

Family: CarcharhinidaeIsurus paucus (Guitart Manday, 1966) 171, 17Carcharhinus albimarginatus (Ruppell, 1837) Isurus spp. 141, 16, 17Carcharhinus altimus (Springer, 1950)1, 16, 17Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides (Whitley, 1934) Family: Odontaspididae1, 16, 171, 21Carcharhinus amboinensis (Muller and Henle, 1839) Carcharias tricuspidatus Day, 18781, 16, 1715, 16, 17Carcharhinus brevipinna (Muller and Henle, 1839) Eugomphodus taurus (Rafinesque, 1810)1, 16, 17Carcharhinus dussumieri (Valenciennes, 1839) Odontaspis noronhai (Maul, 1955) 171, 14, 16, 17Carcharhinus falciformis (Bibron, 1839) Odontaspis ferox (Risso, 1810) 171, 16, 17Carcharhinus hemiodon (Valenciennes, 1839)1, 16, 17Carcharhinus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1839) Family: Proscylliidae1, 14, 15, 16, 17Carcharhinus longimanus (Poey, 1861) 1, 16, 17Eridacnis radcliffei Smith, 19131, 16, 17Carcharhinus macloti (Muller and Henle, 1839)Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy and Gaimard, Family: Pseudocarchariidae1, 5, 16, 171824)Pseudocarcharias kamoharai (Matsubara, 1936) 17Carcharhinus plumbeus (Nardo, 1827) 171, 16, 17Carcharhinus sealei (Pietschmann, 1916)Family: Rhincodontidae1, 16, 17Carcharhinus sorrah (Valenciennes, 1839)1, 16, 17Rhincodon typus Smith, 182815, 16, 17Carcharhinus wheeleri (Garrick, 1982)15, 17Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (Bleeker, 1856)Family: ScyliorhinidaeCarcharhinus leucas (Müller & Henle, 1839) 151, 1711, 15, 16, 17 Atelomycterus marmoratus Bennett, 1830Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758)1, 171, 15, 16, 17 Halaelurus hispidus Alcock, 1891Galeocerdo cuvier (Peron and Le Seuer, 1822)Glyphis gangeticus (Müller & Henle, 1839) 1516, 17 Family: SphyrnidaeLamiopsis temmincki (Muller & Henle, 1839)1, 16, 171, 16, 17Loxodon macrorhinus Muller and Henle, 1839 Eusphyra blochii (Cuvier, 1817)1, 16, 171, 16, 17Negaprion acutidens (Ruppell, 1837) Sphyrna lewini (Griffith and Smith, 1834)1, 15, 16, 1715, 17Negaprion brevirostris (Poey. 1868) Sphyrna mokarran (Ruppell, 1837)1, 15, 16, 171, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17Prionace glauca (Linneaus, 1758) Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758)1, 16, 17Rhizoprionodon acutus (Ruppell, 1837)1, 16, 17Rhizoprionodon oligolinx Springer, 1964 Family: Squalidae1, 16, 17Scoliodon laticaudus Muller and Henle, 1838 Centrophorus squamosus (Bonaterre, 1788) 171, 5, 16, 17Triaenodon obesus (Ruppell, 1837) Centroscyllium ornatum (Alcock, 1889) 17Dalatias licha (Bonnaterra, 1788) 17Family: Echinorhinidae1, 16, 17Echinorhinus brucus (Bonnaterre, 1788) Family: Stegostomatidae1, 16, 17Stegostoma fasciatum (Hermann, 1783)Family: Ginglymostomatidae1, 16, 17Nebrius ferrugineus (Lesson, 1830) Family: TriakidaeMustelus manazo (Bleeker, 1854) 171, 16, 17Family: HemigaleidaeMustelus mosis (Hemprich and Ehrenbergh, 1899)1, 16, 17Chaenogaleus macrostoma Bleeker, 18521, 16, 17Hemigaleus microstoma Bleeker, 1852 Batoids.1, 16, 17Hemipristis elongatus (Klunzinger, 1871)Family: Dasyatididae1, 4, 17Family: HemiscylliidaeDasyatis kuhlii (Muller and Henle, 1841)1, 4, 171, 5, 16, 17Chiloscyllium griseum Muller and Henle, 1838 Dasyatis marginatus (Blyth, 1860)1, 5, 16, 17Chiloscyllium indicum (Gmelin, 1789) Dasyatis pastinacus (Linnaeus, 1758) 171, 4, 171, 5, 16, 17Chiloscyllium plagiosum (Bennett, 1830) Dasyatis zugei (Muller and Henle, 1841)1, 17Himantura bleekeri (Blyth, 1860)1, 4, 17Family: HexanchidaeHimantura gerrardi (Gray, 1851)Hexanchus griseus (Bonaterre, 1788) 171, 17, 20Himantura imbricata (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)1, 4, 1716, 17Notorynchus cepedianus (Peron, 1807)Himantura uarnak (Forsskal, 1775)1, 4, 17Pastinachus sephen (Forsskal, 1775)1, 17Family: LamnidaeTaeniura lymma (Forsskal, 1775)1, 17Taeniura meyeni Muller and Henle, 1841Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810 1, 15, 16, 17 1, 17Urogymnus asperrimus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)428

1, 17Family: GymnuridaeNarcine brunnea Annandale, 19091, 171, 17Gymnura poecilura (Shaw, 1804) Narcine timlei (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)Family: MobulidaeFamily: Pristidae1, 17, 20Mobula kuhlii (Valenciennes in Muller and Henle, Anoxypristis cuspidata (Latham, 1794)1, 4, 171841) 1, 17Pristis microdon Latham, 17941, 4, 17Mobula eregoodootenkee (Cuvier, 1829) 1, 17Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851Mobula japanica (Muller and Henle, 1841) 4Mobula tarapacana (Philippi, 1892) 4Family: Rajidae1, 17, 20, 21Fenestraja mamillidens (Alcock, 1889)Family: Myliobatididae1, 4, 14, 17Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790) Family: Rhinobatidae1, 17, 20Aetomylaeus maculatus (Gray, 1834)Glaucostegus granulatus (Cuvier, 1829)1, 17Aetomylaeus nichofii (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)Rhina ancylostoma Bloch and Schneider, 18011, 17Rhinobatos annandalei Norman, 1926Family Rhinopteridae1, 17Rhynchobatus djiddensis (Forsskal, 1775)Rhinoptera adspersa (Muller and Henle, 1841) 1, 17 Rhinopterajavanica (Muller and Henle, 1841)1, 4, 14, 17Total = 1377Family: NarcinidaeNarke dipterygia (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 1, 171, 17, 20, 211, 17References: (For the check list)1. De Bruin, G.H.P. Russell, B.C. & Bogusch, A., 1994. FAO Species Identification Field Guide for FisheryPurpose: The Marine Fishery Resources in Sri Lanka. Rome: FAO.2. Perera, N. & Weerakkody, P., 2004. Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No: 5- A Biodiversity Status Profileof Sub-tidal and Inter-tidal Habitats of the Rekawa, Ussangoda and Kalametiya Area. Colombo: IUCN SriLanka Country Office.3. Rajasuriya, A., n.d. The Present Status of Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka.4. Dalpathadu, K. R., 2011. Study on skate and ray fishery in the southern coast of Sri Lanka. Bsc (Sp.). Universityof Ruhuna, Sri Lanka.5. Long, B. G. et al., 2010. Sri Lanka fisheries atlas volume 1: Status of resources, fisheries and managementinitiatives on sea cucumber, chank, shrimp and marine aquarium fish in the North West, South and East coastof Sri Lanka. Colombo: National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency.6. Dayaratne, P. Maldeniya, R. Amarasooriya, D & Senadhira, R., 1996. Large pelagic fisheries in Sri Lanka:Annual fishery statistics 1995. Colombo: National Aquatic resource Research and Development Agency.7. Claasz, D., 1985. A reef inventory off Wellawatta. Loris, XVII(01), pp. 25-27.8. Lankadhikara, L. M. C. V., 2004. Food and feeding habits of common pony fish Leiognathus equulus in Negomoestuary. Sri Lanka Naturalist, VI(01-02), pp. 10-11.9. Rajasuriya, A., 2004. The marine aquarium fishery in Sri Lanka. Business Lanka, 22(02), pp. 2-8.10. Moosleitner, H., 1998. Myripristis adusta and M. violacea: two new records of holocentrid fishes from Sri Lanka.Journal of South Asian Natural History, 3(1), pp. 53-54.11. De Silva, R. I., 1993. The great white shark Carcharodon carcharias in Sri Lanka. Loris, XX(01),pp. 10-11.12. Christoffelsz, A. Fernando, M. & Rajasuriya, A., 2002. Reef check’ 99: A new threat to the Pigeon Islands’corals?. Sri Lanka Nature, pp. 18-23.13. Jayathilaka, et al., 2010. Atlas of tuna fishery and resources in Sri Lanka – OFCF Tuna Atlas Project in theIOTC Waters: Tuna Atlas Series No. 4. Colombo: National Aquatic resources Research and DevelopmentAgency.14. National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA). 2005. Sri Lanka Fisheries Year book-EXPLANATORY NOTES. [Online] (Updated 12 Feb. 2008).Available at: http://www.nara.ac.lk/ybook2005/explan.html[Accessed 29 October 2012].429

15. De Silva, R. I., 2012. Shark attacks in Sri Lanka. [Online] (Updated 6 February 2012)Available at: http://sharkattacksrilanka.blogspot.com/2012/02/shark-attacks-in-sri-lanka-rex-i.html[Accessed 12 November 2012].16. De Silva, R. I., 1988. The sharks of Sri Lanka: A key to the different species and a preliminary checklist.CEYLON J.SCI. (BIO.SCI.), 17 & 18, pp. 56-66.17. De Silva, R.I., 2006. Taxonomy and status of sharks and rays of Sri Lanka. In: C.N.B. Bambaradeniya, ed. TheFauna of Sri Lanka – status of taxonomy, research and conservation. Colombo. The World Conservation Union(IUCN) Sri Lanka and Government of Sri Lanka, pp. 297-301.18. Munasinghe, N.L.R., 1977. A Description of some Deep Sea Fishes from the Gulf of Mannar and AdjecentWaters. Bull.Fish. Res. Stn. Sri Lanka (Ceylon).19. Munro, I. S. R., 1955. The marine and freshwater fishes of Ceylon. Dept. of External Affairs.20. Froese, R. & Pauly, D. eds., 2012. FishBase [Online] (Updated October 2012)Available at: http://www.fishbase.org/search.php [Accessed 22 November 2012].21. Appeltans, W. et al. eds., 2012. World Register of Marine Species. [Online].Available at: http://www.marinespecies.org [Accessed 22 November 2012].22. Weerakkody, P., 2012. Personal Records. [e-mail] (Personal communication, 12 November, 2012).23. Kumara, P. B. T. P. Cumaranathunga P. R. T. & Linden, O., 2005. Bandaramulla reef of Southern Sri-Lanka:Present status and impacts of coral mining. In: D. Souter & O. Linden, eds. CORDIO. Kalmar, Sweden, pp.233-242.430

Provisional Checklist of the Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Sri LankaR. Gnaneswaran,Department of Zoology, University of Jaffna, JaffnaIntroductionLeafhoppers are small phytophagous insects with a worldwide distribution in almost all habitattypes. They belong to Family Cicadellidae, the largest family in the Suborder Auchenorrhynchaof the Order Hemiptera, which includes more than 22,000 described species in 40 subfamiliesand 98 tribes (Oman et al., 1990; Dietrich, 2005). Phytophagous feeding habit of the adultsand the nymphal stages of leafhoppers results in four types of plant injuries: loss of plant sapdue to feeding, contamination of plant with phytotoxins through injection of toxic saliva whilefeeding, enhancing fungus growth and transmission of disease causing microbes such as virusand phytoplasma. Among the 22,000 known species of leafhoppers, 170 have been reportedas vectors of plant pathogens of cultivated crops.TaxonomySince the description of 130 species by Melichar (1903) and 62 species belonging to 40 generaby Distant (1908, 1916 & 1918), the family Cicadellidae has not been extensively examined inSri Lanka for nearly 80 years. In 1994, Dworakowska has described 76 species of Sri Lankanleafhoppers including 7 genera and 22 species that are new to science, after examining thespecimens located in the Natural History Museum in London. Thereafter, Viraktamath andParvathi (2002) and Viraktamath (2007b) described three new genera and seven new species.This was followed by the description of a new subgenus and a new species by Viraktamath &Gnaneswaran (2009). Finally, Gnaneswaran, et al., (2007, 2008a and 2009) have added onegenus and 5 species with their host plant records, to the list of Sri Lankan leafhopper fauna.Of the 25 subfamilies of Cicadellidae found in the Indian sub-continent 17 are found in SriLanka. At present the leafhopper fauna of Sri Lanka consists of 257 species belonging to 120genera.DistributionLeafhoppers of Sri Lanka are distributed throughout the island and their distribution is mainlyrelated to the vegetation type. Many species recorded from Sri Lanka are known only frommuseum specimens and the information of their ecology and host plant association is notavailable (Melicher, 1903; Distant, 1908, 1916 & 1918). A recent study on leafhoppers in SriLanka by the author (from 2006-2008), revealed more information about species (including thediscovery of new species), their host plant associations and distribution patterns. For instance,Kamaza sadakorni Dworakowska, earlier recorded from Bangkok (Thailand) on Erythrinafusca and Manthal (Jammu and Kashmir, India) on Ficus sp, was found breeding extensivelyon wing bean in Kandy District (Gnaneswaran, et al., 2008). This study further indicated thatspecies richness and abundance of leafhoppers were higher in natural ecosystems comparedto managed ecosystems.431

ThreatsThe majority of leafhoppers except tiny Typhlocybines (which can disperse by wind) aregenerally slow dispersers associated with specialized habitats or limited numbers of host plants.Therefore, these species are potentially threatened by habitat destruction or fragmentationdue to human activities. Only a few species were observed in vegetable plots (S = 25) andpaddy fields (S = 27) compared to Grassland (S=49) and forest with scattered grass patches(S=58) in the Mid country Wet Zone of Sri Lanka (Gnaneswaran, 2010) and species diversityappears to be high in natural habitats. Thus, damage to such natural habitats as a result ofhuman activities pose a major threat to leafhoppers.Research GapsThe natural history of the Sri Lankan leafhoppers has been neglected by native scientistsfor nearly 100 years since the work done by Distant (1918). Their role in the ecosystem wasnot given due consideration apart from being considered as a pest/ disease vector in agroecosystem.Recent studies have led to the discovery of several new species of leafhoppersfrom Sri Lanka. This clearly indicates that there can be more species present in Sri Lankaunknown to science and the need to carry out detail investigation on this less known yeteconomically important faunal group.Recommendations1. An intensive island wide survey should be conducted by academic/research institutions todocument the diversity, density and distribution of the leafhoppers.2. Appropriate molecular biological studies should be promoted within the country to confirmthe taxonomic and vector status of the leafhoppers.3. Ecological studies should be encouraged in different ecosystems throughout the island,with the aim of identifying whether leafhoppers can be used as indicator species tomeasure habitat quality.ReferencesDietrich, C.H., 2005. Keys to the families of Cicadomorpha and subfamilies and tribes of Cicadellidae (Hemiptera:Auchenorhyncha). Fla. Entomol. 88: 502- 517.Dworakowska, I., 1994. Typhlocybinae (Auchenorrhyncha, Cicadellidae) known to occur in Sri Lanka. Ann. Zool.Bot. 216: 3-39.Gnaneswaran, R. 2010. Taxonomy and Ecology of Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in Sri Lanka. PostGraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Ph.D. Thesis , Pp. 243Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra, K.S., Viraktamath , C.A., Ahangama , D., Wijayagunasekara H.N.P., Wahundeniya.I. 2007. Idioscopus nagpurensis (Pruthi) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Idiocerinae): A New Member of MangoLeafhopper Complex in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research. 19: 78 – 90.Gnaneswaran, R, Viraktamath, C.A., Hemachandra,K.S., Ahangama, D., Wijayagunasekara, H.N.P. andWahundeniya,I. 2008 Typhlocybine Leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Cicadellidae) Associated withHorticultural Crops in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agiricultural research. 20: 1-11.Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra,K.S. Ahangama,D . Wijayagunasekara,H.N.P. and Wahundeniya,I, 2008a. Speciesof Nephotettix Matsumura Hemiptera: Auchenorhyncha: Cicaedellidae) Sri Lanka. Short communication:432

Tropical agricultural research. 20: 414-418.Gnaneswaran, R., Hemachandra, K.S., Wijegunasekara, H.N.P. and Ahangama.D., 2009. A Key for identification ofDeltocephaline Genera (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae) Associated with Vegetable ecosystem inSri Lanka. Short communication: Tropical agricultural research. 21: (in Press).Gnaneswaran, R., Viraktamath, C.A. and Hemachandra, K.S., 2009a. Taxonomic studies on Deltocephalineleafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae) of Sri Lanka. At 14 th International Forestry andEnvironment Symposium 2009, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka. 18 th -19 th December 2009. Proceedings Part. I abstractp.62.Oman, P.W., Knight W.J. and Nielson, M.W., 1990. Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) A bibiliography, Generic Check-listand Index to the World Literature 1956-1985. CAB International Institute of Entomology. Wallingford. P.368.Viraktamath, C.A, 2007. New genera and species of idiocerine leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) from India, SriLanka and Myanmar. Biosystematica 1(1):21-30.Viraktamath, C. V and Gnaneswaran, R , 2009. Three new species of Goniagnathus (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) fromthe Indian Subcontinent with description of a new subgenus. Zootaxa, 2224: 51-59.Viraktamath, C. A. and Parvathi, C., 2002. Description of a new Idiocerine Genus Periacerus. Hemiptera:Cicadellidae, and two new species from India and Sri Lanka. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. 99:488-494.433

Provisional Checklist of Leafhoppers in Sri LankaLeafhopper SpeciesDistribution(DZ, WZ,IMZ) Habitat Host plants /at lightSub family: AcostemminaeAcostemma walkeri Kirkakdy WZ H long beanSub family: AgalliinaeAustroagallia bifurcata Sawai Singhand GillDZ, WZ G grass, flower bushAustroagallia quadtrinotata (Melichar) DZ, WZ G grass, flower bushSub family: CicadellinaeAnatkina helena (Distant) WZ F grassAnagonalia melichari (Distant) WZ F grassAtkinsoniella sp. WZ F grassCofana lineata (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grass , paddyCofana spectra (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grass, paddy, brinjalCofana unimaculata (Signoret) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,F grassCofana sp. WZ F grassKolla ceylonica (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ C,P,V,F grass, coconutKolla paulula (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ F, C grassUjna delicatula Distant IMZ F grassUjna sp IMZ F grassSub family: CoelidiinaeCalodia ostenta (Distant) WZ H,F grass, crotonThagria introducta (Distant) WZ F grassSub family: DeltocephalinaeAconeurella sp.I DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grassAconeurella indica DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grassBalclutha rudrostriata (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,P,G grassBalclutha incisa (Mastumura) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G grassBalclutha rosea (Scott) WZ,IMZ V,G grassBalclutha viridinervis Mastumura WZ, IMZ V,G grassBanus oblatus Distant WZ F grassChangwhania ceylonensis (Baker) WZ,IMZ P,G grassChiasmus mustilinus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ G grassChiasmus sp. DZ WZ,IMZ G grassCicadulina bipunctata (Melichar) WZ,IMZ P,G grassExitianus indicus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,F,C grassExitianus nanus (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,F grassGoniagnathus (T.) zeylonicus Viraktamath&GnaneswaranIMZ G grassGoniagnathus (T.) nervosus Distant WZ,IMZ F,G, grass434

Goniagnathus (T.) puntifer (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ C,G grassGoniagnathus (T.) fumosus Distant DZ G grassGoniagnathus (T.) appallans Baker DZ G grassHecalus arcuatus (Motschulsky) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grassHecalus porrectus (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grassHecalus paraumballaensis Rao DZ, WZ H at lightHecalus.ghaurii Rao and Ramakrishnan WZ GgrassHecalus prasinus (Mastumura) DZ G grassHecalus nervosus Melichar WZ G grassHishimonus phycitis (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,T,H,Cgrass. brinjal, tea,coconutLeofa (Leofa) mysorensis (Distant) DZ G grassLitura unda Knight DZ, WZ,IMZ T,G tea, grassMacrosteles vaga (Melichar) WZ G grassMaiestas distincta (Motschulsky) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G grassMaiestas portica (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ P.G grassP,V,GMaiestas dorsalis (Motschulsky)Paddy, grass,DZ, WZ,IMZcoconutMaiestas sp, DZ G grassMonobazus fuscovarious (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ F,G,O,S Grass,Nephotettix parvas Ishihara & Kiwase DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,V paddy, grassNephotettix virescencs (Distant) Pruthi DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G.C paddy, grassNephotettix malayanus shihara and Kawase DZ, WZ,IMZ P,Gpaddy, grassNephotettix nigropictus (Stal) DZ, WZ,IMZ P,G,V paddy, grassNeohotettix sympatricus Ghauri DZ, WZ,IMZ G GrassOrosius albicinctus Distant WZ,IMZ V,O grass, mangoPlatyrectus marginatus Melichar WZ,IMZ F,G,C GrassScaphoideus morosus Melichar WZ F,G,C Grass and at lightScaphoideus sculptellus Virak. & MohanWZF,GgrassScaphotettix sp. IMZ F grassStirellus sp I. WZ G grassStirellus sp II DZ, WZ G grassStirellus indra (Distant) DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,C grassStirellus jacosa Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ V,G,G grassYuanamia sp. New WZ G grassSubfamily: LassinaeBatrocomorphus sp. I DZ, WZ F,G grassBatrocomorphus sp. II DZ,IMZ F,G grassBatrocomorphus sp.III DZ F,G grass435

Krisna sp.female onlyWZHmussaenda andat lightSub family: IdiocerinaeAmritodus brevistylus Viraktamath. DZ, WZ,IMZ O,H,F mangoBusoniomimus manjunaththi Virak.& ViraDZ, WZ,IMZFcloveJogocerus freytagi Viraktamath IMZ F attariyaIdioscopus nitidulus (Walker) DZ, WZ,IMZ O,H,F mango, asokaIdioscopus nagpurensis (Pruthi)DZ, WZ,IMZO,H,Fmango, jampola, cocoaavocado,na, rambuttan,carambola,teak, pepper,coffeeO,H,F mango, jampola,Idioscopus clypealis (Lethierry)avocado, na, rambutan,DZ, WZ,IMZteak ,cocoa carambola,teak,pepper, coffee.Idioscopus unimaculatus (Melichar) WZ F badulla, naSub family: LedrinaePetacephala sp. IMZ G,C grassSub family : MacropsinaePediopsoides (Pediopsoids) sp. WZ F,G grassMacropsis sp. WZ F,G grassSub family: NirvaninaeKana thoracica Distant WZ F,G grassNirvana pallida Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ V,F.G grassNirvana suturalis Melichar WZ F,G grassSophonia longitudinalis (Distant) WZ F,G grassSub family: PenthiminaeNeodartus acocephaloides Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ F,G,V grassUzelina thaloriensis Sharma WZ F grassPenthimia sp. WZ F grassThambila sp. WZ F grassSub family : SelanocephalinaeBhatia olivercea Melichar WZ F,G grassBhatia Distanti Zang and Webb WZ F,G grassDrabescus conspicuus Distant WZ F,G grassDrabescus stramineus Distant WZ F,G grassKutata transversa Zang and Webb WZ F,G grassSubfamily: SignoretinaePreta gratiosa Melichar DZ, WZ,IMZ G grassSub family: Typhlocybinae436

Alebroides nigroscutellata (Distant) WZ G grass, at lightV, H brinjal, okra, bitter-gourd,Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida)DZ, WZ,IMZpotato, cow pea. at lightAmrasca splendens Ghauri DZ, WZ O, H mango, asoka, ,at lightBaguoidea rubra (Melichar) WZ H at lightEmpoasca sp.WZ,IMZO,Hmango, rambutan, cocoaEmpoascanara (E.) maculifrons Dworak.DZ, WZ,IMZP,V,GgrassEmpoascanara (E.) cilla Dworak. DZ, WZ,IMZ P,V,G grassEmpoascanara (Bza) regularis Dworak. WZFgrass, at lightEmpoasca (Empoasca) triangularis Dworak. WZ Vagati, beat root , carrot,brinjal, bush bean, longbean, castorFaiga dropica Dwarakowsha WZ Fgrass, at lightApheliona bioculata (Melichar) WZ F,G grassHeliona constricta Melichar WZ F,H at lightKamaza sadakorni Dworakowska WZ V,H winged beanLankasca centromaculata (Melichar) DZ, WZ,IMZ O,F,cocoa, mousey mi, atlightF,OWZ,IMZmango,rambuttanMotschulskyia (Togaritettix) serratus (Mats.)at lightSeriana sagara Dworakowska WZ F,G grassSeriana sp I WZ F,G,C indian almondThaia subrufa (Motschulsky) WZ P,G grassThia (Nlunga) sp. WZ G grassUzeldikra citrina (Melichar) WZ G grassVelu caricae Ghauri WZ F, at lightSub family : XestocephalinaeXestocephalus sp. WZ,IMZ F at lightHabitat:C-Coconut estate; F- Forest; G- Grass land; H-Home garden; O- Ochard: P- Paddy; T- Tea estate;V- Vegetable garden;Ecological Zone: DZ- Dry Zone; WZ- Wet Zone; IMZ- Intermediate Zone437

A Provisional Checklist of Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Sri LankaEnoka P. Kudavidanage and Deepchandi LekamgeDepartment of Natural Resources, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Beihul OyaIntroductionDung beetles are scavengers that feed and breed on dung, carrion, decaying fungi, or litter.The Scarabaeinae subfamily comprises about 4,500 described species known as true dungbeetles exclusively feeding on dung. There are dung-feeding beetles in other families, suchas the Geotrupidae (the earth-boring dung beetles) and Aphodiinae. Aphodiinae beetles arerelatively small and comprise the bulk of dung dwellers. Scarabaeinae are more commonin tropical regions, but in northern latitudes Aphodiinae tend to dominate the dung beetleassemblage. Dung beetles mainly use herbivore and omnivore dung, particularly frommammals, but occasionally from birds and reptiles. They provide several ecological servicessuch as waste removal, secondary seed dispersal and vertebrate parasite suppression. Dungbeetles are characterized by how they process dung. These groups are called guilds or cladesof which there are four rollers (telecoprid nesters), tunnelers (paracoprid nesters), dwellers(endocoprid nesters) and kleptoparasites. Dung beetles have well-understood ecological rolesand species composition is known to changes distinctly across habitat types.TaxonomyScarabaeinae dung beetles of Sri Lanka have been recorded in two classic, regional volumescovering parts of South Asia, Arrow 1931 and Balthasar 1963. These volumes cover thediversity of lamellicorn beetles in a wide geographical region from Sri Lanka, India, ChinaJava and Arabia. The Monograph of the Scarabaeidae and Aphodiidae of the Palaearctic andOriental region Coleoptera: Lamellicornia by Vladimir Balthasar (1963) includes fifty dungbeetle species found in Sri Lanka, whereas the whole volume describes the distribution ofdung beetles in Europe, Central, South and Southeast Asia. Prior to Arrow’s (1931) relativelycomprehensive publication on the Sri Lankan lamellicorn fauna (beetles with lamellate terminalsegments in the antennae; includes the scarabaeids and stag beetles), a single paper brieflydiscussed some of the lamellicorns collected in Sri Lanka by Gille, 1924. It records 47 speciesfrom three subfamilies: Coprinae, Aphodiiane and Troginae. More recent work includes a studyon the diversity of dung beetles in dung of cattle and buffalo conducted in Kandy, Sri Lanka(Nawodinee & Edirisinghe, 2007) and a four year ecological study that assessed the effectsof habitat fragmentation and land use change on dung beetle communities of the lowlandwet zone of Sri Lanka (Kudavidanage, 2012). This was coupled with an island-wide survey todocument the species distributions of dung beetle across the bio-climatic zones of Sri Lanka(Kudavidanage, 2012; Lekamge, in preparation). The geographic distribution of dung beetlessampled was compared with the historical distributions indicated by Arrow (1931) to identifypossible changes in distribution patterns. Specimen collected were identified through theassistance of the National Museum of Sri Lanka, Ashoka Trust of India, the British Museum ofNatural History, the ScarabNet Global Taxon Database Version 1.5 and and primarily, OxfordUniversity Museum of Natural History which supported the taxonomic work. The checklist isyet to be completed in collaboration with the above institutes. The current list consists of allScarabaeinae dung beetles recorded in Sri Lanka including species recorded by Arrow (1931),438

Balthasar (1963), ScarabNet, the ScarabNet Global Taxon Database Version 1.5, specimencollections at the National Museum of Sri Lanka, Oxford University Museum of Natural History,British Museum of Natural History, and species recorded during the field surveys. Potentiallynew species and dung/dung dwelling beetles of other families/sub families (Aphodiinae,Hystaridae, Cyanidae, Elataridae, Chrysomalidae, Trogidae, Bostrichidae and Scirtidae) areexcluded from this list.DistributionScarabNet Global Taxon Database lists 81 species of Scarabaeinae beetles belonging to eighttribes from Sri Lanka. The most recent study identified 103 species of the same tribes. Out ofthe 103 species listed for Sri Lanka, 21 species (21%) are endemic while 63 species (61%)are found in the Indo-Sri Lankan region. The remaining species show a wider distribution.However, these numbers are likely to change once the ongoing survey and taxonomic work iscompleted including the description of several potentially new species. Some of the endemicsrecorded recently were previously only known from the type specimen (i.e., Sysiphus tarantula,which was collected from the same location as the type).Genus Onthophagus comprises of thehighest number of species found in Sri Lanka. These include species that show an island widedistribution (i.e. Onthophagus unifaciatus, O. Cervus,O. spinifex) as well as species showingrestricted distribution (i.e Onthophagus martialis, O. igneus), where some species showing aclear restriction to certain bio-geographical zones (i.e Onthophagus fuscopunctatus - restrictedto coastal areas in the dry and arid zones). Catharcius molossus, Sisyphus longipes and Coprissignatus are the most commonly found species while Catharcius molossus, is the largesttunneler beetle recorded in Sri Lanka. This species often visit homes attracted by the light.There are distinctive differences between dry and wet zone communities which can beattributed to the environmental conditions and the distribution of large mammals. Dry zonehas the highest species richness and abundance of dung beetles. The wet zone supports adiverse dung beetle assemblage; however, biomass per unit area is much low compared tothe dry zone. The number of species recorded from the montane zone clearly was less thanthat of the other zones. Paragymnopleurus melanarius is the largest roller species found inthe wet zone while Scarabaeus gangeticus, the largest crepuscular roller beetle found in SriLanka, display a clear habitat preference to the dry and arid zones (sandy soil) where cattleand other large mammals are abundant. Genus Ochicanthon is represented by four species inthe Sri Lanka and two of them (O. cingalense and O. triste) were only recorded in the montanezone above 1200 m asl. Panelus setosus was found only in the low and mid country wet zoneand Caccobius. ultor, C. lilliputanus, O. ludio in the low-country intermediate zone. The generaParaliatongus, Euoniticellus, Drepanocerus and Panelus were represented by single speciesonly. More intense sampling is required with multiple bait types and sampling methods toestablish the final geographic range of each species.Some of the species in historical records were not found during the present survey. For exampleonly one species in the genus Scarabaeus, S. gangeticus, was found in the present study. Theother two species, Scarabaeus erichsoni and Scarabaeus sanctus, were not recorded. Further,Onthophagus regalis and O. questus recorded by Arrow (1931) were also not recorded duringthis study. Several previously recorded species from the genera Gymnopleurus, Caccobius,439

Onthophagus and Panelus were also not recorded during extensive surveys. Five out of theknown six Gymnopleurus species were found except G. Smaragdifer.Shifts in the distribution patterns were also observed for some species. For instance, P.melanarius that was known to be widely distributed across the wet zone in the past wasrecorded only from relatively undisturbed areas and good forests during this survey. Caccobiusunicornis which was only recorded from the wet zone by Arrow (1931) was also found the in dryzone. Likewise, Onthophagus laevigatus that was earlier recorded in the wet-zone, was onlyrecorded from the dry and arid zones during our survey.The distribution of Scarabaeinae beetles can be attributed to species-specific habitatpreferences interacting with climatic/geographic variation across the island and anthropogenicmodifications of habitats. Spatial diversity is influenced primarily by climate, elevation, vegetationtypes, available dung types and microhabitat conditions created by canopy, shrub cover, soiland litter properties. These directly affect predation, foraging and reproduction of dung beetles.Mammals are the major suppliers of dung resources. Although diversity and endemism of themammals are high in the wet and montane zones, the dry zone forests contain most of thelarge mammals that are the primary suppliers of dung. The species richness of dung beetlestends to increase with rainfall. Dung beetles reproduce during rainy reasons, leading to moredung burial for egg laying. Community structure, abundance and diversity, are often negativelycorrelated with elevation. Lower productivity at higher elevations is suggested as one of thereasons for this decline. Further, body size of a species is considered to be a function ofenvironmental productivity. This is consistent with the findings of this survey where smallerspecies were found to dominate the species assemblage in the montane zone while large andmedium sized species were more abundant in all other zones.Threats and conservation prioritiesDung beetles are strongly influenced by climate change, forest modification, deforestation andalteration of microhabitat conditions. Large dung beetles are especially susceptible to the lossof forest cover. For instance, P. melrnarius, is vulnerable to loss of forest cover and populationsdecrease rapidly in open, modified areas. Change of favourable environmental conditions cansignificantly alter forest dung beetle communities. Forest loss results in increased predation bynatural enemies, and loss of mammals providing dung resources. Sri Lanka has undergonemassive loss of forest cover in the last century. With few exceptions, the effects of thesechanges on the insect fauna are virtually unknown. It is known that native, forest-inhabitingdung beetle species undergo local extinction in areas where tree cover has disappeared. Inaddition, deforestation in the wet zone during the 19 th century caused many large mammalsto move to the dry zone. Large mammals in the wet zone are mostly restricted to forests andexist in small populations.Altered habitats are often replaced by different communities that are more adapted to newconditions. In the dry and arid zones, large beetles like Scrabaeus gangeticus appear to behighly adapted to open environments and take advantage of the surfeit of dung. However, inthe wet zone, dung beetle biomass is high in forest habitats compared to open modified areas.Some of the modified open habitats of the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka are occupied bydung beetle communities that are much less functionally efficient than the forest communitiesoccupying the same area.440

Forest dwelling dung beetles may benefit from good forest cover and increased connectivitybetween forest fragments. Sustainable management of modified habitats to increase habitatcomplexity, shade and soil quality and availability of dung resources through the presence ofmammals can favour healthy dung beetle communities. Overuse of pesticides and fertilizer isa known threat to dung beetles elsewhere. Use of pesticides and other chemicals in intenselycultivated areas adjoining large forests and fragments may have detrimental effects.Community education efforts can greatly contribute to the sustainable management of humanmodified areas. Importance of dung beetles and their ecological services, specifically their rolein enhancing soil fertility are not well known and understood by the local communities. Wantondestruction of dung beetles is an issue infrequently discussed. Catharsius molossus is oftenburned in rural areas due to a mythological belief among tea plantations workers.Collecting and killing of Scarabaeus gangaticus was observed in the arid agricultural areas.Awareness development can reduce negative impacts of human activities and facilitate morebiodiversity friendly anthropogenic habitats.Research needs and recommendationsThe “imbalance in the number of collections, experts, and species” is a common problem facedby many countries in the Asian region including Sri Lanka. Many Sri Lankan invertebratesare less known, revised taxonomic keys are rarely available, and reference collections withtype specimens are primarily found in European museums. On the Indian subcontinent, thetaxonomy of most invertebrate groups has not been revised since the publication of the Fauna ofBritish India series in the mid-1900s. Constraints of limited access to reference specimens andlack of taxonomic expertise encountered at the initial stages of the recent dung beetle surveywere tackled through resources and collaboration provided by the Oxford University Museumof Natural History. The completion of the dung beetle checklist for Sri Lanka, establishingthe status of species and description of new species will require a greater sampling effortconsidering geographical, microhabitat, seasonal and food habit variations expressed by dungbeetles. Further, more sampling is required to verify if the absence of previously recordedspecies. All endemic species recorded in the present study were found in the wet zone, and mostwere rare. This could be attributed either to natural rarity or to endemics being more vulnerableto disturbances in this landscape. Clear morphological variations were observed within certainspecies indicating the need for in depth taxonomic revision of Scarabaeinae dung beetles.Shifting distribution of species ranges were observed by comparing current records with thepublished historical records, and the locations of specimens from multiple museums. Theseshould be interpreted in the light of changing natural habitats, climate change and resourceavailability. The recent inclusion of dung beetles in the global IUCN database marked a turningpoint in dung beetles conservation. Globally, more than 12% of the dung beetle species arethreatened, and most have a restricted range, or are rare forest-dwelling species. The impactsof deforestation and land use change are heavily impinging on faunal communities. Recentstudies conducted in Sri Lanka using dung beetles as an indicator of habitat change highlightsthe importance of assessing faunal community and functional responses to habitat disturbance.441

ReferencesArrow, G.J. 1931. The Fauna of the British India, including Ceylon and Burma. In: Coleoptera Lamellicornia Part III(Coprinae). Taylor and Francis, London, 428 pp.Balthasar, V. 1963. Monograph of the Scarabaeidae and Aphodiidae of the Palaearctic and Oriental regionsColeoptera: Lamellicornia. Volume 1 (Publishing house of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences) Prague.Kudavidanage, E. P. 2011. Effects of land use change and forest fragmentation on the biodiversity and ecosystemfunctioning in the tropical lowlands of Sri Lanka. PhD Thesis. National University of Singapore.Kudavidanage, E. P., Qie, L. & Lee, J. S. H. 2012. Linking biodiversity and ecosystem functioning of dung beetlesin South and Southeast Asian tropical rainforests. Raffles Bulletin for Zoology, Supplement No. 25, 141-154.Nichols, E., Larsen, T., Spector, S., Davis, A.L., Escobar, F., Favila, M., and Vuline, K. 2007. Global dung beetleresponse to tropical forest modification and fragmentation: A quantitative literature review and meta-analysis.Biol Conserv 137, 1-19.442

A Provisional Checklist of Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) of Sri LankaTribe: CanthoniniOchicanthon cingalense Arrow, 1931 ROchicanthon tristis Arrow, 1931 RPanelus puncticollis Arrow, 1931 RPanelus setosus Arrow, 1931 RPanelus imitator Balthasar, 1972 RPanelus ceylonicus Balthasar, 1972 RPanelus fallax Balthasar, 1972 RPanelus pernitidus Balthasar, 1972 RTribe: CopriniCatharsius capucinus Fabricius, 1781 TCatharsiu granulates Sharp, 1875 TCatharsius molossus Linnaeus, 1758 TCatharsius pethecius Fabricius 1775 TCopris repertus Walker, 1858 TCopris sodalis Walker, 1858 TCopris fricator Fabricius, 1787 TCopris indicus Harold, 1867 TParacopris signatus Walker, 1858 THeliocopris bucephalus Fabricius, 1775 TTribe: GymnopleuriniGymnopleurus cyaneus Fabricius, 1798 RGymnopleurus (Garreta) smaragdifer Walker, 1858 RGymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) koenigiFabricius, 1775 RGymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) miliarisFabricius, 1775 RGymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) parvus MacLeay,1821 RGymnopleurus (Metagymnopleurus) gemmatusHarold, 1871 RParaymnopleurus melanarious Harold, 1867 RTribe: OniticelliniDrepanocerus setosus Wiedemann, 1823 REuoniticellus pallipes Fabricius, 1781 DLiatongus (Paraliatongus) rhadamistus Fabricius,1775 DTribe: OnitiniOntis philemon Fabricius, 1801 DOntis singhalensis Lansberge, 1875 DOntis subopacus Arrow, 1931 DTribe: OnthophaginiCaccobius rufipennis Motschulsky, 1858 DCaccobius (Caccophilus) indicus Harold, 1867 DCaccobius (Caccophilus) aterrimus Fabricius, 1798 DCaccobius (Caccophilus) diminutives Walker, 1858 DCaccobius(Caccophilus) meridionalis Boucomont,1914 DCaccobius(Caccophilus) unicornis Fabricius, 1798 DCaccobius(Caccophilus) vulcanus Fabricius, 1801 DCaccobius (Caccophilus) ultor Sharp, 1875 DCleptocaccobius durantoni Cambefort, 1985 DCleptocaccobius (Caccophilus inermis Arrow, 1931 DHaroldius krali Utsunomiya & Masumoto, 2000 DHaroldius herrenorum Paulian, 1985 DOnthophagus amphinasus TOnthophagus centricornis Fabricius, 1798 TOnthophagus cervus Fabricius, 1798 TOnthophagus cryptogenus Boucomont, 1914 TOnthophagus difficilis Walker, 1858 TOnthophagus ensifer Boucomont, 1914 TOnthophagus favrei Boucomont, 1914 TOnthophagus fuscopunctatus Fabricius, 1798 TOnthophagus gemmaOnthophagus gravis Walker, 1858 TOnthophagus hystrix Boucomont, 1914 TOnthophagus igneus Vigor, 1825 TOnthophagus keiseri Frey, 1956 TOnthophagus laevigatus Fabricius, 1798 TOnthophagus ludio Boucomont, 1914 TOnthophagus (Furconthophagus) lilliputanusLansberge, 1883 TOnthophagus martialis Boucomont, 1914 TOnthophagus militaris Boucomont, 1914 TOnthophagus castetsiOnthophagus negligens Walker, 1858 TOnthophagus parvulus Fabricius, 1798 TOnthophagus politus Fabricius, 1798 TOnthophagus pusillus Fabricius, 1798 TOnthophagus pygmaeus Schaller, 1783 TOnthophagus refulgens Arrow, 1931?? TOnthophagus regalis Arrow, 1907 TOnthophagus spinifex Fabricius, 1881 TOnthophagus taprobanus Arrow, 1931 TOnthophagus tritinctus Boucomont, 1914 TOnthophagus turbatus Walker, 1858 TOnthophagus troglodyte (Wiedemann, 1823) TOnthophagus unifasciatus Schaller, 1783 T443

Onthophagus gemma Sharp, 1875 TOnthophagus refulgensOnthophagus heterorrhinus Lansberge, 1885 TOnthophagus sparsepunctatus Frey, 1956 TOnthophagus (C.) occipitalis Lansberge, 1885 TOnthophagus (C.) quadridentatus Fabricius, 1798 TOnthophagus (Digionthophagus) bonasus Fabricius,1775 TOnthophagus (Digionthophagus) gazella (catta)Fabricius, 1787 TOnthophagus (Micronthophagus) ochreatusd’Orbigny, 1897 TOnthophagus (Micronthophagus) oculatus Arrow,1931 TOnthophagus (Onthophagiellus) solmaniStebnicka, 1975 TOnthophagus (Proagoderus) pactolus Fabricius, 1787TOnthophagus (Colobonthophagus) dama Fabricius,1798 TOnthophagus(Paraphanaeomorphus) bifaciatusFabricius 1781 TOnthophagus (Parascatonomus) quaestus Sharp,1875 TOnthophagus (Proagoderus) gemmatus Peringuey,1901 TOnthophagus(Serrophorus) rectecornutusLansberge, 1883 TPhaedotrogus ceylonicus Balthasar, 1972 TPhalops divisus Wiedemann, 1823 TTribe: ScarabaeiniScarabaeus gangeticus Castelnau, 1840 RScarabaeus sanctus Fabricius, 1798 RScarabaeus (Kheper) erichsoni Harold, 1867 RTribe: SisyphiniNeosisyphus tarantula Arrow, 1909 RSisyphus longipes Olivier, 1789 RSisyphus indicus Hope, 1831 RSisyphus (Crispatus) hirtus Wiedemann, 1823 RFunctional groups: R= roller; T= tunneler;D= dweller444

Records of Centipede Fauna In Sri LankaDuminda S. B. Dissanayake and Sriyani WickramasingheDepartment of Biological Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences,Rajarata University of Sri LankaIntroductionSri Lanka, even though a small island is listed as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world(Bossuyt et al., 2004; Myers et al., 2000). Most invertebrate fauna of Sri Lanka have beeninadequately studied both in terms of their diversity and conservation priorities (Attems 1930;Balan et al., 2012; IUCN Sri Lanka and MoENR 2007; Sureshan et al., 2006). Sri Lanka consistsof miscellaneous geographic and climatic zones joined with vast environment diversity andmaintains a rich diversity of species in the whole island. This has been comprehensive for floraand fauna especially in vertebrates fauna and several invertebrate fauna too (Bambaradeniya2006). Centipedes are not as popular as Butterflies, Dragonflies and Fresh water crabs.The last comprehensive study was conducted more than a century ago by several foreignresearchers such as Newport (1845), A. Humbert (1865), Haase (1887), R.I Pocock (1892),Verhoeff (1905), F. Silvestri (1903). In 1973 E.H Eason described a new centipedes fauna fromthe collection by R.I Pocock from 1890 to 1901 in British Natural History Museum. There is noinvolvement of local researchers in centipedes’ taxonomy in Sri Lanka.Literature review is in progress by the authors contributing to a significant revision of ourunderstanding of the actual diversity of Centipedes in the Sri Lanka. Aims of this paper areto provide a check list of centipede fauna of Sri Lanka and to highlight research gaps andpriorities for further investigation.Materials And MethodsAll scientific names of centipedes cited by Pocock in Vol. 7 (1892) of the Journal of the BombayNatural History Society are recorded below in checklist format. The checklist was completedwith author and year of each name, current order and family in which the species is placed andthe current valid name. The information incorporated in this checklist includes the synonymsof each species. For the delegation of the current valid names for each species, the latesttaxonomic scrutiny reference was reviewed. The authors follow the works of Newport G. (1844),Templeton R. (1846), Haase E. (1887), Silvestri F. (1919), Verhoeff K.W. (1925), Attems C.(1930, 1947), Dowdy W.W. (1951), Koch L.E. (1983, 1985) Eason E.H. (1990), Shelley R.M.(2000), Edgecombe G.D & Giribet G. (2004, 2009), Lewis J, Edgecombe G, Shelley R (2005),Edgecombe G.D (2011), Edgecombe and Bonato (2011) and Schileyko A.A & Stagl V. (2004).Also, all current valid names were checked with the use of the online database Chilobase(Minelli et al., 2006).Results And DiscussionAccording to literature the centipedes of Sri Lanka belong to four orders, representing sixfamilies. The total centipedes species in Sri Lanka described to date includes 19 species;classified under Order Scolopendromorpha (Family Scolopendridae – 12 species), OrderGeophilomorpha (Family Mecistocephalidae – 2 species, Oryidae – 1 species), Order445

Lithobiomorpha (Family Lithobiidae – 2 species) Order Scutigeromorpha (Family Scutigerinidae– 1 species, Family Scutigeridae – 1 species).List of the SpeciesOrder - Scolopendromorpha Pocock, 1895Family - Scolopendridae Newport, 18441). Scolopendra hardwickei Newport, 1844 Synonym(s): Scolopendra bicolor Humbert,1865, Scolopendra histrionica C.L. Koch, 18472). Scolopendra crassa Templeton, 18463). Scolopendra subspinipes Leach, 1815. Synonym(s): Otostigmus politoides Attems,1953, Otostigmus politoides Attems, 1953, Otostigmus puncticeps Attems, 1953,Rhombocephalus gambiae Newport, 1845, Rhombocephalus smaragdinus Butler, 1876,Scolopendra aringensis Sinclair, 1901, Scolopendra atra Wood, 1861, Scolopendraaudax Gervais, 1837, Scolopendra aurantipes Tömösváry, 1885, Scolopendra bispinipesWood, 1862, Scolopendra borbonica Blanchard, 1844, Scolopendra byssina Wood,1861, Scolopendra cephalica Wood, 1861, Scolopendra ceylonensis Newport, 1845,Scolopendra damnosa L. Koch, 1878, Scolopendra dinodon Wood, 1861, Scolopendraelongata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra flava Newport, 1845, Scolopendra flavicornisTömösváry, 1885, Scolopendra gervaisii Newport, 1845, Scolopendra gracilipes Wood,1861, Scolopendra lutea Newport, 1845, Scolopendra machaeropus Attems, 1900,Scolopendra macracanthus Bollman, 1889, Scolopendra mactans C.L. Koch, 1847,Scolopendra meyeri Haase, 1887, Scolopendra nesuphila Wood, 1862, Scolopendranewporti Lucas, 1849, Scolopendra ornata Newport, 1845, Scolopendra parvidensWood, 1861, Scolopendra placeae Newport, 1845, Scolopendra planiceps Newport,1845, scolopendra plumbeolata Wood, 1861, Scolopendra polyodonta Daday, 1893,Scolopendra rarispina Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra repens Wood, 1862, colopendrarugosa Meinert, 1886, Scolopendra sandwichiana Gervais, 1847, Scolopendraseptemspinosa Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra sexspinosa Newport, 1844, Scolopendrasulphurea C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra variispinosa Tömösváry, 1885, Scolopendracephalica gracilis Wood, 1861, Scolopendra subspinipes gracilipes Daday, 1891,Scolopendra subspinipes molleri Verhoeff, 18924). Cormocephalus sarasinorum Haase, 18875). Cormocephalus inermipes Pocock, 18916). Rhysida ceylonica Gravely, 19127). Rhysida longipes Newport, 1845. Synonym(s): Branchiostoma affine Kohlrausch, 1878,Branchiostoma gracile Kohlrausch, 1878, Branchiostoma longipes rotundatum Haase,1887, Otostigmus simplex Chamberlin, 1913, Rhysida yanagiharai Takakuwa, 19358). Rhysida immarginata Porat, 1876. Synonym(s): Branchiostoma gymnopus Kohlrausch,1878, Branchiostoma indicum Kohlrausch, 1878, Branchiostoma subspinosumTömösváry, 1885, Branchiostoma immarginata celebense Haase, 1887, Rhysida nudabrevicornis Wang, 1951, Rhysida nuda brevicornuta Wang, 1951.446

9). Scolopendra morsitans Linnaeus, 1758. Synonym(s): Eurylithobius slateri Butler, 1876,Scolopendra afzelii Porat, 1871, Sv, Scolopendra angulipes Newport, 1844, Scolopendraattenuata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra bilineata Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra brachypodaPeters, 1862, Scolopendra brandtiana Gervais, 1837, Scolopendra carinipes Humbert& Saussure, 1870, Scolopendra chlorocephala Porat, 1871, Scolopendra cognataPorat, 1871, , Scolopendra crassipes Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra elegans Brandt, 1841,Scolopendra erythrocephala Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra fabricii Newport, 1845,Scolopendra formosa Newport, 1845, Scolopendra fulvipes Brandt, 1841, Scolopendragrandidieri Saussure & Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra impressa Porat, 1876, Scolopendrainfesta C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra intermedia Porat, 1871, Scolopendra leachiiNewport, 1844, Scolopendra limbata Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra lineata Saussure& Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra longicornis Newport, 1844, Scolopendra modestaWood, 1862, Scolopendra mossambica Peters, 1862, Scolopendra pella Wood, 1861,Scolopendra picturata Porat, 1871, Scolopendra pilosella Porat, 1871, Scolopendraplanipes C.L. Koch, 1847, Scolopendra platypoides Newport, 1844, Scolopendraplatypus Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra porphyratainia Wood, 1861, Scolopendrarichardsoni Newport, 1845, Scolopendra saltatoria Porat, 1871, Scolopendra spinosellaSaussure & Zehntner, 1902, Scolopendra tigrina Newport, 1845, Scolopendra tonganaGervais, 1847, Scolopendra tuberculidens Newport, 1844, Scolopendra vaga Porat,1871, Scolopendra varia Newport, 1845, Scolopendra wahlbergi Porat, 1871,Scolopendra morsitans amazonica Bücherl, 1946, Scolopendra morsitans calcarataDaday, 1891, Scolopendra morsitans fasciata Attems, 1930, Scolopendra morsitansprocera Haase, 1887, Scolopendra morsitans scopoliana C.L. Koch, 1841, Scolopendramorsitans sulcipes Haase, 1887, Trachycormocephalus jodhpurensis Khanna, 1977.10). Ethmostigmus rubripes Brandt, 1840. Synonym(s): Ethmostigmus australianusChamberlin, 1920, Heterostoma bisulcatum Tömösváry, 1885, Heterostoma crassipesSilvestri, 1894, Heterostoma fasciata Newport, 1845, Heterostoma flava Newport G,1845, Heterostoma rubripes grossipes Pocock, 1891, Scolopendra megacephalaNewport, 1844, Scolopendra rapax Gervais, 1847, Scolopendra scabriventris Newport,1844, Scolopendra spinulosa Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra squalidens Newport, 1844,Scolopendra sulcicornis Newport, 1844, Scolopendra sulcidens Newport, 1844.11). Otostigmus (Otostigmus) ceylonicus Haase, 1887.12). Otostigmus (Otostigmus) scaber Porat, 1876. Synonym(s): Branchiotrema multicarinatumKohlrausch, 1878, Otostigmus carinatus Porat, 1876, Otostigmus malayanus Chamberlin,1914, Otostigmus (Otostigmus) striatus Takakuwa, 1940, Otostigmus carinatus insulareHaase, 1887, Otostigmus (Otostigmus) striatus porteri Dobroruka, 1960, Otostigmus(Otostigmus) striatus striatus Takakuwa, 1940.Order- Geophilomorpha Pocock, 1895Family- Mecistocephalidae13). Mecistocephalus heteropus Humbert, 1865,14). Mecistocephalus subinsularis Silvestri, 1919,447

Family- Oryidae Cook, 189615). Orphnaeus brevilabiatus Newport, 1845. Synonym(s) Orphnaeus bilineatus Peters,1855, Orphnaeus lividus Meinert, 1870, Orphnaeus phosphoreus Linnaeus, 1758,Orphnaeus xanti Tömösváry, 1885,Order - Lithobiomorpha Pocock, 1895Family- Lithobiidae Newport, 184416). Australobius sculpturatus Pocock, 1901. Synonym(s): Australobius ceylanicus Attems,1909.17). Australobius palnis Eason, 1973Order - ScutigeromorphaFamily - Scutigerinidae18). Scutigerina weberi Silvestri, 1903. Synonym(s): Scutigerina transvaalicus Silvestri, 1903.Order- Scutigeridae Gervais, 183719). Thereuopodina tenuicornis Verhoeff, 1905.According to the present knowledge altogether 19 described centipedes’ species from fivefamilies occur in Sri Lanka. It is evident that at present we know very little about centipedes of SriLanka. According to published information on the ecology and biology, endemic representativesare virtually non-existent, while our knowledge on the taxonomy and distribution is very poor.Also, not a single centipedes species from Sri Lanka is included in the National 2007 IUCNRed List.ReferencesAttems, C. (1930). Myriopoda. 2. Scolopendromorpha. Das Tierreich. De Gruyter, Berlin 54: 1–308.Attems C. (1947) "Neue Geophilomorpha des Wiener Museums" Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums,Wien 55: 50-149, see p. 93.Balan, D., P.M. Sureshan & V. Khanna (2012). A new species of centipede of the genus Cryptops Leach(Scolopendromorpha: Cryptopidae) from southern Western Ghats with a key to the species of Cryptops inIndia. Journal of Threatened Taxa 4(4): 2510–2514.Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (Editor), 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. TheWorld Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. viii + 308pp.Bossuyt, F., Meegaskumbura, M., Beenaerts, N., Gower, D.J., Pethiyagoda, R., Roelants, K., Mannaert, A., Wilkinson,M., Bahir, M.M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Ng, P.K.L., Schneider, C.J., Oommen, O.V. & Milinkovitch, M.C.(2004) Local endemism within the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot. Science, 306, 479–481.Dowdy W.W. (1951) "Further ecological studies on stratification of the arthropods"Ecology, Brooklyn 32: 37-52, seep. 334, fig.15.Eason E.H. (1990) "On the true identity of Geophilus insculptus Attems, 1895"Bulletin of the British MyriapodGroup 7: 3-4Edgecombe GE, Giribet G (2009) Phylogenetics of scutigeromorph centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda) withimplications for species delimitation and historical biogeography of the Australian and New Caledonian faunas.Cladistics 25: 406–427.Edgecombe G.D., Giribet G. (2004) "Adding mitochondrial sequence data (16S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidasesubunit I) to the phylogeny of centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda): an analysis of morphology and four molecularloci" Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 42 (2):89-134, see p. 132.Edgecombe GE (2011) Chilopoda - taxonomic overview: Order Scutigeromorpha. In: Minelli A (Ed) Anatomy,Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Vol. 1. Brill, Leiden, 363–370.Edgecombe GE, Bonato L (2011) Chilopoda - taxonomic overview: Order Scolopendromorpha. In:Minelli A (Ed)Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Vol. 1. Brill, Leiden, 392–407.448

Haase E. (1887) "Die Indisch-Australischen Myriopoden. Pt. I. Chilopoden" Abhandlungen und Berichte desKöniglichen Zoologischen und. Anthropologisch- Ethnographischen Museums zu Dresden 5: 1-118, see p. 43.IUCN Sri Lanka and MoENR (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources). 2007. The 2007 Red List of ThreatenedFauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka.Koch L.E. (1983) "Revision of the Australian centipedes of the genus Cormocephalus Newport (Chilopoda:Scolopendridae: Scolopendrinae)" Australian Journal of Zoology 31: 799-833, see p. 828.Koch L.E. (1985) "The taxonomy of Australian centipedes of the genus Rhysida Wood (Chilopoda: Scolopendridae:Otostigminae)" Journal of Natural History 19: 205-214, see p. 212Lewis J, Edgecombe G, Shelley R (2005) A proposed standardised terminology for the externalMinelli A, Bonato L, Dioguardi R et al. (Ed) (2006): Chilobase: a web resource for Chilopoda taxonomy. http://chilobase.bio.unipd.it/ [accessed 01/May/2010]Myers, N., R.A. Mittermeier, C.G. Mittermeier, G.A.B. da Fonseca & J. Kent (2000). Biodiversity hotspots forconservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858.Newport G. "A list of the species of Myriapoda order Chilopoda contained in the cabinets of the British Museum withsynoptic descriptions of forty-seven new species" Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 1844: 13: 94-101,see p. 96.Schileyko A.A., Stagl V. (2004) "The collection of scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda) in the Natural HistoryMuseum in Vienna: a critical re-evaluation of former taxonomic identifications" Annalen des NaturhistorischenMuseums in Wien, Serie B 105B: 67-137, see p. 118.Shelley R.M. (2000) "The centipede order Scolopendromorpha in the Hawaiian islands (Chilopoda)" Bishop MuseumOccasional Papers 64: 39-48, see p. 42.Silvestri F. (1919) "Contributions to a knowledge of the Chilopoda Geophilomorpha of India" Record of the IndianMuseum, Calcutta 16: 45-107, see p. 54.Sureshan, P.M., V. Khanna & C. Radhakrishnan (2006). Additional distributional records of scolopendrid centipedes(Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) from Kerala. Zoos’ Print Journal 21(6): 2285–2291.Templeton R. (1846). "Extracts from a letter addressed to Mr Westwood on the habits and on the bite of theScolopendrae of Ceylon" Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 17(1): 65, see p. 65.Verhoeff K.W. (1925) "Results of Dr. E. Mjöberg's Swedish Scientific Expeditions to Australia 1910-1913. 39.Chilopoda" Arkiv för Zoologi 17A (3): 1-62, see p. 29.449

The IUCN Red List Categories(Source: www.redlist.org)Technical definitions of the IUCN of the IUCN REd List Categories and Criteria are give in the IUCNRed List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1 booklet and the Guidelines for using the IUCN Red ListCategories and Criteria.Extinct (EX)A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon ispresumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times(diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveysshould be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.Extinct In The Wild (EW)A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalizedpopulation (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild whenexhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual),throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frameappropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.Critically Endangered (CR)A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of thecriteria A to E for Critically Endangered and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high riskof extinction in the wild.Endangered (EN)A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to Efor Endangered (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinctionin the wild.Vulnerable (VU)A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E forVulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.Near Threatened (NT)A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify forCritically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualifyfor a threatened category in the near future.Least Concern (LC)A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify forCritically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxaare included in this category.450

Data Deficient (DD)A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessmentof its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category maybe well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution arelacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicatesthat more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will showthat threatened classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data areavailable. In many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatenedstatus. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a considerable period oftime has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justified.Not Evaluated (NE)A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.Critically Endangered ‘Possibly Extinct’ CR (PE)Although an evidentiary approach to classifying extinctions is appropriate, this approach biases analysesof recent extinctions when based only on those species classified as Extinct or Extinct in the Wild (whenindividuals survive only in captivity). For example, the number of recent extinctions documented on theIUCN Red List is likely to be a significant underestimate, even for well-known taxa such as birds. The tagof ‘possibly extinct’ has therefore been developed to identify those Critically Endangered species thatare likely already Extinct, but for which confirmation is required. Taxa tagged as possibly extinct wouldthen be included within bounded estimates of the number of recent extinctions to indicate plausibleuncertainty in contemporary rates of extinction.Note that ‘possibly extinct’ is a tag, and not a new Red List Category.451

Summary of the five criteria (A–E) used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in a threatened category (CriticallyEndangered, Endangered or Vulnerable).Use any of the criteria A–E Critically Endangered Endangered VulnerableA. Population reduction Declines measured over the longer of 10 years or 3 generationsA1 ≥ 90% ≥ 70% ≥ 50%A2, A3 & A4 ≥ 80% ≥ 50% ≥ 30%Al. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of the reduction are clearlyreversible AND understood AND have ceased, based on and specifying any of the following:(a) direct observation(b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon(c) a decline in area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) and/or habitat quality(d) actual or potential levels of exploitation(e) effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.A2. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of reduction may not haveceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under Al.A3. Population reduction projected or suspected to be met in the future (up to a maximum of 100 years) based on (b) to (e)under Al.A4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population reduction (up to a maximum of 100 years) where thetime period must include both the past and the future, and where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may notbe understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under Al.B. Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) AND/OR B2 (area of occupancy)B1. Extent of occurrence (EOO) < 100 km² < 5,000 km² < 20,000 km²B2. Area of occupancy (AOO) < 10 km² < 500 km² < 2,000 km²AND at least 2 of the following:(a) Severely fragmented, ORNumber of locations = 1 ≤ 5 ≤ 10(b) Continuing decline in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) area, extent and/or quality ofhabitat; (iv) number of locations or subpopulations; (v) number of mature individuals.(c) Extreme fluctuations in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) number of locations orsubpopulations; (iv) number of mature individuals.C. Small population size and declineNumber of matureindividuals< 250 < 2,500 < 10,000AND either C1 or C2:C1. An estimated continuingdecline of at least:25% in 3 years or 1generation20% in 5 years or 2generations10% in 10 years or 3generations(up to a max. of 100 years in future)C2. A continuing decline AND (a) and/or (b):(a i) Number of matureindividuals in eachsubpopulation:or(a ii) % individuals in onesubpopulation =< 50 < 250 < 1,00090–100% 95–100% 100%(b) Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals.D. Very small or restricted populationEither:Number of matureindividuals< 50 < 250 D1. < 1,000AND/ORD2. typically:Restricted area of occupancyAOO < 20 km² ornumber of locations ≤ 5E. Quantitative AnalysisIndicating the probability ofextinction in the wild to be:≥ 50% in 10 years or 3generations (100 years max.)≥ 20% in 20 years or 5generations (100 years max.)≥ 10% in 100 years452

in Sri Lanka - Ministry of Environment

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